Magnétisation des carburants et comburants : recherche appliquée et impact environnemental

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Proceedings of the 6 th International Conference of Recent Trends in Environmental Science and Engineering (RTESE\\'22) Niagara Falls, Canada – June 05-07, 2022 Paper No175 DOI: 10.11159/rtese22.175 175-1 Contributions to Keep the Atmosphere Balanced: Unsuitable- Reductions of HC and CO Emissions from Mobile-Sources, Using COBMA, Impact Atmospheric Balance. Raúl Guerrero Torres 1 , Mehrab Mehrvar 2 1 Faculty of Engineering, University of Cartagena, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, E-mail: [email protected] 2 Department of Chemical Engineering, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, Canada M5B 2K3 E-mail: [email protected] Abstract - Despite continuous reports and stark warnings, from authori zed sources, global air pollution continues worsening and global temperature increasing. These facts motivated us to present in this paper, new contributions from our theoretical - practical work on gasoline Combustion Optimization by Magnetic Action, (COBMA) i n mobile sources, started in 2008. So far, global implementation of electric cars, and important proven actions, have not succeeded . Consequently, there is a low probability of implementing globally the proven magnetic action. We are convinced that if enou gh proven actions are not promptly implemented, we will have very soon a problem of catastrophic dimensions, worse than that of the present pandemic. With the aggravation that once, the sensitive stable balance of the Earth - Atmosphere system become unstabl e there will not be any action to restore it. Therefore, we continue making contributions, attempting to present, through the condition of the Atmosphere balance, a more comprehensive view of the real Climate - Change problem, and to attract the attention of organizations leading the Earth ́s environmental protection, to considering global implementation of COBMA , despite they are devoted to assisting the international agreements, supported on diplomatic promises that, so far, have not globally accomplished its main goals due to the political and socio - economic gaps between countries. That view is based on information analyses, from authori tative sources and our points of view from experience. Its purpose is to favour global Climate - Change Comprehension , una voidable for synergistic work and consequent mitigation of the anthropogenic impact on the Climate system . These ideas characterize our papers . The main goal of this paper is to show, from fuel consumption records, and gases emissions results obtained in Cartagena, Colombia, April - November 2019, in a Renault - Steway car, that excessive HC and CO emissions reductions, by magnetic action are unsuitab le; though reduce considerably fuel consumption also contribute to increase CO2 emissions impact to the atmosphere. Keywords : Fuel Consumption, COBMA, International Agreements, Unsuitable Emissions Reductions, Global Comprehension, Synergistic Work, Mitigation. 1. Introduction Atmosphere stable equilibrium and its composition stability over hundreds of millennia, confirm that balance conditions rule our universe [1] . Therefore, pollutants Abatement from mobile sources under analogous chemical reactions must not impact the atmospheric balance. 1.1 Reports and Statements Show That Global Implementation of Proven Feasible Actions Is Crucial. The outcomes of the last UN Climate Change summit, COP26 (26 th Conference of Parties) cannot be dismissed in a paper whose main purpose attempts to favoring gases emissions mitigation, according with the global purpose of tacking the Climate Change holding the global average earth temperature well below 2 o C. Therefore, it is unavoidable to have COP26 Report as the context and main reference of this paper and consequently COP26 Report and Statements Summary must be its introductory start point. 1.2 COP26 Report and Other Reports and Statements Summary UN Glasgow Summit November 1-13, 2021, with participation of all those who have important roles in the Climate Change-Air Pollution issue, is in practice a last call to world political leaders to accelerate accomplishments of the Paris Agreement goals, especially, holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici une traduction vulgarisée du texte, adaptée pour un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\n**Tiré de la 6ème Conférence internationale sur les dernières avancées en sciences et ingénierie de l'environnement (RTESE'22)**\nNiagara Falls, Canada – 05-07 juin 2022\nArticle n°175\nDOI: 10.11159/rtese22.175\n\n### **Comment maintenir l'équilibre de l'atmosphère : Réduire *trop* les émissions d'HC et de CO des véhicules, avec la méthode COBMA, peut nuire à cet équilibre.**\n\n**Raúl Guerrero Torres ¹**, **Mehrab Mehrvar ²**\n¹ Faculté d'Ingénierie, Université de Cartagena, Cartagena de Indias, Colombie\n² Département de Génie Chimique, Université Ryerson, Toronto, ON, Canada\n\n---\n\n**Résumé**\n\nMalgré les nombreux rapports et avertissements alarmants des experts, la pollution de l'air continue de s'aggraver et la température mondiale d'augmenter. C'est ce qui nous a poussés à présenter ici les dernières avancées de nos recherches (à la fois théoriques et pratiques) sur la méthode **COBMA** (Optimisation de la Combustion par Action Magnétique) pour les moteurs à essence des véhicules. Nos travaux ont débuté en 2008.\n\nJusqu'à présent, ni les voitures électriques ni d'autres solutions pourtant prouvées n'ont été adoptées à l'échelle mondiale. De la même manière, il est peu probable que notre méthode d'action magnétique (COBMA) soit appliquée partout sur la planète. Nous sommes convaincus que si des actions efficaces ne sont pas rapidement mises en œuvre, nous ferons face très bientôt à un problème aux dimensions catastrophiques, bien pire que la pandémie actuelle. Le pire, c'est qu'une fois que l'équilibre fragile du système Terre-Atmosphère sera rompu, il sera impossible de le rétablir.\n\nC'est pourquoi nous continuons nos recherches, en essayant de donner, à travers l'état d'équilibre de l'atmosphère, une vision plus complète du véritable problème du changement climatique. Nous voulons aussi attirer l'attention des grandes organisations environnementales pour qu'elles envisagent l'application mondiale de COBMA. Car ces organisations se concentrent souvent sur des accords internationaux basés sur des promesses diplomatiques qui, jusqu'à présent, n'ont pas atteint leurs objectifs principaux, à cause des différences politiques et socio-économiques entre les pays.\n\nCette vision est basée sur l'analyse d'informations provenant de sources fiables et sur notre propre expérience. Son but est de favoriser une meilleure compréhension mondiale du changement climatique. Cette compréhension est essentielle pour travailler ensemble (de manière synergique) et ainsi réduire l'impact des activités humaines (anthropogéniques) sur le climat. Ces idées sont au cœur de nos publications.\n\nL'objectif principal de cet article est de montrer, à partir de données de consommation de carburant et de résultats d'émissions de gaz recueillis à Carthagène, en Colombie, entre avril et novembre 2019, sur une voiture Renault-Stepway, que des réductions **excessives** d'émissions d'HC (hydrocarbures non brûlés) et de CO (monoxyde de carbone) obtenues par action magnétique (COBMA) ne sont pas idéales (elles sont 'inappropriées'). Car, même si elles réduisent considérablement la consommation de carburant, elles contribuent aussi à **augmenter l'impact des émissions de CO2** dans l'atmosphère.\n\n**Mots-clés :** Consommation de carburant, COBMA, Accords internationaux, Réductions d'émissions inappropriées, Compréhension globale, Travail en synergie, Atténuation.\n\n---\n\n**1. Introduction**\n\nL'équilibre stable de l'atmosphère et la stabilité de sa composition depuis des centaines de milliers d'années (des millénaires) prouvent que l'équilibre est une règle fondamentale de notre univers [1]. Par conséquent, la réduction des polluants émis par les véhicules (à travers des réactions chimiques similaires) ne doit pas perturber cet équilibre atmosphérique.\n\n**1.1. Les rapports et déclarations montrent qu'une mise en œuvre mondiale d'actions éprouvées et réalisables est cruciale.**\n\nLes résultats du dernier sommet de l'ONU sur le changement climatique, la COP26 (26ème Conférence des Parties), ne peuvent être ignorés dans un article dont l'objectif principal est de favoriser la réduction des émissions de gaz. Car cela est conforme à l'objectif mondial de lutter contre le changement climatique en maintenant l'augmentation de la température moyenne de la Terre bien en dessous de 2°C. Il est donc indispensable que le rapport de la COP26 serve de cadre et de référence principale à cet article. C'est pourquoi un résumé de ce rapport et de ses déclarations doit en être le point de départ.\n\n**1.2. Résumé du rapport de la COP26 et d'autres rapports et déclarations.**\n\nLe Sommet de Glasgow de l'ONU (1-13 novembre 2021), qui a réuni tous les acteurs majeurs du problème du changement climatique et de la pollution de l'air, était en quelque sorte un *dernier appel* aux dirigeants politiques mondiaux. L'objectif : accélérer la réalisation des objectifs de l'Accord de Paris, notamment maintenir l'augmentation de la température moyenne mondiale bien en dessous de 2°C par rapport aux niveaux de l'ère pré-industrielle (c'est-à-dire avant le développement industriel à grande échelle)."}, "page_2": {"en_base": "175-2 levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change. Moreover, it is a set of initiatives to accelerate started actions and procedures in favor of that and other goals, to control Climate Change, implementing the retake of other actions and precising and agreeing new goals integrated in a new agreement called the Glasgow Pact [2], that globalize the integration of Mitigation, Adaptation, Finance and Collaboration, as well as a position on phasing down unabated coal power, for the first time agreed by a COP. This summit is really a completion and reinforcement of the Paris Agreement. In summary, It Finalises Paris agreement keeping alive the global temperature goal, 1.5ºc above pre - industrial levels. Statements about COP26 goals of fundamental importance and whose implementation is crucial, among others, are: More needs to be done. We need to act now, Accelerate the transition from coal to clean power, Accelerate the transition to zero emission vehicles [3] , We can only rise to the challenges of the climate crisis by working together [4] New reports and statements from authoritative sources as WHO [5] , on continuous air pollution worsening, from NOAA [6] , who reported global temperature increase ; global average temperature over the land and ocean surfaces for November 2021 as 0.91°C (1.64°F) above the 20th century average of 12 .9°C (55.2°F), the fourth highest for November since global temperature records began in 1880, and COP26 statement; The world is currently not on track to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees [7] , are highly worrisome and force real actions to be taken right now. These and other reports, especially COP 26 Report and Statements have given us motivation and justification to follow in our experimental work and presenting our papers on Contributions to Keep the Atmosphere B alanced . In this paper the ideas presented in RTESE ́20 145 and 149 papers are reinforced. These ideas are supported and extended through new evidence from authoritative sources and our points of view based on experimental work on gasoline Combustion Optimization by Magnetic Action, ( COBMA ) in mobile sources, started in 2008. In new results analysis from fuel consumption records, and gases emissions results; obtained in Cartagena, Colombia, April - November 2019, in a Renault - Steway car, using regular ga soline (Research Octane Number) RON 87, it is shown that unsuitable emissions reductions of the pollutants HC and CO by magnetic action, though abate Air Pollution and reduce fuel consumption, could contribute to increase CO2 emissions impact to the atmosp here. 2. Motivation and Justification of Contributions Within the context of the environmental protection and motivated by COP 26 outcomes we consider very important to justify our contribution, presenting a short but concrete information about the updated status of air pollution and Climate Change Issue, and the status and evolution of COBMA. Those COP 26 outcomes show that despite all efforts done by countries the Anthropogenic Climate Change has not been solved and there are missing crucial actions to be done soon, globally, and effectively; proven feasible actions to retake and accelerate, and new strategies to implement. Otherwise, current actions results will not be effective enough to achieve the worldwide needed global mitigation. Under all this context we identify, 10 possible causes that delay a global solution and justify even more this contribution. 2.1 Causes That Delay and Prevent a Global Solution of the Problem. 1. NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions) have not been enough global effective. 2. Insufficient Global Implementation Proven Actions Within the Reach of All Countries. 3. Insufficient Mitigation Actions Facing the Increasing emissions of Pollutants. 4. Carbon Pricing Inefficacy in practice. 5. Insufficient practical integration of Science-Technology binomial. 6. A Deficient Global Comprehension of the Nature of Climate Change-Air Pollution. 7. Complexity of Climate Change-Air Pollution, dual in its nature and manifestations. 8. The slowness of transition from fossil fuel cars to electric cars [3] . 9. Insufficient Synergistic work [4] . 10. The slowness of transition to clean energies. 2.2 To achieve a goal that seems unattainable, a Simpler and Comprehensive View must be attempted. All the updated statements and reports, especially COP26, encourage us to continue the contributions path but with a new approach; attempting to present, through the condition of Atmosphere balance, a more comprehensive view of the real Climate - Change problem. This view is based on information analyses, from authoritative sources and our points of view from experience. Its purpose is", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici le texte scientifique traduit et vulgarisé pour un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\n**Comprendre l'Urgence Climatique et Nos Solutions (ou Leurs Limites)**\n\nOn parle toujours de limiter la hausse de la température mondiale à **+1,5°C** par rapport à ce qu'elle était avant l'ère industrielle (avant le développement massif des usines). C'est un objectif crucial, car il permettrait de réduire considérablement les dangers et les impacts du changement climatique.\n\n**Le Pacte de Glasgow : Un Pas en Avant ?**\n\nLa conférence de Glasgow (la **COP26**) a été l'occasion de lancer de nombreuses initiatives pour accélérer les actions contre le changement climatique. Un nouvel accord important est né : le **Pacte de Glasgow**. Ce pacte vise à mieux organiser et coordonner les efforts mondiaux sur quatre piliers essentiels :\n* **L'atténuation :** C'est-à-dire réduire nos émissions de gaz à effet de serre.\n* **L'adaptation :** S'adapter aux changements déjà inévitables (comme la montée des eaux ou les vagues de chaleur).\n* **Le financement :** Aider les pays les plus pauvres à faire face à ces défis.\n* **La collaboration :** Travailler ensemble à l'échelle planétaire.\n\nPour la toute première fois lors d'une COP, les pays se sont aussi mis d'accord pour **réduire progressivement l'utilisation du charbon** (surtout quand il n'y a pas de technologies pour capturer les émissions polluantes). En résumé, ce sommet a vraiment permis de finaliser et de renforcer l'Accord de Paris sur le climat, en gardant en vie cet objectif vital de +1,5°C.\n\n**Les Messages Clés et les Alarmes**\n\nParmi les messages les plus importants de la COP26, on retient :\n* \"Il faut faire plus, et agir maintenant !\"\n* \"Accélérer la fin du charbon pour passer aux énergies propres.\"\n* \"Accélérer le passage aux véhicules sans émissions polluantes.\"\n* \"On ne peut relever ce défi qu'en travaillant tous ensemble.\"\n\nMalheureusement, des rapports récents et très alarmants confirment la gravité de la situation :\n* L'**OMS** (Organisation Mondiale de la Santé) signale une pollution de l'air qui ne cesse de s'aggraver.\n* La **NOAA** (une agence américaine spécialisée dans l'océan et l'atmosphère) a montré que novembre 2021 a été le quatrième mois de novembre le plus chaud jamais enregistré depuis 1880, avec une température moyenne mondiale de +0,91°C au-dessus de la moyenne du 20e siècle.\n* La COP26 elle-même a admis que le monde n'est **pas sur la bonne voie** pour limiter le réchauffement à 1,5°C.\n\nTout cela est très préoccupant et nous oblige à agir concrètement, et très vite.\n\n**Notre Contribution : Équilibrer l'Atmosphère**\n\nC'est justement ce contexte urgent qui nous a motivés à poursuivre nos recherches et à présenter nos travaux intitulés \"Contributions pour maintenir l'équilibre de l'atmosphère\". Nous développons des idées basées sur de nouvelles preuves scientifiques et sur nos propres expériences. Depuis 2008, nous travaillons sur l'**optimisation de la combustion de l'essence par action magnétique (COBMA)** dans les voitures.\n\nMais attention ! Une analyse récente de nos résultats, obtenus entre avril et novembre 2019 sur une voiture en Colombie, a révélé quelque chose d'inattendu. Si notre technique COBMA permet bien de réduire certaines émissions polluantes (comme les hydrocarbures non brûlés et le monoxyde de carbone) et de diminuer la consommation de carburant, elle **pourrait en fait augmenter l'impact des émissions de CO2** dans l'atmosphère. C'est une découverte importante qui montre à quel point le problème est complexe.\n\n**2. Pourquoi nos recherches sont importantes : Le Contexte Actuel**\n\nMotivés par les conclusions de la COP26 et l'urgence de protéger l'environnement, nous voulons expliquer pourquoi notre contribution est essentielle. Les résultats de la COP26 le prouvent : malgré tous les efforts des pays, le réchauffement climatique dû aux activités humaines n'est toujours pas maîtrisé. Il manque des actions cruciales, à mener vite, partout dans le monde et de manière efficace. Il faut reprendre et accélérer certaines actions qui ont fait leurs preuves, et en lancer de nouvelles. Sinon, ce que nous faisons aujourd'hui ne suffira pas à réduire assez le réchauffement.\n\nFace à cette situation, nous avons identifié **10 raisons possibles qui freinent une solution mondiale** au problème, ce qui renforce d'autant plus l'intérêt de notre travail.\n\n**2.1 Les 10 raisons qui freinent une solution mondiale :**\n\n1. **Les promesses des pays (NDCs) ne sont pas assez efficaces :** Les \"Contributions Déterminées au Niveau National\" (les efforts que chaque pays promet de faire) ne sont pas suffisantes à l'échelle mondiale.\n2. **Manque de mise en œuvre globale :** Des solutions qui marchent, accessibles à tous les pays, ne sont pas assez utilisées partout.\n3. **Pas assez d'actions pour réduire la pollution :** Face à l'augmentation constante des polluants, il n'y a pas assez d'efforts pour réduire les émissions.\n4. **Le prix du carbone ne fonctionne pas bien :** La \"taxe carbone\" n'est pas efficace dans la pratique.\n5. **Science et technologie mal utilisées :** La science et la technologie ne sont pas assez bien intégrées et utilisées ensemble concrètement.\n6. **Manque de compréhension globale :** Une mauvaise compréhension générale de la nature complexe du changement climatique et de la pollution de l'air.\n7. **Le problème est très compliqué :** Le changement climatique et la pollution de l'air sont liés et se manifestent de plusieurs façons.\n8. **Les voitures électriques sont adoptées trop lentement :** La transition des voitures à essence/diesel vers les voitures électriques est trop lente.\n9. **Manque de collaboration :** Pas assez de travail en synergie (où tout le monde collabore efficacement).\n10. **Transition énergétique trop lente :** La transition vers les énergies propres est trop lente.\n\n**2.2 Pour atteindre un objectif qui semble hors de portée, il faut une vision plus simple et plus globale.**\n\nTous ces rapports et déclarations récentes, surtout ceux de la COP26, nous poussent à continuer nos recherches, mais avec une nouvelle approche. Nous voulons offrir une vision plus complète du vrai problème du changement climatique, en nous basant sur l'équilibre de l'atmosphère. Cette vision s'appuie sur l'analyse d'informations provenant de sources fiables et sur notre propre expérience. Son but est... (la suite du texte manque ici).\n\n---"}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Proceedings of the 6\r\nth International Conference of Recent Trends in Environmental Science and Engineering (RTESE'22)\r\nNiagara Falls, Canada – June 05-07, 2022\r\nPaper No175\r\nDOI: 10.11159/rtese22.175\r\n175-1\r\nContributions to Keep the Atmosphere Balanced: UnsuitableReductions of HC and CO Emissions from Mobile-Sources, Using\r\nCOBMA, Impact Atmospheric Balance.\r\n\r\nRaúl Guerrero Torres1\r\n, Mehrab Mehrvar2\r\n1\r\nFaculty of Engineering, University of Cartagena, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, E-mail:\r\[email protected]\r\n2 Department of Chemical Engineering, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, Canada M5B 2K3 E-mail:\r\[email protected]\r\nAbstract - Despite continuous reports and stark warnings, from authorized sources, global air pollution continues worsening and\r\nglobal temperature increasing. These facts motivated us to present in this paper, new contributions from our theoretical-practical work\r\non gasoline Combustion Optimization by Magnetic Action, (COBMA) in mobile sources, started in 2008. So far, global\r\nimplementation of electric cars, and important proven actions, have not succeeded. Consequently, there is a low probability of\r\nimplementing globally the proven magnetic action. We are convinced that if enough proven actions are not promptly implemented, we\r\nwill have very soon a problem of catastrophic dimensions, worse than that of the present pandemic. With the aggravation that once, the\r\nsensitive stable balance of the Earth-Atmosphere system become unstable there will not be any action to restore it. Therefore, we\r\ncontinue making contributions, attempting to present, through the condition of the Atmosphere balance, a more comprehensive view\r\nof the real Climate-Change problem, and to attract the attention of organizations leading the Earth´s environmental protection, to\r\nconsidering global implementation of COBMA, despite they are devoted to assisting the international agreements, supported on\r\ndiplomatic promises that, so far, have not globally accomplished its main goals due to the political and socio-economic gaps between\r\ncountries. That view is based on information analyses, from authoritative sources and our points of view from experience. Its purpose is\r\nto favour global Climate-Change Comprehension, unavoidable for synergistic work and consequent mitigation of the anthropogenic\r\nimpact on the Climate system. These ideas characterize our papers. The main goal of this paper is to show, from fuel consumption\r\nrecords, and gases emissions results obtained in Cartagena, Colombia, April-November 2019, in a Renault-Steway car, that excessive\r\nHC and CO emissions reductions, by magnetic action are unsuitable; though reduce considerably fuel consumption also contribute to\r\nincrease CO2 emissions impact to the atmosphere.\r\nKeywords: Fuel Consumption, COBMA, International Agreements, Unsuitable Emissions Reductions, Global\r\nComprehension, Synergistic Work, Mitigation.\r\n1. Introduction\r\nAtmosphere stable equilibrium and its composition stability over hundreds of millennia, confirm that balance\r\nconditions rule our universe [1]. Therefore, pollutants Abatement from mobile sources under analogous chemical reactions\r\nmust not impact the atmospheric balance.\r\n1.1 Reports and Statements Show That Global Implementation of Proven Feasible Actions Is Crucial.\r\nThe outcomes of the last UN Climate Change summit, COP26 (26th Conference of Parties) cannot be dismissed in a\r\npaper whose main purpose attempts to favoring gases emissions mitigation, according with the global purpose of tacking\r\nthe Climate Change holding the global average earth temperature well below 2oC. Therefore, it is unavoidable to have\r\nCOP26 Report as the context and main reference of this paper and consequently COP26 Report and Statements\r\nSummary must be its introductory start point.\r\n1.2 COP26 Report and Other Reports and Statements Summary\r\nUN Glasgow Summit November 1-13, 2021, with participation of all those who have important roles in the Climate\r\nChange-Air Pollution issue, is in practice a last call to world political leaders to accelerate accomplishments of the Paris\r\nAgreement goals, especially, holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial\r\n175-2\r\nlevels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this\r\nwould significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change. Moreover, it is a set of initiatives to accelerate started\r\nactions and procedures in favor of that and other goals, to control Climate Change, implementing the retake of other\r\nactions and precising and agreeing new goals integrated in a new agreement called the Glasgow Pact [2], that globalize\r\nthe integration of Mitigation, Adaptation, Finance and Collaboration, as well as a position on phasing down unabated coal\r\npower, for the first time agreed by a COP. This summit is really a completion and reinforcement of the Paris Agreement. In\r\nsummary, It Finalises Paris agreement keeping alive the global temperature goal, 1.5ºc above pre-industrial levels.\r\nStatements about COP26 goals of fundamental importance and whose implementation is crucial, among others, are: More\r\nneeds to be done. We need to act now, Accelerate the transition from coal to clean power, Accelerate the transition\r\nto zero emission vehicles [3], We can only rise to the challenges of the climate crisis by working together [4]\r\nNew reports and statements from authoritative sources as WHO [5], on continuous air pollution worsening, from\r\nNOAA [6], who reported global temperature increase; global average temperature over the land and ocean surfaces for\r\nNovember 2021 as 0.91°C (1.64°F) above the 20th century average of 12.9°C (55.2°F), the fourth highest for November\r\nsince global temperature records began in 1880, and COP26 statement; The world is currently not on track to limit\r\nglobal warming to 1.5 degrees [7], are highly worrisome and force real actions to be taken right now. These and other\r\nreports, especially COP 26 Report and Statements have given us motivation and justification to follow in our experimental\r\nwork and presenting our papers on Contributions to Keep the Atmosphere Balanced. In this paper the ideas presented\r\nin RTESE´20 145 and 149 papers are reinforced. These ideas are supported and extended through new evidence from\r\nauthoritative sources and our points of view based on experimental work on gasoline Combustion Optimization by\r\nMagnetic Action, (COBMA) in mobile sources, started in 2008. In new results analysis from fuel consumption records,\r\nand gases emissions results; obtained in Cartagena, Colombia, April-November 2019, in a Renault-Steway car, using\r\nregular gasoline (Research Octane Number) RON 87, it is shown that unsuitable emissions reductions of the pollutants HC\r\nand CO by magnetic action, though abate Air Pollution and reduce fuel consumption, could contribute to increase CO2\r\nemissions impact to the atmosphere.\r\n2. Motivation and Justification of Contributions\r\nWithin the context of the environmental protection and motivated by COP 26 outcomes we consider very\r\nimportant to justify our contribution, presenting a short but concrete information about the updated status of air\r\npollution and Climate Change Issue, and the status and evolution of COBMA. Those COP 26 outcomes show that\r\ndespite all efforts done by countries the Anthropogenic Climate Change has not been solved and there are missing\r\ncrucial actions to be done soon, globally, and effectively; proven feasible actions to retake and accelerate, and new\r\nstrategies to implement. Otherwise, current actions results will not be effective enough to achieve the worldwide\r\nneeded global mitigation. Under all this context we identify, 10 possible causes that delay a global solution and\r\njustify even more this contribution.\r\n2.1 Causes That Delay and Prevent a Global Solution of the Problem.\r\n1. NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions) have not been enough global effective.\r\n2. Insufficient Global Implementation Proven Actions Within the Reach of All Countries.\r\n3. Insufficient Mitigation Actions Facing the Increasing emissions of Pollutants.\r\n4. Carbon Pricing Inefficacy in practice.\r\n5. Insufficient practical integration of Science-Technology binomial.\r\n6. A Deficient Global Comprehension of the Nature of Climate Change-Air Pollution.\r\n7. Complexity of Climate Change-Air Pollution, dual in its nature and manifestations.\r\n8. The slowness of transition from fossil fuel cars to electric cars [3].\r\n9. Insufficient Synergistic work [4].\r\n10. The slowness of transition to clean energies.\r\n2.2 To achieve a goal that seems unattainable, a Simpler and Comprehensive View must be attempted.\r\nAll the updated statements and reports, especially COP26, encourage us to continue the contributions path but with a new\r\napproach; attempting to present, through the condition of Atmosphere balance, a more comprehensive view of the real Climate-Change\r\nproblem. This view is based on information analyses, from authoritative sources and our points of view from experience. Its purpose is\r\n175-3\r\nto favour global comprehension, unavoidable for synergistic work and consequent mitigation of the anthropogenic impact on the\r\nClimate system.\r\nA precise, clear, and short definition of the Air Pollution-Climate Change nature through proper words is\r\nindispensable for its Global Comprehension and consequently for Synergistic work to tackle the problem. The purpose\r\nof the present contribution and next ones are in fact, an attempt to present a more comprehensive view of the\r\nanthropogenic Air Pollution- Climate Change problem and to attract the attention of organizations leading the Earth´s\r\nenvironmental protection, to considering global implementation of COBMA\r\n2.3 Air Pollutants cannot be reduced at will without risk of increasing Global Warming.\r\nClimate Change and Air Pollution problems cannot be considered separately. They are inextricably and\r\nindissolubly linked as manifestations of a more general and real condition; excessive gases emissions from fossil\r\nfuels burning that threat to cause the rupture of the earth-atmosphere system balance. Climate Change and Air\r\nPollution are usually considered separately and not in few times the great threat of Air Pollution is dismissed; However,\r\nthey are two faces of the same reality: emissions in excess. Fossil fuels Burning increases CO2 emissions which increase\r\nnatural global warming which affects climate and (NO and NO2), (SO2 and SO3), CO and PM, EPA Major Air Pollutants.\r\nIt is urgent and essential to abate continuously air pollution, CO2, and the other greenhouse gases (GHG) to innocuous and\r\nstable concentrations. Air Pollution and Climate-Change reinforce each other; the first threat directly people’s health and\r\nthe second people´s life and environment worldwide. Climate change mitigation actions can help to reduce air pollution,\r\nand air pollution abatement can control GHG and CO2 emissions but, both actions must be performed carefully by\r\nexperts that should know the principles of physics and chemistry ruling combustion processes and with a long\r\nexperience in emissions control from mobile sources. Excessive abatement could result in an inverse effect [8].\r\n2.3.1 Nature of Air Pollution and Climate Change Problem from Authoritative Sources.\r\nNature of the anthropogenic environmental problem has been emphasized and specified in different ways by\r\nauthoritative sources as WHO among others.\r\n2.3.2 World Health Organization\r\n1. Air pollution is one of the biggest environmental threats to human health, alongside climate change. Improving air\r\nquality can enhance climate change mitigation efforts, while reducing emissions will in turn improve air quality [9].\r\n2. Air pollution, primarily the result of burning fossil fuels, which also drives climate change, causes 13 deaths per\r\nminute worldwide [10].\r\n2.3.3 Swedish Environmental Protection Agency\r\nEmission sources for air pollutants and the greenhouse gases coincide, and there is great benefit in simultaneously\r\ncutting emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases. A combined strategy reduces the cost of counteracting both these\r\nthreats to human and wellbeing of society”[11].\r\n2.3.4 UN Environmental Programme\r\nPolicies That Tackle Climate and Air Pollution at The Same Time Can Raise Global Climate Ambition [12].\r\n3. Main Climate Change causes\r\nScientists have identified two types of Climate Change causes: Natural and human. Through analysis of records on indirect\r\nmeasures of climate they have found that the climate varies naturally over a wide range of time scales. However, its natural\r\nvariations do not explain the unprecedent observed global warming since the 1950s. the probability that human activities\r\nhave been the cause of that unprecedent global warming is practically a mathematical certainty [13].\r\n3.1 Natural Causes\r\nThe natural processes that can explain the climate variation causes are: Changes in the Earth’s Orbit and Rotation,\r\nVariations in Solar Activity, Changes in the Earth’s Reflectivity, Volcanic Activity, Changes in Naturally Occurring\r\n175-4\r\nCarbon Dioxide Concentrations Changes in solar radiation or volcanic activity are estimated to have contributed less than\r\nplus or minus 0.1°C to total warming between 1890 and 2010.\r\n3.2 Human Causes\r\nHuman Activities are increasingly influencing the climate and the earth's temperature by burning fossil fuels, cutting\r\ndown forests and farming livestock. This adds enormous amounts of greenhouse gases to those naturally occurring in the\r\natmosphere, increasing the greenhouse effect and global warming. Human activities have contributed substantially to\r\nclimate change through Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Other Air Pollutants Emissions and Reflectivity or Absorption of\r\nthe Sun’s Energy by use of land. Anthropogenic emissions increase is critical and threat to unbalance the Earth´s\r\nAtmosphere.\r\n3.2.1 CO2 Emissions Increase by Burning Fossil Fuels and Others Human Activities [14]\r\nHousehold air pollution is generated by household fuel combustion, leading to indoor air pollution, and contributing to\r\noutdoor air pollution. Each year, close to 4 million people die prematurely from illness attributable to household air\r\npollution from inefficient cooking practices using polluting stoves paired with solid fuels and kerosene. Household air\r\npollution causes noncommunicable diseases including stroke, ischemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary\r\ndisease (COPD) and lung cancer.\r\n Close to half of deaths due to pneumonia among children under 5 years of age are caused by particulate matter (soot)\r\ninhaled from household air pollution. This makes this risk factor one of the largest environmental contributors to ill health\r\n[15].\r\nAt present, humans are putting an estimated 9.5 billion metric tons of carbon into the atmosphere each year by burning\r\nfossil fuels, and another 1.5 billion through deforestation and other land cover changes. Of this human-produced carbon,\r\nforests and other vegetation absorb around 3.2 billion metric tons per year, while the ocean absorbs about 2.5 billion metric\r\ntons per year. A net 5 billion metric tons of human-produced carbon remain in the atmosphere each year, raising the global\r\naverage carbon dioxide concentration by about 2.3 parts per million per year. Since 1750, humans have increased the\r\nabundance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by nearly 50 percent. Burning fossil fuels, could be controlled with\r\nregulations limiting the use of the number of cars, politics favoring use of electric cars and other strategies. Now the world\r\nhas 7.9 billion inhabitants. In 2025 according to some world population projections, the population will be around\r\n8.2 billion inhabitants [16], and emissions of CO2 by burning fossil will also increase approximately to 10 billion\r\nmetric tons per year without considering the increase due to cars production increase. Emissions due to deforestation\r\nand other land cover changes will increase to approximately 2.7. The global average carbon dioxide concentrations will\r\nraise to approximately 2.5. Both emissions and concentration will increase if prompt effective actions are no taken right\r\nnow. We do not know when we will reach the conditions of unstable equilibrium. We only know we are not far away of it.\r\n3.2.2 CO2 Emissions Increase by Cars Production [17]\r\nIn 2021, there were 1.42 billion cars in operation worldwide, including 1.06 billion passenger cars and 363 million\r\ncommercial vehicles. The 1.42 billion cars on the road emitted 2.23 billion metric tons (equivalent to 4.92 trillion pounds)\r\nof carbon dioxide into the atmosphere last year [18]. At the end of 2025 the total number of light cars will raise to 1.8\r\nbillion approximately. This will increase carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to approximately 2.8 billion metric tons of\r\nCO2. This added to other GHG gases and sources could unbalance the atmosphere. It is necessary to Implement actions as\r\nCOBMA to reduce Air Pollution and Climate change while transition to electric cars and to clean energies is made. At the\r\nsame time laws and rigorous regulations must be established to effective renovation or scraping of the old automotive park.\r\nEvery year, around 27 million cars that reach the end of their useful life from around the world are recovered for recycling\r\n[19].This number must be increased.\r\n98% of all automobiles on the road today are still powered by gasoline or diesel [18]\r\nThe idea of using electric motors to power cars dates since 1898. In the 60s, General Motors explored alternative\r\npower sources with several experimental vehicles, including the XP-883 gasoline/electric hybrid [20]. Since the\r\nconstruction of this hybrid urban car in 1969 by General Motors, with 2 motors; a gasoline motor for constant speed rides\r\nand an electric one to start and for short rides, both combined to provide a greater acceleration [21], up today, global\r\nproduction of electric cars has not succeeded and, therefore, its global implementation neither, for many complex reasons\r\nthat is not worth the trouble to mention here. Implementation of renewal energies, and other important proven actions and\r\n175-5\r\nstrategies have suffered similar fate, so far. However, in the last UN Climate Change summit, from 1-13 November 2021,\r\nin Glasgow, all those, who have starring roles in the Climate Change-Air Pollution issue, agreed through the so called\r\nCOP 26 PACT, to accelerate transition to electric cars [22], to renewal energies [23], and to achieve Zero Vehicles\r\nEmissions. However, transition implies time to be achieved and therefore proven strategies should be implemented\r\nglobally meanwhile. There was not any consideration of other strategies and actions as COBMA, proven efficient since the\r\n1940´s, when magnetism obtained by electric current was used to improve combustion in the spitfire and mustang aircrafts\r\nand later in the 2 last decades in light cars using rare earth magnets [24].\r\nAnthropogenic CO2 emissions increase is critical, and it is a threat to unbalance the Earth´s Atmosphere. Unbalancing\r\nfactors as CO2 emissions from mobile sources, deforestation and others must be rigorously and strictly controlled, right\r\nnow.\r\n3.3 All Proven Feasible Actions to counteract Unbalancing Factors Must Be Globally Properly Implemented\r\nto Prevent a Problem of Catastrophic Dimensions.\r\nDespite the implementation to great scale of emissions controllers and different type of devices and strategies to\r\nreduce the emissions of gases from mobile sources, billion tons of harmful gases whose concentrations make them lethal\r\nfor the health are still being sent to the atmosphere. A very hard effort has been done in many countries to controlling air\r\npollution. Restrictive among other measures, better plans of vehicles circulation, better fuels selection, obligatory use of\r\ncatalytic converters and other devices has helped a lot to solve air pollution problem. Due to these devices, measures, and\r\nstrategies billion tons of polluting agents have not been released to the atmosphere but, no device is so highly efficient to\r\nsolve completely the problem alone or in a synergic connection with other because every action or device has its own\r\ndrawbacks. Moreover, the continuous increase of the automotive park in many countries is evident and also the lack of\r\nrenovation of the old one and many other conditions keep on contributing enormously to worsen Air pollution and\r\nClimate-Change because on one hand they increase the contaminants in the air and on the other hand limit strategies,\r\nactions, and controlling devices effectiveness Therefore every device or proven action or strategy is important to be\r\nconsidered because it could help to save the planet.\r\n3.4 Global implementation of COBMA Could Counteract Unbalancing Factors\r\nWe have been working in the last 13 years in COBMA and proved efficient as it has been shown in our RTESE\r\npapers; with results from ADC [24], by a lab experiment [25], through criteria for designing, building and installing\r\nmagnetic minimizers [26], explaining how a Magnetic Efficient Balanced (MEB) minimizer should be designed [27],\r\nshowing the technical and economic feasibility of implementing globally a MEB [28]. Unfortunately, COBMA has been\r\ndiscredited because economic interests have prevailed before the interest of saving the planet and the difficulties involved\r\nin a precise scientific design, construction, installation and actualization of the devices, whose control should be in the\r\nhands of responsible institutions as we have explained in our papers. We hope there still be time left to retake this\r\ntechnique that is indispensable to counteract the main unbalancing factor of the carbon cycle while transitions to electric\r\ncars and clean energies are made. It could even help the implementation of COP26 PACT ZEV plan. [29] So, proven\r\neffective actions should not be dismissed however small its impact may seem\r\n4. Main Goal\r\nSaving fuel must be a consequence of emissions reduction, not the purpose.\r\nThe main goal of this paper is to show through analyses from report of gasoline consumption reduction for the 2019\r\nperiod from April 4 –November 20, and emission tests results achieved for a Renault car in a Mechanic workshop in\r\nCartagena in April 09/20 that HC and CO unsuitable emissions reductions by magnetic action, though reduce considerably\r\nfuel consumption also contribute to increase CO2 emissions impact to the atmosphere.\r\n5. Measurements.\r\nA Renault car was tested with two Single Day Tests (Idle Engine Speed); without the device and with it, installed and\r\nafter traveling 6-7 Km. Carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) emissions results, shown in table 1 were obtained\r\nfrom a gas analyzer in the private auto mechanic workshop, Mekanos, in the city of Cartagena, Colombia, using standard\r\ngasoline RON (Research Octane Number) 87.\r\n175-6\r\n6. Tests and Consumption Records\r\n6.1 Magnetic Unit Used for Tests.\r\nUnit without hydraulic pre-treatment, built in Cartagena by Mekanos Mechanic Workshop, Fig 1a y 1b. It is very\r\nsimple. Highly efficient, very easy to build; It is made of a PVC tube 4-5 cms long, diameter\r\n\r\nto1inches, a couple of\r\nNeodymium magnets; , and a common glue, no more materials are needed, easy to install and with\r\na straightforward design process. [27]\r\n\r\n Table1. Single Day Tests Results\r\nEmissions\r\nRenault 2012\r\nInitial Final\r\nHC((PPM) 28 2\r\nCO2(%) 12.1 13.3\r\nCO (%) 0.32 0.00\r\nO2(%) 2.19 1.85\r\nDrive (Km) 0.00 6\r\nMileage (Km) 24351 24357\r\nMagnetic Induction B= 6500 Gauss\r\n Fig 1a: Unit Used Single Day Tests Fig 1b: Nd Magnet (3250 Gauss)\r\n6.2 Single Day Tests Results\r\nSingle Day Tests Results were arranged according to table 1. They will be analyzed later in conclusions\r\n6.3 Consumption Records\r\nConsumption records were arranged according to table 2.\r\nTable 2. Gasoline Consumption Record from April 13 to December 13 for Renault Dll 112 Car\r\nKilometres Gal Cost Date Mileage Consumption\r\n(Gal/km)\r\n24,357 9,5 $ 90.000,00 April 13/19 210 0,045\r\n24,567 8,1 $ 77.000,00 May 4/19 222 0,036\r\n24,789 8,97 $ 85.300,00 May 30/19 232 0,039\r\n25,021 9 $ 86.000,00 June 13/19 254 0,035\r\n25,275 5,18 $ 50.000,00 July 5/19 137 0,038\r\n25,412 5,10 $ 50.000,00 July 16/19 120 0,043\r\n25,532 6,23 $ 60.000,00 July 27/19 106 0,059\r\n25,638 7,04 $ 72.500,00 August 10/19 166 0,042\r\n25,804 6,53 $ 63.000,00 August 29/19 194 0,034\r\n25,998 9,13 $ 88.000,00 September 4/19 214 0,043\r\n26,212 8,4 $ 81.000,00 September 13/19 177 0,047\r\n26,389 9,19 $ 89.000,00 October 8/19 232 0,040\r\n26,621 8,82 $ 85.000, October 25/19 221 0,040\r\n26,842 9,18 $ 90.000,00 November20/19 191 0,048\r\n27,033 8,27 $ 81.000,00 December 13/19\r\nAverage\r\nConsumption\r\n0,042\r\n175-7\r\n7. Conclusions\r\nNo amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong [30]\r\n1. According to the analysis of the results from Table 1, that were obtained with Mekanos´s Gas Analyzer, it is found\r\nthat the magnetic minimizer of 6500 Gauss, installed in the Renault car is highly efficient to reduce CO and HC emissions\r\nobtaining drastic reductions of 100% and 93%, respectively but, an unsuitable increase of CO2 emissions concentrations\r\nof 10% relative to the initial CO2 emissions concentrations, for Single Day Test. Consequently, for this Renault car we\r\ncannot say that the magnetic minimizer behaves as a MEB. It is necessary to adjust the magnetic field induction B to a\r\nlower value to get an acceptable CO2 increase.\r\n2. The design of a proper magnetic minimizer is a process that does not necessarily end with determination of\r\nmagnetic induction B but one or more correlated test to fix the most precise and proper value of B, as was explained in\r\nRTESE previous papers, [26] [27], where the procedure, in general terms was outlined as: Initial Dimensioning of\r\nprototype→ Prototype Test→ Magnetic Induction Adjustment and Test if needed→ Final Dimensioning →\r\nConfirmation test.\r\n3. The previous conclusions confirm, as a fact, that CO and HC emissions cannot be reduced at will without increasing\r\nCO2 emissions beyond the international commitments [31]. In general, a decrease in CO leads to an increase in CO2\r\nemissions [32], [33].\r\n4. Results and conclusions suggest regulations policies for limiting reductions of CO and HC emissions from transport\r\nsector, when using any minimizer device or procedure. This would make easier the global reduction of CO2 emissions\r\nconcentrations and help transport sector decarbonization. It is emphasized that regulations are not about standards\r\nmaximum limits of CO, HC and other pollutants concentrations. They are about maximum allowed reductions of CO,\r\nHC and other pollutants emissions concentrations, using MEB minimizers or any other device or procedure [34]. New\r\ntests for different brands of cars are needed.\r\n5. Average Consumption before installing the device was\r\n\r\n\r\n. According to Table 2, Installation of the device\r\ndecreased the previous value to an average value of\r\n\r\n yielding a total saving of approximately US 300.00 in 7\r\nmonths and\r\n as average monthly saving. This is an important saving. However, on the other hand the increase in\r\nCO2 emissions could not compensate it when considering its implications to what Global CO2 emissions increase would\r\nbe. Global use of Magnetic minimizers purpose is not about saving fuel. It is about abating Air Pollution controlling CO2\r\nemissions. Saving fuel must be a consequence, not the purpose.\r\n8. Acknowledgements: Authors would like to recognize the support of Ryerson University through professor M.\r\nMehrvar from Chemical Engineering Department.\r\nReferences\r\n[\r\n1]\r\nD. W. W, BEING IN BALANCE, vol. 1, W. D. E. J. Pyle, Ed., New York City, New York: HAY\r\nHOUSE INC, 2016, p. xi.\r\n[\r\n2]\r\nUN, “COP26 THE GLASGOW CLIMATE PACT,” UN, GLASGOW, 2021.\r\n[\r\n3]\r\nCOP26, “SECURE GLOBAL NET ZERO AND KEEP 1.5 DEGREES WITHIN REACH,” UN,\r\nGlasgow, 2021.\r\n[\r\n4]\r\nUN, “COP26 GOALS,” UN, GLASGOW, 2021.\r\n[\r\n5]\r\nWHO, “New WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines aim to save millions of lives from air pollution,”\r\nWHO, 22 September 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.who.int/news/item/22-09-2021-new-whoglobal-air-quality-guidelines-aim-to-save-millions-of-lives-from-air-pollution. [Accessed December 2021].\r\n175-8\r\n[\r\n6]\r\nNOAA , “State of the Climate: Global Climate Report for November 2021,” National Centers for\r\nEnvironmental Information,, 2021.\r\n[\r\n7]\r\nCOP26, “MITIGATION,” UNITED NATIONS, GLASGOW, 2021.\r\n[\r\n8]\r\nC. Harvey, “Cleaning Up Air Pollution Could Strenghten Global Warming,” Scientific American, 22\r\nJanuary 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/cleaning-up-air-pollutionmay-strengthen-global-warming/. [Accessed February 2020].\r\n[\r\n9]\r\nWHO, “New WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines aim to save millions of lives from air pollution,”\r\nWHO, Copenhagen, 2021.\r\n[\r\n10]\r\nWHO, “WHO’s 10 calls for climate action to assure sustained recovery from COVID-19,” 11 0ctober\r\n2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.who.int/news/item/11-10-2021-who-s-10-calls-for-climate-actionto-assure-sustained-recovery-from-covid-19. [Accessed 21 December 2021].\r\n[\r\n11]\r\nPleijel, Håkan, Air Pollution and Climate Change: Two Sides of the Same Coin?, vol. I, H. Pleijel,\r\nEd., Stockholm: Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2009, 2009, p. 168.\r\n[\r\n12]\r\nX. Zhenhua, “Policies that tackle climate and air pollution at the same time can raise global climate\r\nambition,” UN Environmental Programme, Tsinghua, 2019.\r\n[\r\n13]\r\nEPA, “Causes of Climate Change,” EPA, 30 DECEMBER 2021. [Online]. Available:\r\nhttps://www.epa.gov/climatechange-science/causes-climate-change#3foot. [Accessed 7 JANUARY 2022].\r\n[\r\n14]\r\nEPA, “Intoduction to Indoor Air Quality: Pollutants and Sources,” 16 December 2021. [Online].\r\nAvailable: https://www.epa.gov/report-environment/indoor-air-quality#pollutants. [Accessed 21 February\r\n2022].\r\n[\r\n15]\r\nWHO, “Ten Threats to Global Health,” 20 January 2019. [Online]. Available:\r\nhttps://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/ten-threats-to-global-health-in-2019. [Accessed 21 February\r\n2022].\r\n[\r\n16]\r\nWorldometer, “World Population Projections,” Worldometer, January 2022. [Online]. Available:\r\nhttps://www.worldometers.info/world-population/world-population-projections/. [Accessed January 2022].\r\n[\r\n17]\r\nADT Staff, “Car Production Around the World Per Hour, Day and Year,” Auto Dealer Today, 21 July\r\n2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.autodealertodaymagazine.com/365381/car-production-around-theworld-per-hour-day-and-year. [Accessed 14 January 2022].\r\n[\r\n18]\r\nR. TIRES, “How Many Cars Are There In The World Today?,” RFID TIRES, 21 DECEMBER 2021.\r\n[Online]. Available: https://www.rfidtires.com/how-many-cars-world.html. [Accessed JANUARY 2022].\r\n[\r\n19]\r\nL. Eric, “20 Auto Recycling Facts and Figures,” The Balance Small Business, 6 August 2019.\r\n[Online]. Available: https://www.thebalancesmb.com/auto-recycling-facts-and-figures-2877933. [Accessed\r\n28 January 2022].\r\n[\r\n20]\r\nMotor City Garage, “GM’s Pioneer Hybrid: the 1969 XP-883,” MAC’S MOTOR CITY GARAGE,\r\n13 November 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.macsmotorcitygarage.com/gms-pioneer-hybrid-the1969-xp-883/. [Accessed 3 January 2022].\r\n[\r\n21]\r\nReader´s Digest, Libro del Automovil, Mexico: Impresora y Editora Mexicana, S.A de C.V, 1980.\r\n[\r\n22]\r\nUNITED NATIONS, “COP26 PACT ZEV,” UN, GLASGOW, 2021.\r\n[\r\n23]\r\nUN, “COP26PACT CLEAN ENERGIES,” UN, GLASGOW, 2021.\r\n175-9\r\n[\r\n24]\r\nM. M. Guerrero T. Raul, “High Efficiency Device To Cut Gases Emissions From Mobile Sources,” in\r\nRTESE´17, TORONTO, 2017.\r\n[\r\n25]\r\nM. M. Guerrero T Raul, “Experimental Evidence of Gasoline Ionization by a Magnetic Field Action,”\r\nin RTESE18, NIAGARA FALLS, 2018.\r\n[\r\n26]\r\nM. M. Guerrero T. Raul, “Criteria for Designing, Building and Installing a Magnetic Minimizer,” in\r\nRTESE´18, TORONTO, 2018.\r\n[\r\n27]\r\nM. M. Guerrero T Raul, “How a Magnetic Minimizer Should be designed,” in RTESE´20 145,\r\nNiagara Falls, 2020.\r\n[\r\n28]\r\nM. M. Guerrero T Raul, “Reflections on Implementing the Global Use of a Meb Minimizer To Abate\r\nAir Pollution from Mobile Sources Controling CO2 Emissions,” in RTESE´20, Niagara Falls, 2020.\r\n[\r\n29]\r\nCOP26, “ZERO EMISSION VEHICLES TRANSITION COUNCIL: 2022 ACTION PLAN,” 11\r\nNovember 2021. [Online]. Available: https://ukcop26.org/zero-emission-vehicles-transition-council-2022-\r\naction-plan/. [Accessed February 28 2022].\r\n[\r\n30]\r\nJ. D. Norton, “Chasing a Beam of Light: Einstein's Most Famous Thought Experiment,” 14 April\r\n2005. [Online]. Available: https://sites.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/Goodies/Chasing_the_light/. [Accessed 28\r\nFebruary 2022].\r\n[\r\n31]\r\nC. Harvey, “Cleaning up air pollution may strengthen global warming,” SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,\r\n22 January 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/cleaning-up-air-pollutionmay-strengthen-global-warming/. [Accessed 27 February 2020].\r\n[\r\n32]\r\nBitesize, “PRODUCTS AND EFFECTS OF COMBUSTION,” BBC, [Online]. Available:\r\nhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zx6sdmn/revision/1. [Accessed May 2021].\r\n[\r\n33]\r\nCRYPTON, “Understanding EXHAUST EMISSIONS,” CRYPTON, [Online]. Available:\r\nhttps://www.crypton.co.za/Tto%20know/Emissions/exhaust%20emissions.html. [Accessed May 2021].\r\n[\r\n34]\r\nU. o. C. Scientists, \"Air pollution experts say current standards must be strengthened to protect public\r\nhealth,\" Union of Concerned Scientists, 22 October 2019. [Online]. Available:\r\nhttps://www.ucsusa.org/about/news/air-pollution-experts-say-current-standards-must-be-strengthened.\r\n[Accessed 27 February 2020]."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~5500 Gauss ; magnetic field ~1876.75 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant Solénoïde a permis la plus grande économie (45,04% de SFC) à bas régime, car le carburant est exposé plus longtemps au champ."}, "page_2": {"en_base": "Dinamika Teknik Mes in, Vol. 8, No. 1, September 2018 Yatra et al. : Pengaruh tipe lilitan elektromagnetik alat magnetasi bahan bakar terhadap unjuk kerja 2 tertinggi didapat dengan kekuatan magnet 9000 Gauss yaitu senesar 14%. Selain itu, penurunan emisi gas buang seperti CO dan HC masing - masing sebesar 30% dan 40%, namun persentase emisi gas buang CO 2 meningkat sebesar 10% (Faris dkk, 2012). Akibat adanya pengaruh medan magnet yang diberikan pada bahan bakar single cylinder four - stroke dengan putaran mesin diatur sehingga konstan pada putaran 1500 rpm. Hal ini dapat menurunkan konsumsi bahan bakar sebesar 3% pada kondisi tanpa beban dan 8,5% pada kondisi beban maksimal. Meningkatkan persentase efisiensi termal sebesar 3,5%, penurunan persentase emisi gas buang seperti CO 2 dengan kondisi tanpa beban sebesar 5% dan dengan beban maksimal sebesar 9%. Persentase emisi CO juga mengalami penurunan pada ko ndisi tanpa beban yaitu sebesar 4,5% dan 10% pada beban maksimal, serta terjadinya penurunan persentase emisi NO X sebesar 13% pada kondisi tanpa beban dan 24% pada kondisi beban maksimal (Gad, 2015). Pada penelitian Patel dkk (2014) yang berjudul “ Effect of magnetic field on performance and emission of single cylinder four stroke diesel engine ” tentang efek dari medan magnet terhadap unjuk kerja dan emisi dari mesin diesel 4 langkah 1 silinder. Pada penelitiannya mereka menggunakan magnet permanen dengan k ekuatan medan magnet sebesar 2000 Gauss yang dipasang di saluran bahan bakar dengan kondisi beban yang berbeda. Dengan pengaplikasian medan magnet pada saluran bahan bakar diperoleh hasil persentase penurunan konsumsi bahan bakar sebesar 8% pada beban terb esar, persentase penurunan emisi gas buang seperti HC dan NO X masing - masing sekitar 30% dan 27,7% serta penurunan emisi gas buang CO pada penggunaan medan magnet pada kondisi beban terbesar. Selain itu, penggunaan medan magnet dengan kekuatan 2000 Gauss ju ga dapat menurunkan emisi CO 2 dengan persentase sebesar 9,72% pada kondisi beban rata - rata. Eryadi d kk (2012), telah melakukan penelitian mengenai pengaruh penggunaan alat penghemat bahan bakar berbasis elektromagnetik terhadap unjuk kerja mesin diesel. Data percobaan diambil secara langsung melalui pengujian terhadap mesin diesel dengan variasi putaran mesin (rpm) dengan menggunakan elektromagnetik dan tanpa elektromagnetik yang dipasangkan pada saluran bahan bakar. Dari hasil penelitian ini menunjukan bahwa dengan pemasangan alat elektromagnetik di saluran bahan bakar pada mesin diesel berpengaruh terhadap konsumsi bahan bakar sebesar 1,02 % pada putaran mesin 2583 rpm, daya efektif dan daya indikator tetap meningkat saat putaran mesin naik hingga menca pai 38,32 HP untuk daya efektif dan 45,08 HP untuk daya indikator pada putaran 2583 rpm, dan efisiensi yang meningkat pula hingga mencapai 5.36% untuk efisiensi efektif dan 6.30% untuk efisiensi indikator pada putaran mesin 2583 rpm. Pada penelitaian Mara dkk (2018) yang berjudul “analisis penggunaan alat magnetasi bahan bakar secara elektromagnetik terhadap unjuk kerja mesin empat langkah satu silinder” tentang pengaruh tipe lilitan elektromagnetik engan variasi lilitan yaitu 3000, 4000 dan 4500 , dapat men ingkatkan daya mesin sebesar 12,83% dan menurunkan FC sebesar 10% untuk jumlah lilitan 4000 pada putaran mesin 1500 rpm. Untuk mengetahui pengaruh tipe lilitan elektromagnetik ( Solenoid dan Toroid ) alat magnetasi bahan bakar , dalam penelitian ini dilakukan analisis penggunaan alat magnetasi secara elektromagnetik terhadap unjuk kerja mesin bensin empat langkah sat silinder. Diameter kawat yang digunakan adalah 0,7 Mm dan dengan panjang area yang termagnetasi adalah 4,5 mm. METODE PENELITIAN Pada penelitia n ini metode yang digunakan adalah metode eksperimen. Jenis metode ini penelitian ini bisa digunakan untuk menguji suatu perlakuan baru dengan membandingkan satu atau lebih kelompok pengujian dengan dan tanpa perlakuan. Adapun tahapan dalam pelaksanaan yan g digunakan dalam penelitian ini meliputi tahap persiapan, tahan pengujian dan pengambilan data, dan tahap analisa data. Dalam tahap persiapan dilakukan studi literature, pengadaan bahan dan peralatan. Selanjutnya dilakukan pengujian unjuk kerja dari alat yang telah dibuat dengan variasi tipe lilitan elektromagnetik yaitu solenoid dan toroid dengan diameter kawat 0,7 mm dan panjang area magnetasi sebesar 4,5 mm dengan panjang kawat 80 m. variasi putaran mesin 1500 rpm, 3000 rpm, 4500 rpm, dan 6000 rpm. Sum ber arus medan magnet yang digunakan diambil dari accu dengan tegangan 12 volt dan arus yang mengalir pada tipe lilitan adalah sebesar 3,01 A . besar medan magnet yang dihasilkan pada tipe lilitan elektromagnetik ialah 4,14 gauss untuk Solenoid dan 4,63 gau ss untuk Toroid Pada tahap pengujian dilakukan pengambilan data konsumsi bahan bakar dan besar dari gaya pengereman, kemudian dari data tersebut dilakukan perhitungan untuk mengetahui besar torsi, daya efektif dan konsumsi bahan bakar pada mesin uji. Dalam tahap analisa dilakukan perhitungan - perhitungan untuk mengetahui hubungan matematis antara putaran dengan torsi,", "fr_vulgarise": "Erreur de génération IA."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~261.38 Tesla ; fuel consumption -30.67 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Des aimants (jusqu'à 4000 Gauss) ont été appliqués sur les conduites de gaz naturel des fours industriels. Cela a entraîné des économies d'énergie substantielles (36% de gaz) et une réduction de la pollution (NOx -40%). Le traitement magnétique modifie la structure de la flamme, la raccourcissant et l'élargissant pour une combustion plus uniforme et efficace."}, "page_2": {"en_base": "L\\'essai à arbre rotatif a duré quatorze mois et a montré une réduction de la consommation de gaz de 8 %. Une amélioration de la composition des fumées dans l\\'atmosphère du four a été observée dans toutes les unités équipées d\\'activateurs magnétiques, ainsi qu\\'une réduction des émissions de polluants nocifs dans l\\'atmosphère. k mots-clés :activation magnétique, broyeur magnétique, fours métallurgiques, combustible, combustion Introduction L\\'histoire de la recherche sur l\\'influence du champ magnétique externe sur les fluides en écoulement remonte aux années 1930. Le premier brevet concernant l\\'amélioration de la qualité de l\\'eau par le champ magnétique d\\'un aimant fut déposé en 1890 en Allemagne. La Seconde Guerre mondiale vit le développement intensif des activateurs magnétiques de carburants liquides, ce qui aboutit à la création d\\'un dispositif magnétique améliorant la combustion des moteurs à pistons d\\'avions en 1942. Cette invention permit de limiter simultanément les émissions d\\'hydrocarbures imbrûlés et de particules de suie des avions de chasse et des avions militaires, tout en réduisant la consommation de carburant, augmentant ainsi le rayon d\\'action des avions. L\\'étape suivante du développement de l\\'idée d\\'application des champs magnétiques concerna les missiles balistiques, les fusées, puis les navettes spatiales de la NASA.(Brevet US 3228868A 1958). Par la suite, les activateurs magnétiques ont été utilisés pour d\\'autres carburants tels que : le gaz naturel, l\\'essence, le gazole, le fioul ainsi que dans l\\'industrie automobile et les installations domestiques (Kulakov et al. 2017, 2018). Les activateurs magnétiques diffèrent par la géométrie du système magnétique et leur mode d\\'installation dans les conduites de carburant (à l\\'intérieur des parois ou sur leurs surfaces externes). Leur efficacité varie également.(Fedorchak et Fedorchak 2015). L\\'évolution des solutions visant à améliorer les paramètres de travail et l\\'efficacité conduit au développement d\\'appareils de nouvelle génération(Brevet PL 214633 2013 ; Brevet PL 186233 2003 ; Brevet US 143045 2000 ; Szczypiorowski 1994). Leurs prototypes ont été testés en Pologne dans les années 1995-2007 dans des fours industriels chauffés au gaz de cokerie, au gaz de haut fourneau, au gaz naturel, au mazout et aux mélanges air-poussière de charbon(Szczypiorowski 1993, 1994 ; Szczypiorowski et Nowak 1995 ; Michalak 1994 ; Witaszak 1995). Le processus de conversion efficace des hydrocarbures en carburant peut être assez complexe. Les hydrocarbures possèdent une structure moléculaire en forme de cadre, ce qui entrave l\\'oxydation des atomes de carbone présents dans leur matrice. Ils se combinent également en pseudo-composés qui créent des molécules associées. L\\'apport d\\'oxygène à ces molécules associées est limité. En raison du manque d\\'oxygène, la combustion de ces molécules est incomplète. De nombreuses études visant à contrer l\\'effet d\\'association des carburants et à améliorer l\\'efficacité de leur combustion n\\'ont pas donné de résultats satisfaisants. Malgré la mise en œuvre de diverses méthodes, le problème de la teneur relativement élevée en CO et en HC dans les fumées persiste. 114", "fr_vulgarise": "Absolument ! Voici le texte traduit et vulgarisé pour un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\n**Le Pouvoir des Aimants pour une Meilleure Combustion**\n\nDes tests récents, menés sur une longue période de quatorze mois, ont montré des résultats très intéressants : l'utilisation d'une technologie particulière a permis de **réduire la consommation de gaz de 8 %**. Mieux encore, dans tous les fours équipés de ces **activateurs magnétiques** (qu'on pourrait appeler des \"magnétiseurs\" de carburant), la qualité des fumées rejetées s'est nettement améliorée. Cela signifie moins de polluants dangereux dans l'air !\n\n**Introduction : Une vieille idée remise au goût du jour**\n\nL'idée d'utiliser les aimants pour influencer les liquides ou les gaz n'est pas nouvelle, elle remonte aux **années 1930**. En fait, dès **1890 en Allemagne**, un brevet a été déposé pour améliorer la qualité de l'eau avec des champs magnétiques.\n\nC'est pendant la **Seconde Guerre mondiale** que les recherches se sont intensifiées, notamment pour les carburants liquides. En **1942**, un appareil magnétique a été créé pour améliorer la façon dont le carburant brûlait dans les moteurs d'avions. Résultat : moins de fumées noires (suie) et de gaz toxiques (hydrocarbures imbrûlés) rejetés par les avions militaires, et surtout, ils consommaient **moins de carburant**, ce qui augmentait leur autonomie pour les missions.\n\nAprès la guerre, cette technologie a continué d'évoluer. On l'a appliquée aux missiles, aux fusées, et même aux navettes spatiales de la NASA. Puis, son usage s'est étendu à d'autres carburants comme le **gaz naturel, l'essence, le diesel et le fioul**, que ce soit dans l'industrie automobile ou pour le chauffage à la maison.\n\n**Comment ça marche (et pourquoi c'est compliqué)**\n\nIl existe de nombreux types d'activateurs magnétiques, qui diffèrent par la forme de leurs aimants et leur façon d'être installés sur les conduites de carburant (à l'intérieur ou à l'extérieur). Leur efficacité peut donc varier. Les chercheurs travaillent constamment à développer de nouvelles générations de ces appareils pour améliorer encore leurs performances.\n\nEntre 1995 et 2007, de nombreux prototypes ont été testés en Pologne dans des **fours industriels** gigantesques. Ces fours utilisaient des combustibles variés : gaz de cokerie, gaz de haut fourneau, gaz naturel, fioul lourd, ou même des mélanges d'air et de charbon en poudre.\n\nLe problème, c'est que transformer efficacement les **hydrocarbures** (les molécules qui composent le carburant) en énergie n'est pas simple. Ces molécules ont une structure un peu particulière, comme une \"cage\", qui empêche l'oxygène de bien atteindre et de brûler les atomes de carbone qu'elles contiennent. Pire, elles ont tendance à s'agglomérer en \"paquets\", ce qui limite encore plus l'accès de l'oxygène. Du coup, la combustion n'est pas complète. C'est pourquoi, malgré toutes les recherches, les fumées contiennent encore souvent trop de **monoxyde de carbone (CO)** et d'**hydrocarbures (HC)**, qui sont des polluants. Les activateurs magnétiques tentent de résoudre ce problème en modifiant la structure de ces \"paquets\" de molécules pour qu'elles brûlent mieux.\n\n---\n\n**Mots-clés :**\n* **Activation magnétique :** Le fait d'utiliser des aimants pour modifier un carburant.\n* **Broyeur magnétique :** (Bien que le texte parle plus d'activateurs, l'idée est de traiter le combustible de manière \"magnétique\").\n* **Fours métallurgiques :** Les grands fours utilisés dans l'industrie, notamment pour fabriquer des métaux.\n* **Combustible :** Tout ce qui peut être brûlé pour produire de l'énergie (gaz, essence, charbon, etc.).\n* **Combustion :** Le processus de brûler un combustible pour libérer de l'énergie (chaleur, lumière)."}, "page_3": {"en_base": "Les procédés d\\'activation magnétique sont appliqués dans de nombreuses technologies du domaine de l\\'énergétique.(Sławiński et al. 2014a)un moulin magnétique a été utilisé pour sécher et broyer le charbon et dans(Sławiński et al. 2014b)Le procédé d\\'activation magnétique a été utilisé pour enrichir des carburants alternatifs à base de mélanges de déchets industriels. Les auteurs de(Walawska et al. 2016)et(Pajdak et Walawska 2016)a présenté une méthodologie de broyage électromagnétique des composés carbonatés améliorant leur capacité à absorber les impuretés des gaz d\\'échappement. L\\'activation magnétique lors de la combustion de carburants liquides et gazeux est appliquée selon la théorie de Van der Wals.(Mozga et Stoeck 2018). Il résulte de la recherche(Brevet PL 214633 2013)Il a été démontré qu\\'un champ magnétique externe correctement optimisé est capable de modifier la structure moléculaire des carburants et de convertir l\\'hydrogène qu\\'ils contiennent de la forme para à la forme ortho (caractérisée par une volatilité et une réactivité accrues), ce qui permet d\\'intensifier les processus de combustion. Modifié magnétiquement et mélangé à l\\'air, le carburant devient plus oxygéné et brûle presque entièrement, ce qui entraîne une réduction des éléments toxiques et de la consommation de carburant. Plusieurs phénomènes se produisent dans la zone où le carburant circule dans un champ magnétique : turbulences de la trajectoire des particules, courants de Foucault, champs électriques et magnétiques internes, ainsi que variations de vitesse et de pression. Les molécules du carburant sont soumises à un effet de torsion dans des champs magnétiques correctement ajustés. Ceci peut être observé visuellement grâce à la réfraction des rayons lumineux traversant la colonne de carburant liquide. La rotation magnétique des molécules dépend, entre autres, de l\\'intensité du champ magnétique, de la densité et de la vitesse du carburant, ainsi que des moments magnétiques. D\\'autres moments magnétiques apparaissent également, ordonnant les élections aux niveaux atomique et moléculaire. La structure des hydrocarbures se relâche et les molécules s\\'ordonnent et se polarisent. Ceci entraîne des modifications de la structure du carburant et la saturation du mélange en oxygène. Il en résulte une activité accrue et une combustion plus rapide et plus complète. Les conditions de combustion d\\'un tel mélange sont proches de l\\'optimum, ce qui entraîne une réduction significative des substances toxiques (CO, HC, NO). x ) dans les fumées. 1. Activateur de carburant magnétique Un exemple de schéma d\\'un composant de base d\\'un activateur de carburant magnétique de nouvelle génération selon un brevet original(Brevet PL 186233 2003)Le système est présenté à la figure 1. Il est constitué de blocs magnétiques empilés, montés symétriquement et longitudinalement autour de la conduite de carburant. Ces blocs sont constitués d\\'aimants céramiques anisotropes à plaques d\\'énergie (BH) max. 33 kJ/m. 3 et la rémanence du (Br) 400 mT. Ils présentent une polarisation S par rapport à la paroi de la conduite de combustible et sont reliés par des éléments de retenue en forme de segments trapézoïdaux. Selon le diamètre de la conduite de combustible, les unités élémentaires sont regroupées en ensembles de segments multipartites. 115", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici une traduction vulgarisée du texte scientifique, adaptée à un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\n**L'activation magnétique des carburants : pour une combustion plus propre et plus efficace**\n\nL'idée d'utiliser des champs magnétiques pour améliorer l'énergie est de plus en plus populaire. On voit cette technique appliquée dans de nombreux domaines. Par exemple, un **moulin magnétique** a déjà servi à mieux sécher et broyer le charbon. Cette activation magnétique a aussi été utilisée pour rendre plus efficaces des **carburants alternatifs** fabriqués à partir de mélanges de déchets industriels.\n\nDes chercheurs ont même mis au point une méthode pour broyer des composés à base de carbone avec de l'électricité et du magnétisme. Le but ? Que ces matériaux puissent mieux **absorber les impuretés** des gaz d'échappement, contribuant ainsi à réduire la pollution. Même pour nos carburants habituels, liquides ou gazeux, l'activation magnétique est utilisée pendant la combustion, en s'appuyant sur des théories physiques complexes comme celle de Van der Waals.\n\n**Comment ça marche, concrètement ?**\n\nDes études ont montré qu'un champ magnétique externe, s'il est bien réglé, peut carrément **modifier la structure moléculaire** des carburants. Le phénomène le plus étonnant est la conversion de l'hydrogène – un composant essentiel de la plupart des carburants – d'une forme appelée \"para\" à une forme \"ortho\". La forme \"ortho\" est particulièrement intéressante car elle est **plus volatile et plus réactive**, ce qui signifie qu'elle s'enflamme et réagit plus facilement.\n\nLe résultat ? Le carburant, une fois traité magnétiquement et mélangé à l'air, est comme \"préparé\" : il s'oxygène mieux et **brûle de façon quasi-complète**. C'est un double avantage : non seulement cela **réduit la quantité de substances toxiques** émises par la combustion, mais cela permet aussi de **consommer moins de carburant**. Moins de pollution et plus d'économies, donc !\n\n**Ce qui se passe quand le carburant rencontre l'aimant**\n\nQuand le carburant passe à travers un champ magnétique, il se produit plusieurs phénomènes complexes :\n* Les particules de carburant sont agitées, créant des **turbulences**.\n* Des **courants électriques** (appelés courants de Foucault) et des champs électromagnétiques internes apparaissent.\n* La vitesse et la pression du carburant peuvent varier.\n\nMais surtout, les molécules du carburant sont soumises à une sorte de **\"torsion\" ou de \"rotation\"** sous l'effet des aimants. On peut même l'observer visuellement : si on fait passer de la lumière à travers le carburant liquide activé, elle est déviée différemment, signe que quelque chose a changé.\n\nCette \"rotation\" des molécules dépend de plusieurs facteurs : la **force de l'aimant**, la densité et la vitesse du carburant, mais aussi des \"moments magnétiques\" (c'est-à-dire comment les molécules réagissent au magnétisme). Ces interactions magnétiques mettent de l'ordre parmi les électrons des atomes et des molécules. La structure des hydrocarbures (les molécules du carburant) devient plus \"lâche\", et les molécules se réorganisent, s'alignent mieux et se \"polarisent\" (elles développent des pôles positifs et négatifs orientés).\n\nTout cela a pour effet de modifier le carburant en profondeur et de permettre une **meilleure saturation en oxygène** quand il se mélange à l'air. Finalement, on obtient un carburant plus \"actif\", qui brûle plus vite et de manière plus complète. La combustion est presque parfaite, ce qui signifie une **réduction significative des polluants dangereux** comme le monoxyde de carbone (CO), les hydrocarbures imbrûlés (HC) et les oxydes d'azote (NOx) dans les gaz d'échappement.\n\n---\n\n**1. L'activateur de carburant magnétique : un exemple concret**\n\nComment un tel système se présente-t-il techniquement ? Un exemple d'activateur de carburant magnétique de nouvelle génération (breveté en Pologne en 2003) nous aide à comprendre.\n\nIl est constitué de **blocs d'aimants puissants**, empilés et montés de manière symétrique et le long du tuyau où circule le carburant. Ces aimants sont fabriqués à partir d'une **céramique spéciale** très performante. Ils sont orientés de manière précise pour que leur pôle Sud (S) soit tourné vers la paroi du tuyau de carburant. Ces blocs magnétiques sont ensuite reliés entre eux par des éléments de maintien en forme de trapèze. Selon le diamètre du tuyau de carburant, on assemble plusieurs de ces \"unités élémentaires\" pour former l'activateur complet."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "POLITYKA ENERGETYCZNA – JOURNAL DE LA POLITIQUE ÉNERGÉTIQUE 2019-Volume 22-Numéro 1-113–126 DOI : 10.33223/epj/103123 Przemysław S zymanek1 , Anna P ajdak2 , Arkadiusz S zymanek3 Impact des activateurs magnétiques de carburant sur la combustion procédé dans les fours de chauffage métallurgiques un résumé :L\\'article présente les résultats des tests de l\\'application des activateurs de carburant magnétiques, qui Améliorer l\\'efficacité des fours métallurgiques et améliorer leur performance écologique. L\\'article présente les indicateurs énergétiques des fours métallurgiques en fonctionnement, avant et après l\\'installation d\\'activateurs magnétiques à combustible, ainsi que les résultats de la composition et de la concentration des polluants émis. L\\'activation magnétique des combustibles liquides et gazeux modifie leur structure. Suite à cette activation, le mélange combustible est sélectivement saturé en oxygène dans la zone d\\'écoulement libre. Les conditions de combustion étaient proches de l\\'optimum, ce qui est confirmé par la réduction des polluants dans les gaz d\\'échappement. Les économies de combustible lors de la combustion constituent également un effet économique mesurable. Les essais ont porté sur plusieurs types de fours : four à poussée, fours à une et deux chambres et four à arbre rotatif. Des cycles de mesure de plusieurs mois ont été réalisés sur chacun d\\'eux. Les expériences consistaient à analyser la consommation mensuelle de gaz et de chaleur dans chaque four avant et après l\\'utilisation d\\'activateurs magnétiques. L\\'efficacité de l\\'utilisation des activateurs a été déterminée sur la base des résultats des essais. Un cycle d\\'essai de douze mois sur le four à poussée a permis d\\'obtenir une réduction de 36 % de la consommation de gaz et de 22 % de la consommation de chaleur. Après un cycle de mesure de dix-sept mois sur les fours à chambre, une réduction de 35 % de la consommation de gaz et de 6 % de la consommation de chaleur a été obtenue. Les tests sur les fours 1 Faculté des infrastructures et de l\\'environnement, Politechnika Częstochowska, Częstochowa, ORCID : 0000-0001- 5065-9311 ; e-mail : [email protected] Institut de recherche en mécanique des 2 strates, Académie polonaise des sciences, Cracovie ; ORCID : 0000-0003-4390-4256 ; e- mail : [email protected] 3 Faculté de génie mécanique et d\\'informatique, Politechnika Częstochowska, Częstochowa, ORCID : 0000-0002-4235-2368 ; e-mail : [email protected] 113 Traduit de Anglais vers Français - www.onlinedoctranslator.com", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici une version vulgarisée de l'article, adaptée à un niveau lycéen, avec des paragraphes aérés et les concepts clés en gras :\n\n---\n\n**POLITYKA ENERGETYCZNA – JOURNAL DE LA POLITIQUE ÉNERGÉTIQUE** \n2019 - Volume 22 - Numéro 1 - Pages 113–126 \nDOI : 10.33223/epj/103123 \n\nPar Przemysław S zymanek, Anna P ajdak, Arkadiusz S zymanek\n\n### L'impact des **activateurs magnétiques de carburant** sur la **combustion** dans les **fours de chauffage métallurgiques**\n\n---\n\nDans le monde d'aujourd'hui, l'**économie d'énergie** et la **protection de l'environnement** sont des préoccupations majeures. Cet article scientifique présente une solution innovante : l'utilisation d'**activateurs magnétiques de carburant**. L'objectif principal de cette étude était de voir comment ces activateurs pouvaient améliorer à la fois l'**efficacité** et la **performance écologique** des **fours industriels de chauffage pour métaux**, appelés **fours métallurgiques**. Les chercheurs ont mesuré l'énergie consommée et la quantité de **polluants** rejetés avant et après l'installation de ces dispositifs.\n\nComment ça marche ? L'**activation magnétique** agit sur la **structure des carburants** (qu'ils soient liquides ou gazeux). Imaginez que les molécules de carburant sont réorganisées par le champ magnétique. Grâce à cette modification, le mélange de carburant et d'**oxygène** est de meilleure qualité : l'oxygène s'y intègre mieux, surtout dans les zones où le carburant circule librement. Cela crée des conditions de **combustion** presque **optimales**, ce qui se traduit directement par une nette **réduction des polluants** dans les gaz d'échappement. En prime, cette meilleure combustion génère aussi des **économies de carburant** mesurables.\n\nPour vérifier l'efficacité de cette technologie, les chercheurs ont mené des tests approfondis sur plusieurs types de **fours métallurgiques** : des fours à poussée, des fours à une et deux chambres, ainsi qu'un four à arbre rotatif. Sur chaque four, des cycles de mesure de plusieurs mois ont été réalisés. Les expériences consistaient à comparer la consommation mensuelle de **gaz** et de **chaleur** de chaque four avant et après l'utilisation des activateurs magnétiques.\n\nLes résultats sont impressionnants ! Un test de douze mois sur un four à poussée a montré une **réduction de 36 % de la consommation de gaz** et une **diminution de 22 % de la consommation de chaleur**. Pour les fours à chambre, après dix-sept mois de mesures, les chercheurs ont constaté une **baisse de 35 % de la consommation de gaz** et de 6 % de la consommation de chaleur. Ces chiffres démontrent clairement l'efficacité des **activateurs magnétiques** pour optimiser le fonctionnement des **fours industriels**.\n\nEn conclusion, l'utilisation de ces **activateurs magnétiques** dans l'industrie métallurgique représente une avancée majeure. Elle permet non seulement de réaliser d'importantes **économies d'énergie** et de réduire les coûts de production, mais aussi de diminuer significativement l'**impact environnemental** de ces industries en limitant la quantité de **polluants** rejetés. Une solution gagnant-gagnant pour l'économie et la planète !"}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Traduit de Anglais vers Français - www.onlinedoctranslator.com POLITYKA ENERGETYCZNA – JOURNAL DE LA POLITIQUE ÉNERGÉTIQUE 2019-Volume 22-Numéro 1-113–126 DOI : 10.33223/epj/103123 Przemysław Szymanek1, Anna Pajdak2, Arkadiusz Szymanek3 Impact des activateurs magnétiques de carburant sur la combustion procédé dans les fours de chauffage métallurgiques unrésumé:L'article présente les résultats des tests de l'application des activateurs de carburant magnétiques, qui Améliorer l'efficacité des fours métallurgiques et améliorer leur performance écologique. L'article présente les indicateurs énergétiques des fours métallurgiques en fonctionnement, avant et après l'installation d'activateurs magnétiques à combustible, ainsi que les résultats de la composition et de la concentration des polluants émis. L'activation magnétique des combustibles liquides et gazeux modifie leur structure. Suite à cette activation, le mélange combustible est sélectivement saturé en oxygène dans la zone d'écoulement libre. Les conditions de combustion étaient proches de l'optimum, ce qui est confirmé par la réduction des polluants dans les gaz d'échappement. Les économies de combustible lors de la combustion constituent également un effet économique mesurable. Les essais ont porté sur plusieurs types de fours : four à poussée, fours à une et deux chambres et four à arbre rotatif. Des cycles de mesure de plusieurs mois ont été réalisés sur chacun d'eux. Les expériences consistaient à analyser la consommation mensuelle de gaz et de chaleur dans chaque four avant et après l'utilisation d'activateurs magnétiques. L'efficacité de l'utilisation des activateurs a été déterminée sur la base des résultats des essais. Un cycle d'essai de douze mois sur le four à poussée a permis d'obtenir une réduction de 36 % de la consommation de gaz et de 22 % de la consommation de chaleur. Après un cycle de mesure de dix-sept mois sur les fours à chambre, une réduction de 35 % de la consommation de gaz et de 6 % de la consommation de chaleur a été obtenue. Les tests sur les fours 1Faculté des infrastructures et de l'environnement, Politechnika Częstochowska, Częstochowa, ORCID : 0000-0001- 5065-9311 ; e-mail : [email protected] Institut de recherche en mécanique des 2 strates, Académie polonaise des sciences, Cracovie ; ORCID : 0000-0003-4390-4256 ; e- mail : [email protected] 3 Faculté de génie mécanique et d'informatique, Politechnika Częstochowska, Częstochowa, ORCID : 0000-0002-4235-2368 ; e-mail : [email protected] 113 L'essai à arbre rotatif a duré quatorze mois et a montré une réduction de la consommation de gaz de 8 %. Une amélioration de la composition des fumées dans l'atmosphère du four a été observée dans toutes les unités équipées d'activateurs magnétiques, ainsi qu'une réduction des émissions de polluants nocifs dans l'atmosphère. kmots-clés:activation magnétique, broyeur magnétique, fours métallurgiques, combustible, combustion Introduction L'histoire de la recherche sur l'influence du champ magnétique externe sur les fluides en écoulement remonte aux années 1930. Le premier brevet concernant l'amélioration de la qualité de l'eau par le champ magnétique d'un aimant fut déposé en 1890 en Allemagne. La Seconde Guerre mondiale vit le développement intensif des activateurs magnétiques de carburants liquides, ce qui aboutit à la création d'un dispositif magnétique améliorant la combustion des moteurs à pistons d'avions en 1942. Cette invention permit de limiter simultanément les émissions d'hydrocarbures imbrûlés et de particules de suie des avions de chasse et des avions militaires, tout en réduisant la consommation de carburant, augmentant ainsi le rayon d'action des avions. L'étape suivante du développement de l'idée d'application des champs magnétiques concerna les missiles balistiques, les fusées, puis les navettes spatiales de la NASA.(Brevet US 3228868A 1958). Par la suite, les activateurs magnétiques ont été utilisés pour d'autres carburants tels que : le gaz naturel, l'essence, le gazole, le fioul ainsi que dans l'industrie automobile et les installations domestiques (Kulakov et al. 2017, 2018). Les activateurs magnétiques diffèrent par la géométrie du système magnétique et leur mode d'installation dans les conduites de carburant (à l'intérieur des parois ou sur leurs surfaces externes). Leur efficacité varie également.(Fedorchak et Fedorchak 2015). L'évolution des solutions visant à améliorer les paramètres de travail et l'efficacité conduit au développement d'appareils de nouvelle génération(Brevet PL 214633 2013 ; Brevet PL 186233 2003 ; Brevet US 143045 2000 ; Szczypiorowski 1994). Leurs prototypes ont été testés en Pologne dans les années 1995-2007 dans des fours industriels chauffés au gaz de cokerie, au gaz de haut fourneau, au gaz naturel, au mazout et aux mélanges air-poussière de charbon(Szczypiorowski 1993, 1994 ; Szczypiorowski et Nowak 1995 ; Michalak 1994 ; Witaszak 1995). Le processus de conversion efficace des hydrocarbures en carburant peut être assez complexe. Les hydrocarbures possèdent une structure moléculaire en forme de cadre, ce qui entrave l'oxydation des atomes de carbone présents dans leur matrice. Ils se combinent également en pseudo-composés qui créent des molécules associées. L'apport d'oxygène à ces molécules associées est limité. En raison du manque d'oxygène, la combustion de ces molécules est incomplète. De nombreuses études visant à contrer l'effet d'association des carburants et à améliorer l'efficacité de leur combustion n'ont pas donné de résultats satisfaisants. Malgré la mise en œuvre de diverses méthodes, le problème de la teneur relativement élevée en CO et en HC dans les fumées persiste. 114 Les procédés d'activation magnétique sont appliqués dans de nombreuses technologies du domaine de l'énergétique.(Sławiński et al. 2014a)un moulin magnétique a été utilisé pour sécher et broyer le charbon et dans(Sławiński et al. 2014b)Le procédé d'activation magnétique a été utilisé pour enrichir des carburants alternatifs à base de mélanges de déchets industriels. Les auteurs de(Walawska et al. 2016)et(Pajdak et Walawska 2016)a présenté une méthodologie de broyage électromagnétique des composés carbonatés améliorant leur capacité à absorber les impuretés des gaz d'échappement. L'activation magnétique lors de la combustion de carburants liquides et gazeux est appliquée selon la théorie de Van der Wals.(Mozga et Stoeck 2018). Il résulte de la recherche(Brevet PL 214633 2013)Il a été démontré qu'un champ magnétique externe correctement optimisé est capable de modifier la structure moléculaire des carburants et de convertir l'hydrogène qu'ils contiennent de la forme para à la forme ortho (caractérisée par une volatilité et une réactivité accrues), ce qui permet d'intensifier les processus de combustion. Modifié magnétiquement et mélangé à l'air, le carburant devient plus oxygéné et brûle presque entièrement, ce qui entraîne une réduction des éléments toxiques et de la consommation de carburant. Plusieurs phénomènes se produisent dans la zone où le carburant circule dans un champ magnétique : turbulences de la trajectoire des particules, courants de Foucault, champs électriques et magnétiques internes, ainsi que variations de vitesse et de pression. Les molécules du carburant sont soumises à un effet de torsion dans des champs magnétiques correctement ajustés. Ceci peut être observé visuellement grâce à la réfraction des rayons lumineux traversant la colonne de carburant liquide. La rotation magnétique des molécules dépend, entre autres, de l'intensité du champ magnétique, de la densité et de la vitesse du carburant, ainsi que des moments magnétiques. D'autres moments magnétiques apparaissent également, ordonnant les élections aux niveaux atomique et moléculaire. La structure des hydrocarbures se relâche et les molécules s'ordonnent et se polarisent. Ceci entraîne des modifications de la structure du carburant et la saturation du mélange en oxygène. Il en résulte une activité accrue et une combustion plus rapide et plus complète. Les conditions de combustion d'un tel mélange sont proches de l'optimum, ce qui entraîne une réduction significative des substances toxiques (CO, HC, NO).x) dans les fumées. 1. Activateur de carburant magnétique Un exemple de schéma d'un composant de base d'un activateur de carburant magnétique de nouvelle génération selon un brevet original(Brevet PL 186233 2003)Le système est présenté à la figure 1. Il est constitué de blocs magnétiques empilés, montés symétriquement et longitudinalement autour de la conduite de carburant. Ces blocs sont constitués d'aimants céramiques anisotropes à plaques d'énergie (BH) max. 33 kJ/m.3et la rémanence du (Br) 400 mT. Ils présentent une polarisation S par rapport à la paroi de la conduite de combustible et sont reliés par des éléments de retenue en forme de segments trapézoïdaux. Selon le diamètre de la conduite de combustible, les unités élémentaires sont regroupées en ensembles de segments multipartites. 115 Fig. 1. Schéma des composants de base de l'activateur de carburant magnétique(Brevet PL 214633 2013) Rys. 1. Schemat podstawowej jednostki składowej magnetycznego aktywatora paliw 2. Description des objets de recherche Cette recherche comprenait des expériences sur cinq fours de différents types pour chauffer l'acier jusqu'à la température de laminage de 1 250 à 1 350°C. 2.1. Four à poussée Le four à poussée, présenté à la figure 2, est chauffé au gaz naturel et est conçu pour chauffer des brames d'acier d'une section de 0,12×0,2 et une longueur de 1,8 à 2 m (deux rangées) et de 3,1 à 4 m (une seule rangée) jusqu'à la température de laminage de 1 150 à 1 250°C. Le four est équipé de brûleurs à voûte à flamme plate de 14 250 kW, disposés sur deux rangées, de brûleurs de 16 400 kW (version à deux rangées) et de quatre brûleurs de sole de 1 500 kW. Des ensembles d'activateurs magnétiques à quatre éléments ont été installés sur les collecteurs de gaz principaux et les versions à deux éléments sur leurs dérivations vers chaque brûleur. 2.2. Fours à fosse à une chambre et à deux chambres Deux autres fours à fosse à deux chambres, présentés dans la figure 3, sont destinés au chauffage de brames d'acier d'une section transversale de 0,38×0,35 m et 0,38×0,54 m, une longueur de 1,9 à 2,1 116 Fig. 2. Schéma d'un four à poussée avec installation de gaz et emplacement des activateurs Rys. 2. Schéma pieca przepychowego (4 700×15 000) pour l'installation du gaz et la localisation des activités Fig. 3. Schéma d'un four à deux chambres avec installation de gaz et emplacement des activateurs Rys. 3. Schéma d'installation pour l'installation du gaz et la localisation de l'eau active et un poids de 2 à 3,5 t jusqu'à la température de laminage de 1 320°C. Ces fours sont chauffés au gaz naturel et rejettent les fumées dans l'émetteur commun. Chaque chambre de chauffe est équipée d'un brûleur de 4 300 kW avec régulateur de flamme. Des ensembles de quatre éléments de l'activateur magnétique de combustible ont été installés sur les conduites de combustible de chaque chambre de chauffe. Dans le four à fosse à chambre unique, la charge et le combustible étaient identiques à ceux des fours à deux chambres. Cependant, l'emplacement de l'activateur magnétique du combustible était identique à celui du four à poussée. 117 2.3. Four à sole rotative Un four métallurgique à sole tournante est conçu pour le chargement et le déchargement latéraux de lingots et de brames à côtés carrés, d'une largeur de 245 à 400 mm et d'une longueur de 1 000 à 1 600 mm. La sole tournante, en forme d'anneau, transporte la charge depuis la porte de chargement jusqu'à l'axe de l'ouverture de chargement, à travers la chambre, à une température de 1 320 °C.°C. Le four est chauffé avec du gaz de cokerie avec un mélange de gaz naturel et de gaz de haut fourneau avec un pouvoir calorifique de 5 000 kcal/m3Le four est équipé de 42 brûleurs à gaz à flamme plate, installés dans les plafonds de trois zones de chauffage avec régulation automatique. La puissance de chauffage totale des zones est de 11 160 kW. Pour la durée de l'expérience, le four était équipé de trois brûleurs. - activateurs magnétiques à éléments, montés sur les trois collecteurs de gaz principaux, distribuant le combustible aux branches des brûleurs à voûte à flamme plate. 3. Méthodologie de calcul La recherche s'est appuyée sur l'analyse de la consommation spécifique de gaz dans des fours spécifiques, avant et après la mise en œuvre d'un activateur magnétique de combustible. Les mesures ont été réalisées sur des périodes successives, allant de quelques mois à dix, voire vingt mois. À partir des données des fours (charge mensuelle et consommation mensuelle de gaz), les chercheurs ont déterminé la consommation thermique spécifique et le taux de consommation thermique spécifique à partir des formules suivantes : WE G= t⋅oi (1) m Tu= Wtoi⋅ ΣE (2) Σm Le pouvoir calorifique variait d'un mois à l'autre et se situait entre 34 369 et 27 660 kJ/kg. Lors des analyses des objets de recherche, l'indice de rendement moyen a été pris en compte. C'est-à-dire la charge moins la masse de la calamine. La calamine se forme lors de l'échange de chaleur et de masse entre l'atmosphère du four et la surface de l'acier chauffé. Son oxydation entraîne des pertes d'acier pouvant atteindre plus de 5 % de la masse de la charge lors d'une seule chauffe. Outre les pertes directes, la calamine provoque également des pertes indirectes, telles qu'une diminution de la durabilité des composants du four et du revêtement réfractaire, ainsi que des défauts de surface dus aux chevauchements. De plus, la faible conductivité thermique de la couche de calamine a un effet négatif sur l'intensité de chauffe, ce qui entraîne des pertes thermiques considérables. 118 4. Résultats Le bilan matière et énergétique avant et après l’installation des activateurs magnétiques dans le four à poussée est présenté dans la figure 4. Fig. 4. Consommation mensuelle de gaz et de chaleur dans un four à poussée Rys. 4. Jednostkowe zużycie gazu i ciepła w piecu przepychowym Selon les hypothèses de conception, la consommation de chaleur de ce four est de 1 880 kJ/kg. La consommation moyenne de gaz sur la période de référence de dix mois précédant l'installation des activateurs magnétiques était de 350 kJ/kg.⋅103m3. Après la mise en œuvre de la méthode d'activation du carburant sur cet objet, la valeur moyenne de cet indice a diminué à 225⋅103m3La consommation moyenne de chaleur a également diminué, passant de 2 243 kJ/kg à 1 748 kJ/kg. Grâce à l'installation des activateurs magnétiques, la consommation moyenne de chaleur a diminué de 22 %, soit 756 436 m³.3par année. Un aspect important et positif de la mise en œuvre d'activateurs magnétiques dans le four à poussée a également été la réduction de la concentration de polluants sélectionnés dans les gaz de combustion et une réduction de 0,7 % des pertes d'acier causées par l'entartrage. Par la suite, des activateurs magnétiques ont été installés dans deux fours à fosse identiques à deux chambres et dans un four à fosse à une seule chambre. Le bilan matière et énergétique de l'un des fours à deux chambres, avant et après l'installation des activateurs magnétiques, est présenté à la figure 5. 119 Fig. 5. Consommation mensuelle de gaz et de chaleur dans un four à fosse Rys. 5. Jednostkowe zużycie gazu i ciepła w piecu wgłębnym Grâce aux activateurs magnétiques, la consommation moyenne de gaz a diminué de 250⋅103 m3à 163⋅103m3La valeur moyenne de la consommation de chaleur massique a également diminué, passant de 3 661 kJ/kg à 3 450 kJ/kg. Les expériences sur le four à chambre unique ont montré une diminution de 35 % de la consommation de chaleur par tonne de charge. De plus, la consommation spécifique de gaz a diminué de 6 %, soit 666 365 m3par année. L'indice de rendement moyen d'une tonne de charge pour les fours à fosse avant l'installation des activateurs magnétiques était de 0,7974 et de 0,8647 (8,4 %) après. L'augmentation du rendement par tonne de charge pour ces fours après la mise en œuvre des activateurs magnétiques, pour la quantité de charge chauffée pendant la session expérimentale (70 498 tonnes), a permis de réduire la quantité de matière utilisée de 6 881 tonnes. Au total, la réduction de la matière utilisée dans le four à poussée et les fours à fosse s'est élevée à 7 220 tonnes, soit environ 13 600 tonnes par an. La concentration de certains polluants contenus dans le gaz a également diminué. Le tableau 1 présente les valeurs moyennes des paramètres techniques et la composition élémentaire du gaz des émetteurs de deux fours à fosse identiques, avant et après l'installation d'activateurs magnétiques. Il présente également les valeurs moyennes de dix séries de mesures de la composition des fumées, réalisées sur une période annuelle. D'autres expériences ont porté sur une période de quatorze mois de fonctionnement de deux fours identiques à soles rotatives (Fig. 6), mais dont le réseau de gaz était équipé d'activateurs magnétiques. L'analyse des données de base issues d'un cycle de huit mois de fonctionnement simultané des deux fours a révélé que des masses de charge identiques étaient chauffées dans les chambres avec une consommation de gaz comparable. La charge utilisée était de l'acier du même type. 120 tcapable1. Paramètres techniques et concentration de polluants sélectionnés dans les gaz résiduaires avant et après la mise en œuvre d'activateurs de combustible magnétique dans les fours à fosse tabela1. Techniques de paramétrage et stężenie wybranych zanieczyszczeń w gazach odlotowych z okresu przed i po wdrożeniu magnetycznych aktywatorów paliwa w piecach wgłębnych Couler Paramètres et composition des gaz résiduaires T intensité ρCO ρNONx ρO2 ρCO2 Unité K m3/h mg/m3 mg/m3 % % Four sans 549 28 225 57 79,90 18,80 1,05 Valeurs moyennes de la un activateur magnétique composition des gaz résiduaires Four avec 533 32 320 15 48,00 17,80 1.20 un activateur magnétique Pourcentage de variation des valeurs des paramètres et – 2,91 14,51 – 73,68 – 39,92 – 5.32 14,29 des composants des gaz résiduaires % Fig. 6. Consommation mensuelle de gaz dans un four à arbre rotatif Rys. 6. Jednostkowe zużycie gazu w piecu z trzonem obrotowym L'analyse comparative du fonctionnement simultané des deux fours à soles rotatives a montré que le four à activateurs magnétiques obtenait une baisse de la consommation spécifique moyenne de gaz de 609⋅103m3à 563⋅103m3, soit une baisse de 8 %. La diminution annuelle de la consommation de gaz de cokerie de ce four s'est élevée à 112 620 m3/année. L'analyse des résultats de mesure moyens des paramètres des gaz résiduaires de ces fours sur une période de fonctionnement de huit mois avant la mise en œuvre des activateurs magnétiques dans l'un d'eux a montré que la composition des gaz résiduaires de ces fours était comparable. 121 Après l'installation des activateurs magnétiques dans l'un des fours, la température des gaz résiduaires, la concentration en O2et le CO ont diminué respectivement de 12,5 %, 25 % et 49 %. La teneur en CO2 augmenté de 105 %. Un bilan matière mensuel, réalisé de manière aléatoire pour ces deux fours, a révélé des masses de matière chargée de 4 753,1 et 4 753,3 t, avec une différence de 0,2 t. Cependant, dans le four équipé d'activateurs magnétiques, la masse de matière non chargée a augmenté de 60 t. Cette différence est due au tartre, soit 1,28 % d'acier oxydé. On peut affirmer que l'amélioration de la composition des gaz résiduaires, notamment la diminution de O2teneur et une augmentation du CO2La présence de calcaire dans l'atmosphère d'un four a un effet positif, car elle réduit la masse de tartre. La charge de chauffage est essentielle dans la transformation des plastiques et les procédés de traitement thermique. Les coûts de chauffage dépassent tous les autres coûts liés à la transformation des plastiques. Les tests d'activateurs magnétiques effectués sur les objets susmentionnés ont prouvé que leur mise en œuvre a non seulement amélioré la composition des gaz résiduaires mais a également entraîné une réduction significative de la consommation de carburant, ce qui, au total, s'est traduit par des économies annuelles de 2 246⋅103m3/ an de gaz. De plus, les pertes d'acier dues à l'entartrage ont également diminué, ce qui est positif d'un point de vue économique. Ces résultats sont confirmés par les données de rendement avant et après la mise en service des activateurs magnétiques. La figure 7 illustre l'évolution de la consommation spécifique de gaz pour chaque four. Fig. 7. Juxtaposition des variations de la consommation de combustible par mois dans les fours examinés Rys. 7. Zestawienie zmian jednostkowego zużycia paliwa w badanych obiektach energetycznych Les résultats de l'analyse cinomatographique ont montré que la combustion du combustible activé magnétiquement modifie la structure de la flamme dans la zone proche du brûleur, c'est-à-dire la raccourcit et à la 122 Parallèlement, elle s'élargit à la sortie du brûleur. Ces modifications entraînent une augmentation des émissions et une homogénéisation du champ thermique en limitant les pics thermiques. La limitation du nombre de pics thermiques est bénéfique en raison de la réduction des émissions de NO.xémission. Résumé Les résultats des recherches industrielles sur l'activation magnétique des combustibles gazeux typiques des fours métallurgiques démontrent qu'après la mise en œuvre d'un ensemble complet d'activateurs magnétiques, une réduction significative de la consommation de combustible est possible. Lors d'expériences sur un four à poussée, les chercheurs ont constaté une baisse de la consommation moyenne de combustible de 36 % sur des cycles de mesure de douze mois. Dans les fours à fosse, la différence de consommation moyenne de gaz sur dix-sept mois s'élevait à 35 % et dans les fours à sole rotative, après un cycle de mesure de quatorze mois, elle était de 8 %. La combustion du combustible activé magnétiquement améliore la composition des gaz résiduaires dans l'atmosphère du four, intensifie le chauffage de la charge avant le traitement plastique et permet d'obtenir la température requise en utilisant un nombre réduit de milieux énergétiques, ce qui entraîne une diminution de la masse de tartre. Sur la base des recherches menées, les chercheurs ont observé une diminution de la consommation de chaleur spécifique et une modification de la composition des gaz résiduaires, ce qui réduit les émissions de substances toxiques dans l'atmosphère. L'utilisation d'activateurs de combustible magnétiques a permis de réduire la consommation de chaleur moyenne de 22 % dans les fours à poussée et de 6 % dans les fours à fosse. D'un point de vue écologique, l'effet d'un activateur de combustible magnétique est comparable à celui d'un convertisseur catalytique. Les activateurs magnétiques de nouvelle génération se caractérisent par une durabilité et une efficacité élevées, une compacité, un faible poids, une facilité d'installation et la capacité d'optimiser le processus de combustion. Elles constituent une solution simple et économiquement justifiée en termes de consommation de carburant réduite et d'écologie. Elles sont donc mises en œuvre dans d'autres types d'objets. Leur mise en œuvre en métallurgie peut produire des résultats positifs. Outre des retombées économiques notables, cette solution permettra de rendre les technologies métallurgiques à grande échelle, énergivores, plus écologiques. Les résultats de recherche présentés constituent un argument de poids pour la mise en œuvre de cette méthode dans d'autres types de fours. L'obtention d'effets optimaux nécessite un projet détaillé et une sélection personnalisée des activateurs pour chaque objet. Les auteurs tiennent à remercier Joanna Szymańska pour son aide dans la préparation du matériel de cet article. 123 Symboles: SUIS – activateurs magnétiques ; E – consommation spécifique de gaz [m3]; EN–AKT – consommation spécifique de gaz avant l’installation des activateurs magnétiques [m3]; EAKT – consommation spécifique de gaz après l’installation des activateurs magnétiques [m3]; G – consommation de chaleur spécifique [kJ/kg] ; GN–AKT – consommation de chaleur spécifique avant l’installation des activateurs magnétiques [kJ/kg] ; GAKT – consommation de chaleur spécifique après l’installation des activateurs magnétiques [kJ/kg] ; m – masse de la charge [kg] ; T – température [K]; Tu – indice de consommation de chaleur spécifique [kJ/kg] ; Wtoi – pouvoir calorifique du gaz [kJ/m3]; ρCO, ρNONx– CO, NONxconcentration, respectivement [mg/m3]; ρO 2 , ρCO– 2 O CO2, 2concentration, respectivement [%] ; Références Fedorchak, V. etFedorchak, T. 2015. Analyse et classification des méthodes physiques et chimiques de activation du carburant.Annales de chimie de l'Université Ovidiusvol. 26, 2, pp. 67–73. koulakovet al. 2017 –koulakov, AV,rAntsev-kArtinovVA ettyutyunnik, VM 2017. App- Réalisation de modules universels polyvalents de désintégrateurs/activateurs industriels pour la transformation de céréales et de pommes de terre en produits amylacés.Revue internationale de recherche avancéevol. 5, 5, pp. 1759–1762. koulakovet al. 2018 –koulakov, av, rAntsev-kArtinov,VA ettyutyunnik, VM 2018. Nouveau technologies de traitement du charbon utilisant des désintégrateurs/activateurs industriels à modules universels.Journal américain de recherche en ingénierievol.7, 11, pp. 33–41. mIchalak,W. 1994. Magnétiseurs unipolaires à Krotoszyn PCB (Magnétiseur jednobiegunowe w Kroto- PCB szyńskim).Materiały Budowlanevol. 2, pp. 32–38 (en polonais). mozga, Atterrirsorteil,T. 2018. L'influence des activateurs magnétiques sur la consommation de carburant d'une étincelle - moteur d'allumage (Wpływ aktywatorów magnetycznych na zużycie paliwa silnika o zapłonie iskrowym). Eksploatacja i testy9/2018Autooccupé, pp. 159–161 (en polonais). Pajdak,A. etwalawska,B. 2016. L'utilisation de sorbants de sodium modifiés pour éliminer le SO2et HCl de centrales électriques et centrales de cogénération à la lumière de la politique énergétique de l'Union européenne.Polityka Energetyczna – Journal de politique énergétiquevol. 19, 2, pp. 135–148. Brevet PL 186233, 2003. Urządzenie do aktywacji mediów stałych, ciekłych i gazowych zwłaszcza pyłu nous sommes en train de parler de choses brillantes. Brevet PL 214633, 2013. Dispositif pour l'activation magnétique de milieux liquides et gazeux poussiéreux (Urządzenie faire de l'activité magnétique à un niveau moyen de pyłowych ciekłych i gazowych) (en polonais). Brevet US 3228868A, 1958. Procédé de conversion de l'hydrogène. Brevet US6143045 A, 2000. Procédé et dispositif d'activation magnétique de milieux solides, liquides et gazeux, en particulier la poussière de charbon et d’autres combustibles hydrocarbonés. SławińSkiet al. 2014a –SławińSki, k., Get ou, M., knaś, k., Balt,Groupenowak,W. 2014a. Électricité broyeur électromagnétique et son application pour le séchage des charbons (Młyn électromagnétique et jego zastosowanie do Suszenia węgli).Rynek Energiivol. 1, pp. 140–150 (en polonais). 124 SławińSkiet al. 2014b –SławińSki, k., knaś, k., Get ou,M. etnowak,W. 2014b. Valorisation de déchets industriels dans un activateur électromagnétique – carburants alternatifs du futur (Waloryzacja odpadów przemysłowych w actywatorze elektromagnetycznym – alternatywne paliwa przyszłości).Prace Instytutu Ceramiki i Materiałów Budowlanychvol. 19, pp. 93–101 (en polonais). szczy Piorowski,A. 1994. L'utilisation d'un champ magnétique pour améliorer les processus de combustion (Wykorzystanie Pola Magnetycznego do Poprawy Processus Spalanie).Gospodarka Paliwami et Energiąvol. 10, pp. 12–17 ( en polonais) szczy Piorowski,A. 1993. Magnétiseur – un outil écologique moderne (Magnétiseur maintenant disponible écologique).Gaz, Woda et Technika Sanitarnavol. 3, pp. 26–32 (en polonais). szczy Piorowski,A. etnowak,W. 1995. Analyse des possibilités d'utilisation d'une méthode magnétohydrodynamique méthode d'activation des carburants dans les moteurs à combustion interne (Analiza możliwości wykorzystania magnétohydrodynamiqueznej metody uaktywniania paliw w napędach spalinowych).Gospodarka Paliwami et Energiąvol. 3, 1, pp. 2–6 (en polonais). walawskaet al. 2014 –walawska, b., szymanek, a., Pajdak,A. etnowak,M. 2014. Dégazage des fumées sulfuration par bicarbonate de sodium activé mécaniquement et thermiquement.Journal polonais de technologie chimiquevol. 16, 3, pp. 56–62. witaszak,K. 1995. La technologie la moins chère pour réduire la consommation de gaz et de pétrole (Najtańsza technologia zmniejszania zużycia gazu i oleju).Céramique Budowlanavol. 10, pp. 7–10 (en polonais). Przemysław Szymanek, Anna Pajdak, Arkadiusz Szymanek Oddziaływanie zastosowania magnetycznych aktywatorów paliwa na proces spalania w hutniczych piecach grzewczych Streszczenie W artykule przedstawiono wyniki testów zastosowania magnetycznych aktywatorów paliw, poprawiających efektywność pracy hutniczych pieców grzewczych oraz wpływających pozytywnie na aspekty ekologiczne ich pracy. Il s'agit d'une pratique énergétique de pointe avec des activités économiques importantes, przed i po zainstalowaniu magnetycznych aktywatorow paliw oraz wyniki składu i stężenia émettowanych zanieczyszczeń. Magnetyczna aktywacja paliw płynnych et gazowych modyfikuje ich strukturę. W wyniku aktywacji w strefie swobodnego przepływu paliwa dochodzi do selektywnego nasycenia mieszanki paliwowej tlenem. Dochodzi do zbliżenia warunków spalania do optymalnych, czego dowodem jest redukcja zanieczyszczeń w spalinach. L'effet économique est justement au rendez-vous avec le processus spalanien. W ramach niniejszej pracy przeprowadzono badania na piecach wybranych typów: przepychowym, wgłębnym jedno- i dwukomorowym oraz piecu z trzonem obrotowym. Przeprowadzono kilkunastomiesięczne cykle pomiarowe na każdym z obiektów. Badania polegały na analizach jednostkowego zużycia gazu oraz ciepła w poszczególnych obiektach badawczych przed oraz po zastosowaniu magnetycznych aktywatorow paliwa. W oparciu o rezultaty przeprowadzonych testów stwierdzono skuteczność stosowa- 125 nia aktywatorow. W wyniku dwunastomiesięcznego cyklu badań na piecu typu przepychowego uzyskano 36% zmniejszenie jednostkowego zużycia gazu oraz 22% zmniejszenie jednostkowego zużycia ciepła. Il y a un certain nombre de cycles de pompage dans le type de pièce qui permettent d'obtenir un taux de gaz de 35 % ou un taux de 6 %. Badania na piecach z trzonem obrotowym trwały czternaście miesięcy and wykazały zmniejszenie poziomu zużycia gazu o 8%. Nous avons essayé de faire en sorte que les agents magnétiques de l'usine s'occupent de l'atmosphère de l'atmosphère de l'installation. Słowa kluczowe: aktywacja magnetyczna, młyn magnetyczny, hutnicze piece grzewcze, paliwo, spalanie"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~1835.0 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme (470 Gauss) sur l'essence d'un petit moteur a réduit le CO (8,89%) et HC (28,52%), prouvant l'effet de l'aimantation."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Experimental tests on an SI engine (15 kW) using a permanent magnet on the fuel line showed a reduction in Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) up to 15.00%. CO emissions were reduced by up to 30.00% and HC by up to 66.00% (methane). The decrease in Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) emissions was approximately 30.00%, confirming cleaner and more complete combustion.", "fr_vulgarise": "Les aimants réduisent le NOx (jusqu'à 30%) et le méthane (jusqu'à 40%) dans les gaz d'échappement d'un moteur à essence, ce qui est une preuve forte d'une combustion optimisée."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "The Fuel Energizer has been tested and developed for the Indian Market. The fact that taken into account a vehicle's performance is often affected by the level of adulteration in the fuel used. The Fuel Energizer has been adapted and developed with Indian conditions in mind and it is the first such device in India that can make this claim. \"FUEL ENERGIZER\" helps to reduce fuel consumption up to 30%. When fuel flows through powerful magnetic field created by Magnetizer inter molecular forces is considerably reduced or depressed hence oil particles are finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. Hence by establishing correct fuel burning parameters through proper magnetic means (Fuel Energizer) we can assume that an internal combustion engine is getting maximum energy per litre as well as environment with lowest possible level toxic. This result in higher engine output, better fuel economy and a reduction in the exhaust emission of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen through muffler. The magnetic ionization of the fuel also helps to dissolve the carbon build-up in carburetor jets, fuel injectors and combustion chambers and thus keeping the engine in a cleaner condition."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "IOSR Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) ISSN: 2250-3021 Volume 2, Issue 7(July 2012), PP 27-31 www.iosrjen.org www.iosrjen.org 27 | P a g e Experimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C. engine Shweta Jain 1 , Prof. Dr. Suhas Deshmukh 2 1 (Singhad Academy of Engineering, Pune) 2 (Department of Mechanical Engineering, Singhad Academy of Engineering, Pune) ABSTRACT: - Vehicle on road produces large amount of CO, HC and NOx etc. as a exhaust emission. Typically I.C. engine used in automobiles have a probl em of pollutant emission, which mainly depends on combustion process occurs in I.C. engines. Incomplete combustion produces large amount of emission gases & gives lower efficiency. To tackle these issues new way of fuel conditioner are developed called as Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (MFC). The present article describes the mechanism of MFC, objectives & the parameter which affects the efficiency of MFC. Further, in this report one case study is presented in which ferrite magnets are used as MFC which improves efficiency and emission. A permanent magnet mounted in path of fuel lines. Mounting magnets in fuel line enhance fuel properties such as it aligns & orients, hydrocarbon molecules, better atomization of fuel (Proper mixing of air with fuel) etc. Use of such fuel conditioners improves mileage & better emission of vehicle. Finally this article also review about new emerging technology i.e. fuel conditioners, developments done across the globe. Keywords : Magnetic Fuel Conditioners, Emission, Mileage, Efficiency I INTRODUCTION Over the last decades in India, there has been a tremendous increase in number of automobiles industries. Currently, the motor vehicle population in India is about 80 million. Even though the transport sector plays pivotal role in the economic development of any country, it brings an unavoidable specter of environmental deterioration along with transportation [1]. This creates a huge problem for developing country like India. Combustion of fossil fuel in mobile sources for transportation has led to widespread release of pollutants such as CO, HC, NOx, SPM and many other harmful compounds in the environment, which results in air quality deterioration and health effects especially in urbanized areas[1,2,3]. Hence, an integrated approach for reducing emissions from mobile sources is the most desirable in urban transportations and also availability of fuel will no longer meet the growing demand. Today ’ s hydrocarbon fuels leave a natural deposit of carbon residue that clogs stalling, loss of horsepower and greatly decreased mileage on cars are very noticeable [6]. The same is true of home heating units where improper combustion wasted fuel (gas) and cost, money in poor efficiency and repairs due to build-up. Most fuels for internal combustion engine are liquid, fuels do not combust until they are vaporized and mixed with air. Most emission m ot or vehicl e consist s of unburned h ydr ocar bon s, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. Unburned hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen react in the atmosphere and create smog. Smog is prime cause of eye and throat irritation, noxious smell, plat damage and decreased visibility. Oxides of nitrogen are also toxic. Even when fuel is still clear and bright, microscopic fuel components agglomerate forming larger clusters and organic compounds. (i.e. chaotic form) This continuous process affects combustion and engine performance which causing loss of power, excessive fuel consumption, smoking engines, damage to injection systems and carbon soot build up in lube oil, emission filters and catalytic converters. There are different methods (MPFI, EGR, PCV, catalytic) used which not only gives proper combustion of fuel in engine but also minimize the rate of emission through I.C. engine. One new modern technique to reduce the emission & gives proper combustion is use of MAGNETIC FUEL CONDITIONER (MFC) [3, 4]. II MAGNETIC FUEL CONDITIONER (MFC) A magnetic fuel conditioner is a device which is used to alter atomic construction and organize fuel molecules (fuel quality) so that proper combustion happens in I.C. engine / automobile. As magnetic field is applied to ionizing fuel feed to combustion chamber which enhance combustion process and gives out lower emission and improved mileage. Magnetic field applied to fuel line atomizes fuel properties which get adheres to more oxygen molecules and enhances fuel air mixture. This provides peak engine performance while extending engine maintenance and filters change intervals thus reducing harmful emissions and carbon deposits & also we can ensure more complete combustion.", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici une traduction et vulgarisation du texte scientifique, adaptée à un niveau lycéen, avec des paragraphes aérés et les concepts clés en gras :\n\n---\n\n### Une Nouvelle Façon de Rendre Nos Voitures Plus Propres et Économiques : Le **Conditionneur Magnétique de Carburant**\n\nChaque jour, des millions de voitures roulent sur nos routes, et si elles sont très pratiques, elles sont aussi une source importante de **pollution**. Les moteurs de nos véhicules, appelés **moteurs à combustion interne**, rejettent des gaz comme le **monoxyde de carbone (CO)**, les **hydrocarbures imbrûlés (HC)** et les **oxydes d'azote (NOx)**. Ces substances sont mauvaises pour notre santé et pour l'environnement. Mais pourquoi nos moteurs polluent-ils autant ?\n\nLa raison principale est la **combustion incomplète** du carburant. Imaginez que votre moteur essaie de brûler de l'essence ou du diesel, mais qu'il n'y arrive pas parfaitement. Quand la combustion n'est pas totale, il reste des résidus, un peu comme de la fumée noire. Cela crée non seulement une grande quantité de **gaz d'échappement** nocifs, mais cela signifie aussi que le moteur utilise moins bien le carburant, ce qui diminue son **efficacité** et augmente la **consommation**. À la longue, ces résidus forment des **dépôts de carbone** qui encrassent le moteur, réduisent sa puissance et peuvent même endommager certaines pièces.\n\nFace à ce problème, les chercheurs explorent de nouvelles pistes. L'une d'elles est l'utilisation d'un appareil innovant appelé **Conditionneur Magnétique de Carburant (CMC)**. Son but est simple : aider le carburant à brûler de manière plus complète pour réduire la pollution et améliorer les performances du moteur.\n\nMais comment cela fonctionne-t-il ? Le principe est assez ingénieux. Un **CMC** est en fait un aimant permanent, un peu comme ceux que vous mettez sur votre frigo, mais beaucoup plus puissant et conçu spécifiquement pour ça. Il est placé sur la conduite de carburant, juste avant que le carburant n'arrive dans le moteur. Lorsque le carburant (qui est composé de millions de petites **molécules d'hydrocarbures**) passe à travers ce puissant **champ magnétique**, quelque chose d'important se produit.\n\nNormalement, ces molécules sont un peu désordonnées et ont tendance à se regrouper en 'paquets' ou 'amas'. Le **champ magnétique** va 'réaligner' et 'réorganiser' ces molécules. C'est un peu comme si un grand désordre se transformait en une jolie rangée. Cette réorganisation facilite l'**atomisation** du carburant, c'est-à-dire sa pulvérisation en gouttelettes très fines. Une meilleure atomisation signifie un meilleur mélange du carburant avec l'air à l'intérieur du moteur, ce qui est essentiel pour une **combustion** optimale.\n\nLes avantages de cette approche sont multiples. D'abord, une combustion plus complète signifie une réduction significative des **émissions polluantes** comme le CO, les HC et les NOx. Moins de fumée noire et de substances nocives rejetées dans l'air, c'est bon pour tout le monde. Ensuite, puisque le carburant est mieux brûlé, le moteur devient plus **efficace** : il consomme moins pour la même distance parcourue, ce qui se traduit par un meilleur **kilométrage** (ou 'mileage'). Enfin, cela aide à prévenir l'accumulation de **dépôts de carbone** dans le moteur, prolongeant ainsi sa durée de vie et réduisant les besoins d'entretien.\n\nEn somme, le **Conditionneur Magnétique de Carburant** est une technologie prometteuse qui pourrait aider nos véhicules à être à la fois plus respectueux de l'environnement et plus économiques à l'usage. C'est un domaine de recherche actif qui cherche à relever les défis de la mobilité moderne."}, "page_5": {"en_base": "Experimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C. engine www.iosrjen.org 31 | P a g e VI APPLICATIONS OF MFC MFC has been widely applied in various vehicles such as 2- wheeler, Auto-rickshaw & Heavy vehicles & also in aviation for combustion of fuel. It has also been used in various applications other than automobiles. Different types of MF C’s are available in market for various applications. Magnetizer, Fuel Energizer, ALGAE-X, Fuel magic, Power-mag, Fuel-MAX, M a x -power, Fuel-Saver-Pro, Mag-tek, Mag-well, Fluid Force & F u e l conduit etc are being used in Total fuel management system. Potable water can be safely treated with magnetic. Mag-Tek M.F.C.\\'s do not introduce any foreign contaminates which would alter the purity. Normal blowdown of the storage tank will reveal a residue of crystal deposits being discharged from the bottom drain. Scheduled blowdown of the hot water storage tank should not be neglected. By monitoring, you will note an increase in temperature of the return hot water line. You will also note a shorter recovery time. This indicates a more efficient heat exchanger. Sectioning a piece of the water line at a remote location will provide a method to visibly inspect the removal rate. Water flow rates will increase at all points in the system. Mag-Well\\'s Magnetic Fluid Conditioner (MFC) is a proven treatment for removing and preventing the build-up of solid scale and paraffin deposits in oil wells, and is currently being used in over 1,300 wells worldwide. In addition to the petroleum industry, MagWell MFC has been used for the following applications: the water treatment infrastructure and sugar purification of two sugar refining plants. Imperial Sugar (US) and Kous Sugar Refinery (Egypt); marine diesel fuel treatment for the Coast Guard; gas; bulk ice; and residential and commercial water treatments. VII CONCLUSION By establishing correct fuel burning parameters through proper magnetic means (MFC) one can assume that an internal combustion engine is getting maximum energy per liter as well as environment with lowest possible level toxic emission. MFC increases the internal energy of a fuel to cause specific changes at a molecular l e v e l wh i ch o bt a i n ed easier c om bu st i on . The resultant fuel burn more completely, producing higher engine output, better fuel economy, more power & most importantly reduces the amount of HC, CO, NOx in the exhaust.& therefore control the emission at low cost. In short the summary of the conclusion includes: MFC increases 10-40% mileage of vehicle, Reduction in HC emission & other pollutants, Avoid clogging problems in Diesel Engine, Cost saving, Eco friendly, Provides 30% extra life for expensive catalytic converter, Reduce maintenance of engine most importantly does not require any design modification & finally COST SAVING. REFERENCES [1] Busch, K.W., Busch, R.E. and Darling, S. 1976. Design of a test loop for the evaluation water treatment devices. Process safety and environmental protection. Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers. [2] Tretyakov, I.G., Rybak, M.A. and Stepanenko, E.Yu. 1985. Method of Magnetic Treatment for Liquid Hydrocarbons. In the proceedings of the International Conference on Surface Engineering Application , Washington, USA, 6:80-83. [3] Marshall, S.V., and Skitek, G.G. 1987. Electromagnetic Concepts and application nd Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey; 25-150 [4] Janczak Andrew and Krensel Edward. 1992. Permanent magnet more efficient combustion and less pollution. US Pat 5124045 ; International Class, 027/040; 553402 [5] Masaru Hasegawa, Seiya Mukohara and Yoshihara Achaean. 1988. Influence of Magnetic Field on Kinematic Viscosity of Fuel Oil. In the proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Alcohol Fuels , Kobe University of Mercantile Marine, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 77-85. [6] Kevin Kendall ∗ , Maria R. Kosseva, Nanoparticle aggregation influenced by magnetic fields, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 286 (2006) 112 – 116", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici une traduction vulgarisée et aérée du texte scientifique, adaptée à un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\n### Les Conditionneurs Magnétiques de Carburant (MFC) : Une Solution pour Améliorer nos Moteurs ?\n\nImaginez pouvoir améliorer le fonctionnement de votre voiture, réduire sa consommation et polluer moins, sans modifier le moteur. C'est la promesse des **Conditionneurs Magnétiques de Carburant (MFC)**. Ce texte nous explique comment ces systèmes agissent sur les moteurs et même au-delà.\n\n***\n\n### De Multiples Applications\n\nLes MFC ne sont pas juste pour les voitures ! On les utilise dans de nombreux types de véhicules, comme les motos, les tricycles motorisés, les gros camions et même les avions, afin d'améliorer la **combustion du carburant**.\n\nMais leurs applications vont bien au-delà des transports ! Les MFC peuvent aussi servir au **traitement de l'eau** potable. Ils n'ajoutent aucune substance étrangère et aident à éliminer les **dépôts de calcaire** et les résidus cristallins dans les réservoirs ou les tuyaux. Cela rend, par exemple, les systèmes de chauffage de l'eau plus efficaces, en augmentant la température de l'eau de retour et en réduisant le temps de récupération nécessaire.\n\nDans l'industrie pétrolière, ils sont utilisés pour empêcher la formation de **dépôts solides** et de paraffine dans les puits de pétrole. On les retrouve même dans le traitement de l'eau pour les raffineries de sucre, le carburant des navires de garde-côtes, et même pour la glace en vrac ou le traitement de l'eau résidentielle.\n\n***\n\n### Comment ça Marche et Quels Bénéfices ?\n\nComment ça marche ? L'idée est que le MFC, grâce à des champs magnétiques, modifie le carburant au **niveau moléculaire**. Ces changements minuscules facilitent une **combustion** plus complète et plus efficace du carburant dans le **moteur à combustion interne**.\n\nLes avantages sont nombreux : le carburant brûle mieux, ce qui augmente la puissance du moteur, améliore le **rendement énergétique** (donc la consommation est réduite) et, surtout, diminue les émissions de **polluants** toxiques comme les hydrocarbures (HC), le monoxyde de carbone (CO) et les oxydes d'azote (NOx) dans les gaz d'échappement. C'est une façon peu coûteuse de contrôler la pollution.\n\nEn résumé, les études suggèrent que les MFC peuvent :\n\n* Augmenter l'autonomie des véhicules de 10 à 40%.\n* Réduire significativement les émissions de **polluants**.\n* Éviter les problèmes d'**encrassement** dans les moteurs diesel.\n* Protéger et prolonger la **durée de vie** du coûteux **pot catalytique** (jusqu'à 30% d'autonomie en plus !).\n* Diminuer les coûts et la fréquence d'entretien du moteur.\n* Rendre le système **plus écologique**.\n* Et un point crucial : ils ne nécessitent aucune modification du design original du moteur, ce qui simplifie leur installation et permet des **économies de coûts** importantes.\n\nEn somme, les Conditionneurs Magnétiques de Carburant offrent une solution prometteuse pour rendre nos moteurs plus performants, plus propres et plus économiques, avec des applications bien plus larges que ce que l'on pourrait imaginer au premier abord."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "IOSR Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN)\r\nISSN: 2250-3021 Volume 2, Issue 7(July 2012), PP 27-31\r\nwww.iosrjen.org\r\nwww.iosrjen.org 27 | P a g e\r\nExperimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C)\r\nin I.C. engine\r\nShweta Jain1\r\n, Prof. Dr. Suhas Deshmukh2\r\n1\r\n(Singhad Academy of Engineering, Pune)\r\n2\r\n(Department of Mechanical Engineering, Singhad Academy of Engineering, Pune)\r\nABSTRACT: - Vehicle on road produces large amount of CO, HC and NOx etc. as a exhaust emission.\r\nTypically I.C. engine used in automobiles have a problem of pollutant emission, which mainly depends on\r\ncombustion process occurs in I.C. engines. Incomplete combustion produces large amount of emission\r\ngases & gives lower efficiency. To tackle these issues new way of fuel conditioner are developed called as\r\nMagnetic Fuel Conditioner (MFC). The present article describes the mechanism of MFC, objectives & the\r\nparameter which affects the efficiency of MFC. Further, in this report one case study is presented in which\r\nferrite magnets are used as MFC which improves efficiency and emission. A permanent magnet mounted in\r\npath of fuel lines. Mounting magnets in fuel line enhance fuel properties such as it aligns & orients,\r\nhydrocarbon molecules, better atomization of fuel (Proper mixing of air with fuel) etc. Use of such fuel\r\nconditioners improves mileage & better emission of vehicle. Finally this article also review about new\r\nemerging technology i.e. fuel conditioners, developments done across the globe.\r\nKeywords: Magnetic Fuel Conditioners, Emission, Mileage, Efficiency\r\nI INTRODUCTION\r\nOver the last decades in India, there has been a tremendous increase in number of automobiles\r\nindustries. Currently, the motor vehicle population in India is about 80 million. Even though the transport\r\nsector plays pivotal role in the economic development of any country, it brings an unavoidable specter of\r\nenvironmental deterioration along with transportation [1]. This creates a huge problem for developing\r\ncountry like India. Combustion of fossil fuel in mobile sources for transportation has led to\r\nwidespread release of pollutants such as CO, HC, NOx, SPM and many other harmful compounds in the\r\nenvironment, which results in air quality deterioration and health effects especially in urbanized\r\nareas[1,2,3]. Hence, an integrated approach for reducing emissions from mobile sources is the most desirable\r\nin urban transportations and also availability of fuel will no longer meet the growing demand.\r\nToday’s hydrocarbon fuels leave a natural deposit of carbon residue that clogs stalling, loss of\r\nhorsepower and greatly decreased mileage on cars are very noticeable [6]. The same is true of home heating\r\nunits where improper combustion wasted fuel (gas) and cost, money in poor efficiency and repairs due to\r\nbuild-up. Most fuels for internal combustion engine are liquid, fuels do not combust until they are\r\nvaporized and mixed with air. Most emission motor vehicle consists of unburned hydrocarbons,\r\ncarbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. Unburned hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen react in the\r\natmosphere and create smog. Smog is prime cause of eye and throat irritation, noxious smell, plat\r\ndamage and decreased visibility. Oxides of nitrogen are also toxic. Even when fuel is still clear and\r\nbright, microscopic fuel components agglomerate forming larger clusters and organic compounds. (i.e.\r\nchaotic form) This continuous process affects combustion and engine performance which causing loss\r\nof power, excessive fuel consumption, smoking engines, damage to injection systems and carbon soot build\r\nup in lube oil, emission filters and catalytic converters.\r\nThere are different methods (MPFI, EGR, PCV, catalytic) used which not only gives proper\r\ncombustion of fuel in engine but also minimize the rate of emission through I.C. engine. One new modern\r\ntechnique to reduce the emission & gives proper combustion is use of MAGNETIC FUEL CONDITIONER\r\n(MFC) [3, 4].\r\nII MAGNETIC FUEL CONDITIONER (MFC)\r\nA magnetic fuel conditioner is a device which is used to alter atomic construction and organize\r\nfuel molecules (fuel quality) so that proper combustion happens in I.C. engine/automobile. As magnetic\r\nfield is applied to ionizing fuel feed to combustion chamber which enhance combustion process and gives\r\nout lower emission and improved mileage. Magnetic field applied to fuel line atomizes fuel properties\r\nwhich get adheres to more oxygen molecules and enhances fuel air mixture.\r\nThis provides peak engine performance while extending engine maintenance and filters change intervals thus\r\nreducing harmful emissions and carbon deposits & also we can ensure more complete combustion.\r\nExperimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C. engine\r\n www.iosrjen.org 28 | P a g e\r\nBasic concept of magnetize fluid: In 1989, Hans Dehmelt of university of Washington awarded noble prize in\r\nphysics for his great contribution in fundamental properties of electrons [5]. According to that electrons\r\nhaving ability to store up energy within itself similar to flywheel called spin. When it provides small amount\r\nof magnetic field, it absorb the energy and properties will change which is based on the below theories i.e.\r\nChemistry theory – Covalent bond, Physics theory – Barnett effect, Math’s theory – Quantum mechanics.\r\nChemistry theory:\r\nParticles are made up of number of atoms. In Fig. 1 shows an atom having equals number of\r\nProton & electron in neutral charge, if greater number of electrons is there then –ve charge is obtained &\r\nif reversed then +ve charge is obtained. We are familiar with construction of fuel molecule (C--H bond).\r\nEach electron has two movements 1) Spin & 2) orbital movement which results in mixing of fuels.\r\nIn Fig. 2 shows molecules of fuel has nucleus at it center around which electrons are orbiting,\r\nwhich having tendency to attract towards nucleus, due to which intermolecular force of attraction increases &\r\nthus fuel particle are not actively interlocked with oxygen during combustion & some un-burn fuel goes into\r\nexhaust & thereby causing incomplete combustion [3,4,5]. When we apply magnetic field around fuel\r\ninlet lines, due to magnetization we reduces intermolecular attraction of fuel molecule, which results in\r\nbetter combustion of fuel.\r\nPhysics theory:\r\nDue to Magnetic effect on molecules, spinning electrons will absorb the energy and finally flip into\r\nalignment. Because of that cluster structure of fuel breaks i.e. bonds will break into fine particles. Now, this\r\nfine particles (C and H) having magnetic influence, which tend to adhere more oxygen electrons i.e. extra\r\noxidation is done and ultimately complete combustion at its optimum value is obtained , hence pollution\r\nwill reduced.\r\nMath’s theory:\r\nQuantum (Math’s) theory is used for analyzing the above effects which are occurred in covalent bond\r\n& Barnett theory.\r\nExperimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C. engine\r\n www.iosrjen.org 29 | P a g e\r\nII OBJECTIVES OF MFC\r\nAn object of the MFC (Fig.3 & Fig.4) is to provide significantly improved molecular excitement\r\nand turbulence in a petroleum/diesel based fuel so that re-polymerization is more effectively resisted and\r\nimproved fuel efficiency is achieved. It also significantly achieves improved fuel turbulence so that the\r\npremature production of sludge is prevented and the fuel is pumped and burned much more cleanly and\r\nsuccessfully. It is particularly effective for improving the combustion efficiency of diesel (due to more repolymerization) fuel. It could be beneficial for use in truck, motor vehicle and marine vessel engines. It is\r\neffective for use in virtually all types of internal combustion engines and which is particularly effective\r\nfor use in high temperature and pressure environments. It achieves a greater molecular turbulence than\r\nthat of obtained using conventional devices.\r\nIV PARAMETER OF MFC\r\nVarious parameters which affect the efficiency of fuel combustion are listed below.\r\nInstallation Position:\r\nIt is just before the carburetor or injector on inlet pipe or housing for maximum alignment &\r\nmaximum effect.\r\nPolarity of magnet:\r\nFuel line is magnetized by South Pole and air line is magnetized by North Pole. Such type of\r\nopposite polarity burns more completely, producing higher engine output, better fuel economy, and more\r\npower and most important reduces the amount of pollutants. The main benefit of such opposite polarity\r\ndissolves the carbon built up in carburetor jet, spark plug electrode, injector nozzles and combustion chamber\r\nhelp to clean up the engine parts and maintains the clean condition. Therefore the life of engine parts also\r\nincreases.\r\nDiameter of MFC device:\r\nMaximum result is being obtained, if diameter is same or close to the system piping.\r\nLength of MFC device:\r\nIt will depend upon the volume of fluid to be treated and intensity of treatment. It is generally\r\nvaried from 12 to 48cm.\r\nMagnetic flux:\r\nMagnetic flux density which is varies differently on flat surface, core surface. It is observed that\r\nmaximum effect at center.\r\nSelection of permanent magnet:\r\nThe magnet should have a curie temperature sufficiently high that they retained their\r\nmagnetic characteristic at the operation temperature to which they are exposed. Permanent magnet shows\r\npositive result up to its optimum peak, afterwards it will vary.\r\nMagnetic strength:\r\nThe strength of magnet depends on engine size. The magnetic flux density to be imparted to fuel\r\nwidely varies depending upon fuel, air or stream, combustion equipment & its condition. In general the\r\npreferred range of Magnetic flux density is from 1000-1800 Gauss. Most preferred range for multicylinder is\r\n1400-1800\r\nGauss. The field strength is a function of engine size based on fuel consumption. In order to protect\r\nmagnet from effect of heat generated by engine magnet should provide insulation of aluminium, copper\r\nor plastic to block radiant energy a layer of thermal insulation (neoprene) to prevent heating & radiation.\r\nConsidering the above parameter few experiments on engine were done which are as follows:\r\nExperimental Methodology (Case Study)\r\nTest Location\r\nProperties of MFC Device:\r\nThe ferrite magnets (Magnetic flux density is from 1000-1800) are most cost effective &\r\nwithstand with the temperature of engine inlet line for treating the fuel.\r\nEngine- Single Cylinder, vertical, water cooled self governed diesel engine developing 5 HP at 1500 rpm.\r\nBrake- Rope brake dynamometer with spring balance & loading screw. Brake Drum diameter = 0.270m\r\nExperimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C. engine\r\n www.iosrjen.org 30 | P a g e\r\n FUEL TANK\r\nMAGNET\r\nFUEL PUMP\r\n\r\nDIESEL ENGINE\r\nBelt thickness= 0.006m Effective Radius=0.138m For Smoke Meter:\r\nModel name & Number – NPM-SM-111B Type of Smoke meter – Partial Flow\r\nDisplay Indication – Light Absorption Coefficient Capacity\r\nDisplay Range – 0-9.90/m Scale Resolution – 0.01/m Linearity – 0.10/m\r\nWarm up time – 3 minute\r\nOperating temperature Range – 5-50°C Power Required – 230vAc\r\nWeight – 24kg\r\nInstallation done in DIESEL engine\r\nIn diesel engine (Fig. 5) we were magnetizing both fuel & air lines as shown in figure for better effect these\r\nmagnets are placed nearer to fuel injection pump in diesel engine.\r\nFig. 5 Installation in DIESEL engine\r\nV TEST AND RESULTS\r\nTrial on single Cylinder Diesel Engine is carried out and results of test are tabulated in\r\nPerformance Evaluation\r\nThe performance of MFC is evaluated by the Fuel Consumption, BSFC value & Smoke reduction\r\nwhich are shown in Table 1 & also in fig 6, 7.\r\nExperimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C. engine\r\n www.iosrjen.org 31 | P a g e\r\nVI APPLICATIONS OF MFC\r\nMFC has been widely applied in various vehicles such as 2- wheeler, Auto-rickshaw & Heavy\r\nvehicles & also in aviation for combustion of fuel. It has also been used in various applications other than\r\nautomobiles. Different types of MFC’s are available in market for various applications. Magnetizer, Fuel Energizer,\r\nALGAE-X, Fuel magic, Power-mag, Fuel-MAX, Ma x-power, Fuel-Saver-Pro, Mag-tek, Mag-well, Fluid\r\nForce & Fuel conduit etc are being used in Total fuel management system.\r\nPotable water can be safely treated with magnetic. Mag-Tek M.F.C.'s do not introduce any foreign\r\ncontaminates which would alter the purity. Normal blowdown of the storage tank will reveal a residue of crystal\r\ndeposits being discharged from the bottom drain. Scheduled blowdown of the hot water storage tank\r\nshould not be neglected. By monitoring, you will note an increase in temperature of the return hot water\r\nline. You will also note a shorter recovery time. This indicates a more efficient heat exchanger. Sectioning a\r\npiece of the water line at a remote location will provide a method to visibly inspect the removal rate. Water\r\nflow rates will increase at all points in the system.\r\nMag-Well's Magnetic Fluid Conditioner (MFC) is a proven treatment for removing and preventing\r\nthe build-up of solid scale and paraffin deposits in oil wells, and is currently being used in over 1,300 wells\r\nworldwide.\r\nIn addition to the petroleum industry, MagWell MFC has been used for the following applications:\r\nthe water treatment infrastructure and sugar purification of two sugar refining plants. Imperial Sugar\r\n(US) and Kous Sugar Refinery (Egypt); marine diesel fuel treatment for the Coast Guard; gas; bulk ice; and\r\nresidential and commercial water treatments.\r\nVII CONCLUSION\r\nBy establishing correct fuel burning parameters through proper magnetic means (MFC)\r\none can assume that an internal combustion engine is getting maximum energy per liter as well as environment\r\nwith lowest possible level toxic emission. MFC increases the internal energy of a fuel to cause specific\r\nchanges at a molecular l e v e l which obt a in ed easier com busti on . The resultant fuel burn more\r\ncompletely, producing higher engine output, better fuel economy, more power & most importantly reduces\r\nthe amount of HC, CO, NOx in the exhaust.& therefore control the emission at low cost. In short the\r\nsummary of the conclusion includes: MFC increases 10-40% mileage of vehicle, Reduction in HC\r\nemission & other pollutants, Avoid clogging problems in Diesel Engine, Cost saving, Eco friendly,\r\nProvides 30% extra life for expensive catalytic converter, Reduce maintenance of engine most importantly\r\ndoes not require any design modification & finally COST SAVING.\r\nREFERENCES\r\n[1] Busch, K.W., Busch, R.E. and Darling, S. 1976. Design of a test loop for the evaluation water treatment devices. Process safety\r\nand environmental protection. Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers.\r\n[2] Tretyakov, I.G., Rybak, M.A. and Stepanenko, E.Yu. 1985. Method of Magnetic Treatment for Liquid Hydrocarbons. In the\r\nproceedings of the International Conference on Surface Engineering Application, Washington, USA, 6:80-83.\r\n[3] Marshall, S.V., and Skitek, G.G. 1987. Electromagnetic Concepts and applicationnd Englewood\r\nCliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey; 25-150\r\n[4] Janczak Andrew and Krensel Edward. 1992. Permanent magnet more efficient combustion and less pollution. US Pat 5124045;\r\nInternational Class, 027/040; 553402\r\n[5] Masaru Hasegawa, Seiya Mukohara and Yoshihara Achaean. 1988. Influence of Magnetic Field on Kinematic Viscosity of Fuel\r\nOil. In the proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Alcohol Fuels, Kobe University of Mercantile Marine, Tokyo,\r\nJapan, pp. 77-85.\r\n[6] Kevin Kendall ∗, Maria R. Kosseva, Nanoparticle aggregation influenced by magnetic fields, Colloids and Surfaces A:\r\nPhysicochem. Eng. Aspects 286 (2006) 112–116"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Ce rapport conclut que les champs magnétiques permettent d'économiser jusqu'à 23,4% de carburant, mais insiste sur la variabilité des résultats en fonction de l'intensité et de l'emplacement de l'aimant. Le mécanisme principal est l'amélioration de la combustion via l'alignement moléculaire."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Using a 2500 gauss magnetic instrument in the intake manifold can improve engine efficiency and reduce fuel consumption and emissions.", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 2500 Gauss a permis une augmentation de la puissance du moteur de 13,10%. La position de l'aimant sur le conduit d'admission est un facteur clé."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Utilization of magnetic instrument is one effort to improve the performance and reduce exhaust emission produced by Otto engine. The experiments are done by varying the engine speed and variation of magnetic instrument mounting distance to the inlet valve when entering the combustion chamber. A magnetic instrument is installed in the intake manifold, before heading into the combustion chamber. The experimental results show that it is found that there is an increase in thermal efficiency and decreasing of fuel consumption when the engine uses 2500 gauss magnetic instrument ranging from 5.99 to 22.02%. The emissions of exhaust gas produced also reduced for CO and HC levels about 6-20%."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~2500 Gauss ; magnetic field ~72.75 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 2500 Gauss a permis une augmentation de la puissance du moteur de 13,10%. La position de l'aimant sur le conduit d'admission est un facteur clé."}, "page_2": {"en_base": "Le contenu de ce travail peut être utilisé selon les termes de la Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 . Toute distribution supplémentaire de ce travail doit maintenir Le contenu de ce travail peut être utilisé selon les termes de la Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 . Toute distribution supplémentaire de ce travail doit maintenir Le contenu de ce travail peut être utilisé selon les termes de la Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 . Toute distribution supplémentaire de ce travail doit maintenir l\\'attribution à l\\'auteur (s) et le titre de l\\'œuvre, la citation de revue et DOI. Publié sous licence par IOP Publishing Ltd 1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: Materials Science and Engineering 505 ( 2019) 012051 Materials Science and Engineering 505 ( 2019) 012051 Materials Science and Engineering 505 ( 2019) 012051 IOP Publishing doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 1 utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et utilisation des m agnétiques ré ppareils t o je mProve t il p erformance et r dégager g comme e missions d\\'Otto e ngine r dégager g comme e missions d\\'Otto e ngine r dégager g comme e missions d\\'Otto e ngine r dégager g comme e missions d\\'Otto e ngine r dégager g comme e missions d\\'Otto e ngine r dégager g comme e missions d\\'Otto e ngine r dégager g comme e missions d\\'Otto e ngine r dégager g comme e missions d\\'Otto e ngine M Hazwi 1, TB Sitorus 1,2, J Arjuna 1 et P Sinaga 1 M Hazwi 1, TB Sitorus 1,2, J Arjuna 1 et P Sinaga 1 M Hazwi 1, TB Sitorus 1,2, J Arjuna 1 et P Sinaga 1 M Hazwi 1, TB Sitorus 1,2, J Arjuna 1 et P Sinaga 1 M Hazwi 1, TB Sitorus 1,2, J Arjuna 1 et P Sinaga 1 M Hazwi 1, TB Sitorus 1,2, J Arjuna 1 et P Sinaga 1 M Hazwi 1, TB Sitorus 1,2, J Arjuna 1 et P Sinaga 1 M Hazwi 1, TB Sitorus 1,2, J Arjuna 1 et P Sinaga 1 1 Génie mécanique, Universitas Sumatera Utara - Medan, en Indonésie 1 Génie mécanique, Universitas Sumatera Utara - Medan, en Indonésie 2 PUI Energi Berkelanjutan dan biomatériau, USU - Medan, en Indonésie 2 PUI Energi Berkelanjutan dan biomatériau, USU - Medan, en Indonésie Courriel: [email protected] Abstrait. Utilisation de l\\'instrument magnétique est un effort pour améliorer le rendement et de réduire les émissions d\\'échappement Abstrait. Utilisation de l\\'instrument magnétique est un effort pour améliorer le rendement et de réduire les émissions d\\'échappement produit par le moteur Otto. Les expériences sont effectuées en faisant varier la vitesse du moteur et la variation de la distance de montage de l\\'instrument magnétique de la soupape d\\'admission lors de l\\'entrée de la chambre de combustion. Un instrument magnétique est installé dans le collecteur d\\'admission, avant de se diriger dans la chambre de combustion. Les résultats expérimentaux montrent qu\\'il est constaté qu\\'il y a une augmentation de l\\'efficacité thermique et la diminution de la consommation de carburant lorsque le moteur utilise instrument magnétique de 2500 gauss allant de 5,99 à 22,02%. Les émissions de gaz d\\'échappement produit également réduits pour les niveaux de CO et de HC environ 6-20%. 1. Introduction La source d\\'énergie générale dans le monde est l\\'énergie fossile en particulier du mazout. À l\\'heure actuelle, l\\'Indonésie est encore très dépendant de l\\'énergie fossile. L\\'énergie fossile fournit encore près de 95% des besoins énergétiques de l\\'Indonésie. Environ 50% de l\\'énergie fossile est le pétrole, et le reste est du gaz et du charbon. L\\'énergie fossile est l\\'énergie non renouvelable et se déroulera dans les prochaines années. Les données national de l\\'énergie 2015-2050 indique que le potentiel d\\'énergie fossile de l\\'Indonésie, y compris le pétrole, le gaz naturel et le charbon ne peut durer dix ans, 31 ans et 80 ans si aucune nouvelle réserve d\\'énergie fossile se trouvent [1, 2] . En plus d\\'être épuisé, l\\'énergie fossile a également un impact négatif sur l\\'environnement. les émissions de gaz à effet de serre provenant de la combustion des énergies fossiles ont un effet sur le réchauffement climatique qui provoque le changement climatique. La cause principale de ceci est l\\'imperfection de la combustion dans la chambre de combustion, en plus des pertes par frottement supportés entre les composants du moteur. La combustion incomplète aura un effet qui réduit la capacité de travail du moteur [3, 4, 5]. En outre, les résultats de la combustion incomplète de la consommation de carburant et les émissions d\\'échappement. Diverses améliorations de l\\'efficacité des moteurs à combustion ont été réalisées en ce qui concerne les apports de combustibles, telles que la technologie électronique d\\'injection de carburant, la combustion améliorées, telles que l\\'utilisation de la bougie d\\'allumage double, le système de régulation de la soupape de carburant avec la méthode VVT-i et VTEC, l\\'augmentation de la prise d\\'air avec l\\'addition de turbocompresseur ou compresseur volumétrique. Une façon d\\'améliorer les performances des moteurs à combustion développé aujourd\\'hui est le système de magnetation de carburant. Le principe de fonctionnement consiste à magnétiser l\\'huile combustible qui circule de la pompe à huile vers le collecteur d\\'admission à l\\'aide d\\'un dispositif contenant une force magnétique spécifique [6]. Ainsi, avant d\\'être brûlé dans la chambre de combustion, le carburant est déjà magnétisé. Les recherches menées au Laboratoire de l\\'énergie de l\\'Université de Kobe en utilisant une injection directe", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici une version vulgarisée du texte scientifique pour un public lycéen, avec des paragraphes aérés et les concepts clés en gras :\n\n---\n\nCe document est un extrait d'un article de recherche scientifique. Avant de plonger dans le contenu, il est important de comprendre comment il peut être utilisé et d'où il vient.\n\n### Sur l'utilisation de ce travail\n\nCe travail peut être utilisé par tout le monde, à condition de respecter les termes de la **licence Creative Commons Attribution 3.0** (souvent abrégée CC BY 3.0). Cela signifie que vous êtes libre de partager et d'adapter ce contenu, même à des fins commerciales, tant que vous **mentionnez toujours les auteurs**, le titre de l'œuvre, la revue scientifique où elle a été publiée et son **DOI** (un identifiant numérique unique pour les articles scientifiques). C'est une façon de s'assurer que le travail des chercheurs est reconnu.\n\n### Contexte de la publication\n\nCet article a été présenté lors de la **1ère Conférence Internationale sur le Génie Industriel et la Fabrication**. Il a ensuite été publié dans la revue scientifique **IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering**, volume 505, en 2019 (article 012051). L'éditeur est **IOP Publishing Ltd**.\n\n### Les auteurs et leur affiliation\n\nLes recherches présentées dans cet article ont été menées par **M. Hazwi, T.B. Sitorus, J. Arjuna et P. Sinaga**. Ils sont tous rattachés à la Faculté de Génie Mécanique de l'**Universitas Sumatera Utara à Medan, en Indonésie**. L'un d'eux est également affilié au centre de recherche sur l'énergie durable et les biomatériaux de cette même université.\n\n---\n\n### L'objectif de l'étude : Améliorer les Moteurs et Réduire la Pollution\n\n**Titre de la recherche :** Utilisation d'appareils magnétiques pour améliorer la performance et réduire les émissions de gaz des moteurs Otto.\n\n**En clair :** Cette étude explore une méthode innovante pour rendre les moteurs de voiture (appelés **moteurs Otto**, comme ceux à essence) plus efficaces et moins polluants. L'idée est d'utiliser des **champs magnétiques** pour modifier le carburant avant qu'il ne brûle.\n\n### Ce que les chercheurs ont fait et trouvé (en résumé)\n\nPour tester leur idée, les chercheurs ont réalisé des expériences en installant un **instrument magnétique** (de 2500 gauss, une unité de mesure de la force magnétique) dans le **collecteur d'admission** du moteur, juste avant que le carburant n'entre dans la chambre de combustion. Ils ont fait varier la vitesse du moteur et la distance de l'appareil magnétique par rapport à la soupape d'admission.\n\nLes résultats sont prometteurs :\n* Ils ont constaté une **augmentation de l'efficacité thermique** du moteur (la capacité du moteur à transformer l'énergie du carburant en travail utile) allant de **5,99 à 22,02%**.\n* Parallèlement, la **consommation de carburant a diminué**.\n* De plus, les **émissions de gaz d'échappement nocifs** comme le monoxyde de carbone (**CO**) et les hydrocarbures imbrûlés (**HC**) ont été **réduites d'environ 6 à 20%**.\n\n### Pourquoi cette recherche est importante : Un Contexte Énergétique et Environnemental\n\nNotre monde dépend énormément des **énergies fossiles** (pétrole, gaz naturel, charbon). En Indonésie, par exemple, près de 95% des besoins énergétiques proviennent encore de ces ressources, le pétrole représentant la moitié. Le problème est que ces énergies sont **non renouvelables** et s'épuisent rapidement. Les estimations pour l'Indonésie suggèrent qu'elles pourraient ne durer que quelques décennies si de nouvelles réserves ne sont pas découvertes.\n\nAu-delà de l'épuisement, la combustion des énergies fossiles a un **impact environnemental majeur**. Elle libère des **gaz à effet de serre** dans l'atmosphère, ce qui contribue au **réchauffement climatique** et aux **changements climatiques** que nous observons. La cause principale de ces émissions est une **combustion incomplète** du carburant dans les moteurs, ainsi que des pertes d'énergie dues aux frottements des pièces du moteur. Une mauvaise combustion signifie moins de puissance pour le moteur et, surtout, plus de pollution et une surconsommation de carburant.\n\nPour améliorer cette situation, de nombreuses technologies existent déjà, comme l'injection électronique de carburant, les bougies d'allumage plus performantes ou les turbocompresseurs qui augmentent l'air. Mais les chercheurs explorent toujours de nouvelles pistes. C'est là qu'intervient le **système de magnétisation du carburant**. Son principe est simple : on fait passer le carburant (essence ou diesel) devant un **aimant puissant** avant qu'il n'arrive dans le moteur. L'objectif est de \"magnétiser\" le carburant pour qu'il brûle mieux et plus complètement, réduisant ainsi la consommation et la pollution."}, "page_3": {"en_base": "1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: Materials Science and Engineering 505 ( 2019) 012051 Materials Science and Engineering 505 ( 2019) 012051 Materials Science and Engineering 505 ( 2019) 012051 IOP Publishing doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 2 type diesel Yanmar NF-19SK a montré une diminution de la consommation de carburant de 13-14% dans des conditions de charge normales en utilisant un magnétiseur [7]. 2. Étude 2.1. L\\'effet magnétique dans l\\'huile de carburant Si les atomes sont placés dans un aimant uniforme, les électrons qui entourent le noyau deviennent filé. Cette rotation provoque l\\'apparition d\\'un champ magnétique secondaire qui est opposée à la direction du champ magnétique donné. Pour les moteurs qui utilisent l\\'huile de carburant de sorte lorsque le carburant est encore dans le réservoir de carburant, les molécules d\\'hydrocarbures qui sont les principaux constituants de l\\'huile de combustible ont tendance à attirer les uns des autres et de former des particules en bouquets. Ce regroupement va se poursuivre, entraînant les molécules d\\'hydrocarbures ne pas être séparé ou il n\\'y a pas assez de temps pour séparer les uns des autres lors de la réaction avec de l\\'oxygène dans la chambre de combustion [8]. Le résultat regrettable est une imperfection de combustion pur avec la présence de contenu HC dans les gaz de combustion. La présence d\\'un champ magnétique suffisamment fort permanente dans la molécule d\\'hydrocarbure diamagnétique provoque des réactions de rejet entre les molécules d\\'hydrocarbure pour former une distance optimale entre les molécules d\\'hydrocarbures. Cela permettra d\\'accroître l\\'interaction entre les molécules d\\'hydrocarbures avec de l\\'oxygène. Les particules atomiques qui composent la molécule d\\'hydrocarbure seront affectés par le champ magnétique de sorte que la direction sera plus aligné ou orienté dans le cadre du champ magnétique [9]. L\\'utilisation d\\'aimants est destiné à enregistrer la consommation de carburant à travers le processus d\\'aimantation. Le processus d\\'aimantation est nécessaire pour permettre au carburant de se lier l\\'oxygène plus facilement au cours des processus de combustion et de réduire les hydrocarbures non brûlés alimentés par le processus de combustion [10]. Figure 1. effet Magnetization pour le carburant [11] Figure 1. effet Magnetization pour le carburant [11] Cela est dû à la taille de la structure moléculaire du carburant va se transformer en petites liaisons dues à l\\'aimantation. La petite taille de ces molécules affectera directement le processus de gravure plus naturelle dans la chambre de combustion. En d\\'autres termes, le processus d\\'aimantation dans le carburant fera une combustion plus parfaite [12]. Comme le carburant passe à travers le collecteur, les forces d\\'aimantation à l\\'intérieur de l\\'aimant fixé sur la conduite de carburant conduit à la rupture de la liaison carbone-carbone dans le carburant en petites parties de la liaison ionique. Le pôle négatif de l\\'aimant va attirer les ions positifs tandis que l\\'ion négatif sera tenté par le pôle positif de l\\'aimant de sorte que des ions positifs et des ions négatifs iront régulièrement après passage à travers le champ magnétique. Ce lien petit et régulier rend l\\'oxygène facile à réagir avec du carburant au processus de combustion [13]. L\\'effet du carburant sera plus efficacement brûlé dans la chambre de combustion ou l\\'apparition d\\'une combustion complète. 2.2. Le paramètre de la performance Les principaux paramètres du moteur à combustion interne sont la puissance, la consommation de carburant spécifique et le rendement thermique [14, 15]. La vitesse du moteur et le couple affectent considérablement la puissance produite par le moteur à combustion interne. En général, il existe deux types de pouvoir, à savoir la puissance de l\\'arbre et la", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici une version vulgarisée du texte scientifique pour un public lycéen, avec des paragraphes aérés et les concepts clés en gras :\n\n---\n\n### **Le Carburant Aimanté : Une Solution pour des Moteurs Plus Économes et Moins Polluants ?**\n\nImaginez pouvoir faire rouler votre moteur diesel tout en consommant moins de carburant, simplement grâce à un aimant ! C'est ce que révèle une étude présentée lors d'une conférence scientifique internationale sur le génie industriel et la fabrication. Des tests menés sur un moteur diesel de type Yanmar NF-19SK ont montré une diminution impressionnante de la **consommation de carburant** : entre 13 et 14 % en moins, et ce, dans des conditions de charge normales, grâce à l'utilisation d'un **magnétiseur**.\n\n---\n\n### **Le Problème de la Combustion Incomplète**\n\nPour bien comprendre l'intérêt de cette découverte, il faut d'abord savoir ce qui se passe habituellement dans le réservoir et le moteur. Le **carburant** diesel est principalement composé de **molécules d'hydrocarbures**. Naturellement, ces molécules ont tendance à s'attirer les unes les autres et à former des **amas** ou des « bouquets » lorsqu'elles sont stockées dans le réservoir.\n\nLorsque le carburant arrive dans la **chambre de combustion** du moteur, ces amas ne se séparent pas assez vite pour bien réagir avec l'**oxygène**. Le résultat ? Une **combustion** imparfaite, ce qui signifie que tout le carburant ne brûle pas. On retrouve alors des **hydrocarbures non brûlés (HC)** dans les **gaz d'échappement**, ce qui pollue davantage et gaspille de l'énergie.\n\n---\n\n### **Comment le Magnétisme Agit sur le Carburant**\n\nC'est là qu'intervient le **champ magnétique**. Lorsque le carburant passe à travers un aimant suffisamment puissant (un **magnétiseur**) placé sur la conduite de carburant, il se produit un phénomène intéressant. Les **molécules d'hydrocarbures**, qui sont sensibles au magnétisme (on les dit « diamagnétiques »), sont affectées par ce champ.\n\nAu lieu de s'agglomérer en amas, elles sont repoussées les unes des autres, créant une distance « optimale » entre elles. On parle alors d'**aimantation** du carburant. De plus, les particules atomiques qui composent ces molécules s'alignent sous l'influence de l'aimant. C'est comme si le carburant était « préparé » pour mieux brûler.\n\n---\n\n### **Les Bénéfices : Combustion Complète et Économies**\n\nCette nouvelle disposition rend le carburant beaucoup plus accessible à l'**oxygène**. Dans la **chambre de combustion**, l'interaction entre les **molécules d'hydrocarbures** et l'**oxygène** est grandement améliorée. Le carburant brûle alors de manière plus complète et plus « naturelle », on parle de **combustion complète**.\n\nCela a deux conséquences majeures : d'une part, moins d'**hydrocarbures non brûlés** sont rejetés dans les gaz d'échappement, ce qui est bénéfique pour l'environnement. D'autre part, une meilleure utilisation du carburant se traduit par des **économies de carburant** significatives, comme l'ont montré les tests.\n\n---\n\n### **Impact sur la Performance du Moteur**\n\nAu-delà de la simple économie, une meilleure combustion a des effets positifs sur la **performance du moteur**. Les scientifiques évaluent cela en regardant des paramètres clés comme la **puissance** que le moteur peut produire, sa **consommation spécifique de carburant** (combien de carburant est utilisé pour produire une certaine puissance) et son **rendement thermique** (à quel point il utilise l'énergie du carburant efficacement). Une combustion plus complète contribue à améliorer l'ensemble de ces aspects, rendant le moteur plus efficient.\n\n---\n\n### **En Résumé**\n\nEn somme, l'utilisation de l'**aimantation** pour optimiser le carburant représente une piste très prometteuse pour rendre les moteurs diesel plus efficaces, moins gourmands et moins polluants. Une technologie simple avec un impact potentiellement important pour l'avenir de nos transports !"}, "page_4": {"en_base": "1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: Materials Science and Engineering 505 ( 2019) 012051 Materials Science and Engineering 505 ( 2019) 012051 Materials Science and Engineering 505 ( 2019) 012051 IOP Publishing doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 3 puissance de l\\'indicateur. La puissance de l\\'arbre ou de la puissance effective est la puissance produite par le moteur sur l\\'arbre de sortie qui calculé par l\\'équation: kW 60000 τ . N . 2π W . = (1) Le paramètre N est la vitesse du moteur (rpm), et • est le couple (Nm). Le paramètre N est la vitesse du moteur (rpm), et • est le couple (Nm). Le paramètre N est la vitesse du moteur (rpm), et • est le couple (Nm). La consommation spécifique de carburant (SFC) est la quantité de carburant utilisée par le moteur par unité de puissance pour chaque heure de fonctionnement. On peut dire que la consommation de carburant spécifique est une indication de l\\'efficacité du moteur pour produire de l\\'énergie provenant de la combustion de carburant. La valeur SFC peut être déterminée à partir de: g / kWh 3600000 . W m Sfc . F . = (2) Où . F m est le taux d\\'écoulement de carburant (kg / s). m est le taux d\\'écoulement de carburant (kg / s). L\\'efficacité de la thermique du moteur à combustion interne est le rapport entre l\\'énergie émise et l\\'énergie de combustion de carburant followss: c HV f . . t η . Q . m W η = (3) Le paramètre Q HV est la valeur calorifique (kJ / kg), et • c est le rendement de la combustion qui la valeur de 0,97. Le paramètre Q HV est la valeur calorifique (kJ / kg), et • c est le rendement de la combustion qui la valeur de 0,97. Le paramètre Q HV est la valeur calorifique (kJ / kg), et • c est le rendement de la combustion qui la valeur de 0,97. Le paramètre Q HV est la valeur calorifique (kJ / kg), et • c est le rendement de la combustion qui la valeur de 0,97. Le paramètre Q HV est la valeur calorifique (kJ / kg), et • c est le rendement de la combustion qui la valeur de 0,97. Le paramètre Q HV est la valeur calorifique (kJ / kg), et • c est le rendement de la combustion qui la valeur de 0,97. 3. Méthodologie 3.1. Matériaux Les tests sont effectués en utilisant du carburant pertalite. L\\'équipement de bord qui a ajouté entre le collecteur d\\'admission et la chambre de combustion est un instrument magnétique de 2500 gauss. La spécification principale du dispositif magnétique est le modèle de production d\\'Indonésie FT-15, a une force magnétique de 2500 gauss à une distance polaire de 0,75 cm et une dimension de 50 mm x 20 mm. L\\'instrument de mesure utilisé est l\\'analyseur des émissions (précision • 90-98%). La bombe calorimétrique est utilisée pour connaître la valeur L\\'instrument de mesure utilisé est l\\'analyseur des émissions (précision • 90-98%). La bombe calorimétrique est utilisée pour connaître la valeur L\\'instrument de mesure utilisé est l\\'analyseur des émissions (précision • 90-98%). La bombe calorimétrique est utilisée pour connaître la valeur calorifique du combustible. L\\'équipement de mesure de couple est utilisé pour mesurer le couple du moteur. (une) (B) Figure 2. a) calorimètre Figure 2. a) calorimètre b) un analyseur d\\'émission", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici une traduction et une vulgarisation du texte scientifique, adaptée à un niveau lycéen, avec des paragraphes aérés et les concepts clés en gras.\n\n---\n\nCe texte est extrait d'une publication scientifique issue de la 1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et la fabrication. Il aborde des mesures importantes pour comprendre et évaluer la performance des moteurs, ainsi que la méthodologie utilisée pour des tests spécifiques.\n\n### La Puissance d'un Moteur\n\nLorsqu'on parle de la puissance d'un moteur, on s'intéresse souvent à la **puissance effective**, c'est-à-dire l'énergie réelle que le moteur est capable de fournir à l'extérieur. C'est la puissance mesurée sur l'**arbre de sortie**, la pièce qui tourne et transmet le mouvement, par exemple aux roues d'une voiture.\n\nPour calculer cette puissance, les ingénieurs utilisent une formule qui prend en compte deux éléments principaux :\n* Le **couple (τ)** : C'est la force de rotation que le moteur peut exercer, exprimée en Newton-mètres (Nm). Imaginez la \"force de torsion\" du moteur.\n* La **vitesse du moteur (N)** : Il s'agit de la vitesse à laquelle l'arbre moteur tourne, mesurée en tours par minute (rpm).\n\nEn combinant ces deux valeurs, on obtient la puissance en kilowatts (kW), qui est l'unité de mesure de la puissance.\n\n### La Consommation Spécifique de Carburant (CSC)\n\nLa **Consommation Spécifique de Carburant (CSC)**, souvent abrégée SFC en anglais, est une mesure très utile pour évaluer l'**efficacité énergétique** d'un moteur. Elle indique la quantité de carburant qu'un moteur consomme pour produire une certaine quantité d'énergie pendant un certain temps. En d'autres termes, elle nous dit à quel point le moteur est \"gourmand\" en carburant par rapport à l'énergie qu'il produit.\n\nUne valeur de CSC plus basse signifie que le moteur est plus efficace : il a besoin de moins de carburant pour générer la même puissance. Cette valeur est généralement exprimée en grammes par kilowatt-heure (g/kWh), ce qui représente combien de grammes de carburant sont nécessaires pour produire un kilowatt d'énergie pendant une heure. Pour la calculer, on utilise le **débit de carburant (m_F)**, c'est-à-dire la quantité de carburant qui est fournie au moteur chaque seconde.\n\n### Le Rendement Thermique du Moteur\n\nLe **rendement thermique** d'un moteur à combustion interne (comme ceux de nos voitures) est un concept crucial. Il représente la part de l'énergie contenue dans le carburant qui est réellement transformée en **énergie mécanique utile** par le moteur. Malheureusement, toute l'énergie du carburant n'est pas convertie en mouvement : une partie est perdue sous forme de chaleur ou dans les gaz d'échappement.\n\nCe rendement est un rapport entre l'énergie utile que le moteur produit et l'énergie totale libérée par la combustion du carburant. Pour le calculer, on a besoin de :\n* La **valeur calorifique (Q_HV)** du carburant : C'est la quantité d'énergie que dégage un kilogramme de carburant lorsqu'il brûle complètement.\n* Le **rendement de la combustion (η_c)** : Cette valeur, proche de 0,97 (soit 97%), indique à quel point la combustion est complète et efficace à l'intérieur du moteur.\n\n### Méthodologie des Tests\n\nPour tester les performances des moteurs, des expériences spécifiques sont mises en place.\n\n#### Matériaux et Équipements\n\nLes tests mentionnés ici ont été réalisés avec un type de carburant appelé **Pertalite**.\nPour les expériences, un **appareil magnétique** de 2500 gauss a été ajouté au moteur. Cet appareil, un modèle FT-15 d'Indonésie (de dimensions 50 mm x 20 mm et une force magnétique de 2500 gauss à 0,75 cm de distance), était installé entre le collecteur d'admission (là où l'air entre) et la chambre de combustion (là où le mélange air-carburant brûle).\n\nPlusieurs instruments de mesure ont été utilisés :\n* Un **analyseur d'émissions** : Cet appareil, avec une précision de 90 à 98%, sert à mesurer les gaz polluants rejetés par le moteur afin d'évaluer son impact environnemental.\n* Une **bombe calorimétrique** : C'est un appareil de laboratoire qui permet de déterminer avec précision la **valeur calorifique** du carburant, c'est-à-dire la quantité d'énergie qu'il contient.\n* Un **équipement de mesure de couple** : Comme son nom l'indique, il est utilisé pour mesurer la force de rotation (le couple) produite par le moteur.\n\nCes instruments sont essentiels pour obtenir des données précises sur la puissance, l'efficacité et les émissions du moteur étudié."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "National energy data note that Indonesia fossil energy potential consisting of petroleum, natural gas and coal can only last for 10 years, 31 years and 80 years from now if no new fossil energy reserves are found. It is necessary to save energy to anticipate these conditions. One of the efforts that have been done is saving the consumption of fuel oil that is used in the internal combustion engine. This research aims to increase the performance by reducing fuel consumption and exhaust emissions by using magnetic devices. The equipment of magnetic is placed on the intake manifold which is varied 10 cm, 20 cm, and 30 cm from the combustion chamber to determine the effect of installing a magnetic field on the performance of the Otto engine. Gas emission analyzer is placed on the exhaust gas section. Besides that, there were also variations in engine speed consisting of 2000 rpm, 2500 rpm, 3000 rpm, 3500 rpm, and 4000 rpm. Experimental data show that there is an increase in power and thermal efficiency and a decrease in specific fuel consumption when the engine uses magnetic devices ranging from 5.99-22.02%. The exhaust gas emissions produced by Otto engine also decreased for CO and HC thereabouts 6-20%."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Réduction de 22% de la consommation de carburant."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "The main problem faced by our fishermen today is fuel price which is more expensive and difficult to reach while the supply is not stable and even is scarce in some places. Generally, fishermen use a diesel engine as prime mover of the ships. Besides, the diesel engine is also widely used for the other purposes such as: transportation (ships, trucks and buses), an electric power plant of generator and others. Diesel engine is one types of internal combustion engines that is the most widely used in various areas and purposes because this engine has high efficiency, durability, and reability. The use of diesel engines and generally of combustion engines also has a weakness that is a very low efficiency level (26-30%) and uses fossil fuel that produces exhaust emissions and causes global oil reserves dwindle. This study aims to find solutions to help solve those problems namely saving specific fuel consumption (SFC) and reducing the rate of exhaust emissions. The variable research is the temperature (30oC, 40oC and 50oC), the magnetic flux (0.1 Tesla, 0.2 Tesla, 0.3 Tesla and 0.4 Tesla) and fuel (diesel fuel and B30 CPO Parit). Performance test is conducted at 900, 1100 and 1300 rpm by using the engine test bed at merk Petter diesel engine 3.5 HP single cylinders. While the exhaust emission test (opacity) uses opacitymeter and gas analyzer, which is tested in a diesel engine merk Toyota four cylinders with maximum engine rotation. The results of this study indicates that the acquisition of torque (4.214 Nm), power (0.397 kW; 0.485 kW; and 0.573 kW) and bmep (241,701 kPa). \r\nSaving of the highest SFC to 900 rpm engine speed is 8.25% (magnetic flux 0.1, tesla vs 50oC), 1100 rpm is 22.35% (magnetic flux 0.3 Tesla vs 50oC); and 1300 rpm is 20.21% (magnetic flux 0.4 tesla vs 50oC). Then the rate of exhaust emission of opacity without equipments is 18 % for diesel fuel and 31,2 % for B30 CPO Parit. When we uses equipments make reducing of exhaust emission of opacity is 11,2 % (efficiency 37,8 %) at 0,4 Tesla vs 50oC for diesel fuel and 20,8 % (efficiency 33,3 %) at 0,3 Tesla vs 50oC for B30 CPO Parit. With this research, the writer can conclude that heater and magnet are proved to provide a positive influence on fuel economy and are recommended to be disseminated and applied to the use of diesel engines.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "page_2": {"en_base": "Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.11, 2014 Effect of the Magnetic Field on the Fuel Consumption of a Spark Ignition Engine 2761 INTRODUCTION oday’s hydrocarbon fuels leave a natural deposit of carbon residue that clogs carburetor and fuel injector, leading to a reduction in efficiency and wasted fuel. Pinging, stalling, loss of horsepower and greatly decreased mileage on cars are very noticeable [1 & 2]. For many years, researchers tried to design a combustion system that has low air pollution through completely hydrocarbon combustion. Various techniques such as air-fuel mixing, ignition, temperature controlling combustion chamber and catalyst have been developed. All the previous methods are not able to completely resolve the problems yet. Low efficiency of combustion heat, unburned fuel and air pollution and soot are still problem now [3]. One of the techniques that lead to increased efficiency and reduced emission is \\\"magnetization of the hydrocarbon fuel molecules\\\"[4]. This is achieved by exposing the fuel to a permanent magnetic field . The concept of exposing fuel molecules to magnetic field dates back to J.D Van-der Waals and his experiments in the field in 1873 [5]. It is well known that hydrocarbon have long branched geometric chains of carbon atom, which have tendency to fold over unto themselves and on adjoining molecules due to intermolecular electromagnetic attraction existing between them [6]. Fuel molecules have tendency to interlock with other compounds temporally forming pseudo compounds, subjecting these pseudo compound to magnetic field of appropriate strength and direction tends to un-cluster the molecular grouping resulting in a reduction of fluid viscosity at the macroscopic levels, hence proper mixing, and the reduction in the delay period of combustion ensues [7]. Van der Waals applied a magnetic field to fuel molecules and found out that the viscosity of the fuel decreases with the application of the field and consequently an increase in the flow rate of the fuel. This is because all substances according to faraday are affected by a magnetic field though; in most cases, this influence may be insignificant. Fuel molecules subjected to external magnetic field, are usually excited, which in turn causes mole reorientation in order to accommodate the applied external magnetic field [8]. The above phenomenon is attributed to the fact that on the molecular level, a spinning electron subjected to precise amount of electromagnetic energy absorbs that energy and spin-flip into an aligned state [9]. Methodology The effect of the magnetic field on Iraqi gasoline fuel was used in the engine and its impact on the amount of consumption, the appropriate method is examined. We include below the description of the materials and equipment used. Magnetic devices Two types of Magnetic devices with intensity of (1000) Gauss are showed in Fig (1) used in this research. Both are manufactured in the U.S.A. Accepted Laboratory Tested EPA. The fuel is subjected to the lines of forces from permanent magnets mounted on fuel inlet lines. The magnet for producing the magnetic field is oriented so that its (South Pole) is located adjacent the fuel line, and its (North Pole) is located spaced apart from the fuel line. Applying a magnetic field to ionizing fuel to be fed to combustion devices, one can ensure more complete combustion, obtaining a maximization of the fuel economy, improving the fuel efficiency and reducing polluting emissions. T", "fr_vulgarise": "Absolument ! Voici une traduction vulgarisée du texte, adaptée à un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\n**Titre :** **Effet du champ magnétique sur la consommation de carburant d'un moteur à essence**\n*(Tiré du Journal \"Eng. & Tech. Journal\", Vol.32, Partie (A), No.11, 2014, page 2761)*\n\n---\n\n**INTRODUCTION**\n\nAujourd'hui, les carburants comme l'essence laissent des dépôts de carbone naturels. Ces résidus finissent par encrasser le moteur, notamment le carburateur et les injecteurs, ce qui réduit son efficacité et entraîne un gaspillage de carburant. Les signes sont souvent très visibles : le moteur peut \"cogner\", caler, perdre de la puissance, et la voiture consomme beaucoup plus [1 & 2].\n\nDepuis de nombreuses années, les chercheurs essaient de créer des systèmes de combustion qui polluent moins en brûlant le carburant plus complètement. Pour cela, ils ont développé diverses techniques : améliorer le mélange air-carburant, optimiser l'allumage, contrôler la température dans la chambre de combustion, ou encore utiliser des catalyseurs. Cependant, toutes ces méthodes n'ont pas encore réussi à résoudre entièrement les problèmes. On constate toujours une faible utilisation de l'énergie thermique du carburant, du carburant non brûlé, de la pollution de l'air et de la suie [3].\n\nUne des techniques prometteuses pour augmenter l'efficacité et réduire la pollution est la \"magnétisation des molécules de carburant\". Cette méthode consiste simplement à exposer le carburant à un champ magnétique permanent (comme celui d'un aimant puissant) [4].\n\nL'idée de soumettre les molécules de carburant à un champ magnétique n'est pas nouvelle, elle remonte aux expériences de J.D Van-der Waals en 1873 [5]. On sait que les molécules d'hydrocarbures (qui composent l'essence) sont de longues chaînes d'atomes de carbone. Ces chaînes ont une tendance naturelle à se replier sur elles-mêmes et à s'agglutiner avec les molécules voisines à cause de forces d'attraction électromagnétiques [6]. Elles peuvent même se lier temporairement avec d'autres composés pour former des \"groupements\" ou des \"amas\".\n\nQuand on applique un champ magnétique d'une force et d'une direction appropriées à ces groupements, il a tendance à les \"casser\", à les séparer. Cela a pour effet de rendre le carburant moins visqueux (plus fluide) à l'échelle macroscopique, ce qui permet un meilleur mélange avec l'air et réduit le temps de démarrage de la combustion [7]. Van der Waals avait déjà observé que la viscosité du carburant diminuait avec l'application d'un champ magnétique, augmentant ainsi son débit.\n\nCela s'explique par le fait que, selon le scientifique Faraday, toutes les substances sont affectées par un champ magnétique, même si, dans la plupart des cas, cette influence est insignifiante. Les molécules de carburant soumises à un champ magnétique externe sont \"excitées\", ce qui les amène à se réorienter pour s'aligner avec ce champ [8]. Au niveau moléculaire, ce phénomène est attribué au fait que les électrons (qui tournent sur eux-mêmes) peuvent absorber une petite quantité d'énergie électromagnétique provenant du champ et changer leur orientation pour s'aligner [9].\n\n**Méthodologie**\n\nDans cette recherche, nous avons étudié l'effet d'un champ magnétique sur de l'essence irakienne utilisée dans un moteur, et son impact sur la quantité de carburant consommée. Nous décrivons ci-dessous les matériaux et équipements utilisés.\n\n**Dispositifs magnétiques**\n\nNous avons utilisé deux types de dispositifs magnétiques, chacun ayant une intensité de 1000 Gauss (une unité qui mesure la force du champ magnétique). Ces appareils, fabriqués aux États-Unis et testés en laboratoire selon les normes de l'EPA (l'Agence américaine de protection de l'environnement), sont montrés dans la Figure 1 (non incluse ici).\n\nLe carburant est exposé aux lignes de force de ces aimants permanents, qui sont montés sur les conduites d'arrivée du carburant. L'aimant est orienté de manière à ce que son pôle Sud soit situé juste à côté de la conduite de carburant, et son pôle Nord légèrement éloigné de celle-ci.\n\nEn appliquant un champ magnétique au carburant avant qu'il ne soit introduit dans le moteur, on espère obtenir une combustion plus complète, maximiser l'économie de carburant, améliorer l'efficacité du moteur et réduire les émissions polluantes."}, "page_3": {"en_base": "Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.11, 2014 Effect of the Magnetic Field on the Fuel Consumption of a Spark Ignition Engine 2762 Engine The experimental work was performed in the internal combustion engine laboratory of the machines and equipment engineering department – university of technology. The engine used in the experimental work is spark ignition engine (SI engine) Mercedes-Benz (200) , 4-stroke, 4 cylinders. The displacement volume for this engine is 2 liters. The engine was coupled to a hydraulic dynamometer to measure the brake torque. Figure (2) shows the experimental rig of the engine. Measuring parameters The following engine parameters are measured: brake torque (using hydraulic dynamometer), air consumption (using induction air system consists of air box, orifice and the manometer), fuel consumption (using glass tube and stop watch) and engine speed (using tachometer). Measurement of brake torque The hydraulic dynamometer, type [isi lingegneria didattica] was used to measure the brake torque of the engine by using friction fluid. Water was used as the friction fluid. Figure (2). S.I. engine experimental rig Fig ure (1) . The Magnetic devices used in recent study", "fr_vulgarise": "Absolument ! Voici le texte scientifique vulgarisé en français pour un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\n**Titre de l'étude (tirée d'une revue scientifique de 2014) :**\n**L'effet d'un champ magnétique sur la consommation de carburant d'un moteur à essence.**\n\n*Source : Eng. & Tech. Journal, Vol.32, Part (A), No.11, 2014, pages 2762 et suivantes.*\n\n---\n\n**Le Moteur Testé**\n\nCes expériences ont été réalisées dans un laboratoire spécialisé en moteurs, au sein du département d'ingénierie mécanique d'une université technologique.\n\nLe moteur utilisé pour l'étude était un **moteur à essence** (appelé aussi \"moteur à allumage commandé\" ou SI engine en anglais), de marque **Mercedes-Benz (modèle 200)**. C'est un moteur classique \"4 temps\" avec 4 cylindres. Sa \"cylindrée\" – c'est-à-dire le volume total déplacé par les pistons dans les cylindres – est de **2 litres**.\n\nPour pouvoir tester le moteur dans différentes conditions, il était **relié à un banc d'essai spécial appelé dynamomètre hydraulique**. Cet appareil permet de simuler une \"charge\" (comme la résistance de la route quand la voiture roule) et de mesurer précisément le **couple moteur** (la force de rotation que le moteur est capable de produire). Une photo de cette installation (appelée \"montage expérimental\") était présentée dans la Figure 2 du document original.\n\n**Les Mesures Effectuées**\n\nPour comprendre comment le moteur se comportait, les chercheurs ont mesuré plusieurs paramètres importants :\n\n* **Le couple moteur** : Mesuré grâce au dynamomètre hydraulique, comme expliqué plus haut.\n* **La consommation d'air** : Pour savoir combien d'air le moteur aspirait, les chercheurs utilisaient un système composé d'une boîte à air, d'un \"orifice\" (un trou de taille précise) et d'un manomètre (un instrument qui mesure la pression).\n* **La consommation de carburant** : Pour être très précis, ils utilisaient un tube en verre gradué et un chronomètre pour mesurer exactement la quantité d'essence consommée sur une durée donnée.\n* **La vitesse de rotation du moteur (le régime moteur)** : Mesurée avec un tachymètre, un appareil qui indique le nombre de tours par minute du moteur.\n\n**Détails sur la Mesure du Couple Moteur**\n\nLe dynamomètre hydraulique utilisé (de type [isi lingegneria didattica]) mesure le couple moteur en utilisant un \"fluide de friction\". Pour cette étude, c'est de l'**eau** qui servait de fluide de friction, créant une résistance contrôlée pour \"freiner\" le moteur et ainsi évaluer sa force.\n\nLe texte mentionne également qu'une Figure 1 montrait les \"dispositifs magnétiques\" (probablement des aimants) qui étaient au cœur de l'étude sur l'effet du champ magnétique.\n\n---"}, "page_4": {"en_base": "Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.11, 2014 Effect of the Magnetic Field on the Fuel Consumption of a Spark Ignition Engine 2763 Air consumption The air supplied to the SI engine was measured by using used to measure the pressure differential between the atmosphere and pressure in the air box. See figure (4). Fuel consumption The glass tube was used to measure the fuel consumption of the SI engine. This glass tube has a constant volume (100) ml, and a stop watch was used to measure the fuel consumption of this volume. See figure (5). Figure (3). T the hydraulic dynamometer. Figure (4). T he air box construction [5].", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici une version traduite et vulgarisée pour un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\n**Titre de l'étude (Journal d'ingénierie et de technologie, 2014) :**\n**L'effet d'un champ magnétique sur la consommation de carburant d'un moteur à essence**\n\nCe texte, extrait d'une publication scientifique de 2014, explique comment des chercheurs ont mesuré l'air et le carburant consommés par un moteur à essence (un \"moteur à allumage commandé\"), dans le cadre d'une étude sur l'effet d'un champ magnétique sur cette consommation.\n\n---\n\n**Mesure de la consommation d'air**\n\nPour savoir combien d'air le moteur à essence aspirait, les scientifiques ont mesuré la **différence de pression** entre l'extérieur (l'atmosphère) et l'intérieur d'une sorte de réservoir appelé \"boîte à air\". C'est cette différence de pression qui leur a permis de calculer le volume d'air consommé. (On peut le voir sur la **figure 4**).\n\n---\n\n**Mesure de la consommation de carburant (essence)**\n\nQuant à la consommation d'essence, elle était mesurée de manière simple : un **tube en verre gradué**, d'un volume connu et constant (ici, 100 ml), était utilisé. Les chercheurs se servaient d'un **chronomètre** pour enregistrer le temps exact que mettait le moteur à vider ces 100 ml de carburant. Cela leur permettait de calculer le débit de consommation. (Ce système est illustré sur la **figure 5**).\n\n---\n\n**Figures mentionnées :**\n\n* **Figure 3 :** Représente le **dynamomètre hydraulique**, un appareil utilisé pour mesurer la puissance développée par le moteur.\n* **Figure 4 :** Détaille la construction de la **boîte à air** (qui sert à mesurer l'air aspiré, comme mentionné plus haut).\n\n---\n\n**En résumé pour un lycéen :**\n\nCette étude voulait voir si un champ magnétique pouvait changer la quantité d'essence utilisée par un moteur de voiture. Pour cela, les chercheurs devaient mesurer précisément :\n\n1. **L'air que le moteur aspirait :** Ils ont comparé la pression de l'air ambiant avec celle à l'intérieur d'une boîte spéciale connectée au moteur. La différence leur donnait la quantité d'air.\n2. **L'essence consommée :** Ils utilisaient un tube en verre de 100 ml et un chronomètre. Ils mesuraient combien de temps le moteur mettait pour vider ce tube. Plus le temps est court, plus le moteur consomme vite !\n\nLes figures 3, 4 et 5 montrent les différents appareils utilisés pour ces mesures."}, "page_5": {"en_base": "Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.11, 2014 Effect of the Magnetic Field on the Fuel Consumption of a Spark Ignition Engine 2764 Measurement of engine speed The measuring of the engine speed of spark ignition engine was carried out by using analogue tachometer type (VDO). See figure (6). . Calibration To ensure that all the data read from the measuring devices are correct, a calibration was done to all measuring devices. The calibration of each device was carried out by comparing its readings with the readings of a calibrated device at the same conditions weather load or engine speed. Tachometer The linear method was used to calibrate the speed measuring instrument. A measured speed by a tachometer type (VDO) setup in the t he experimental rig was compared by a diagrammatic speed that was obtained from another tachometer type (gas analyzer) which can also be used for measuring the engine speed by attaching an inductive clip-on pickup to a spark plug cable. The results were compared and plotted, as shown in figure (7). Hydraulic Dynamometer Brake power that resulting from the hydraulic dynamometer is calibrating by compare it with the electric power that resulting from an Electric generator installed in experimental rig. Figure (5 ). T he measurement of Fuel Consumption of the engine [3]. Figure (6) . Tachometer type (VDO).", "fr_vulgarise": "Absolument ! Voici une version vulgarisée et expliquée, adaptée à un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\n**Titre de l'article :** Effet d'un champ magnétique sur la consommation de carburant d'un moteur à essence\n*(Extrait d'un article scientifique paru dans le \"Eng. & Tech. Journal\", volume 32, partie A, numéro 11, en 2014)*\n\n---\n\n### **2764. Comment on a mesuré la vitesse du moteur**\n\nPour savoir à quelle vitesse le moteur – un **moteur à essence** (appelé aussi \"moteur à allumage commandé\", comme ceux des voitures) – tournait pendant l'expérience, les chercheurs ont utilisé un instrument appelé un **tachymètre analogique** de marque VDO. C'est un peu comme le compte-tours que l'on voit sur le tableau de bord d'une voiture, mais conçu pour être plus précis dans un cadre expérimental.\n*(On peut voir à quoi il ressemble sur la Figure 6 de l'article original.)*\n\n### **L'Étape Cruciale : L'Étalonnage (Vérifier les instruments !)**\n\nAvant de faire les vraies mesures, il est absolument essentiel de s'assurer que tous les appareils utilisés donnent des résultats fiables et corrects. C'est ce qu'on appelle l'**étalonnage**.\n\n**Pourquoi étalonner ?** Imagine que tu utilises une règle dont les centimètres sont un peu décalés. Tes mesures seraient toutes fausses ! L'étalonnage, c'est comme vérifier que ta règle mesure bien 1 cm quand elle doit mesurer 1 cm.\n\n**Comment on a fait ?** Pour étalonner chaque appareil de mesure (par exemple, le tachymètre, le dynamomètre...), les scientifiques ont comparé les valeurs qu'il indiquait avec les valeurs d'un appareil de référence, dont la précision est déjà garantie. Ils ont fait cette comparaison dans les mêmes conditions d'essai (par exemple, à la même \"charge\" sur le moteur ou à la même vitesse de rotation).\n\n#### **1. L'étalonnage du tachymètre (le compte-tours)**\n\nPour le tachymètre VDO qui mesurait la vitesse du moteur sur le banc d'essai, ils ont utilisé une méthode d'étalonnage dite \"linéaire\".\n\nConcrètement, ils ont comparé la vitesse que leur tachymètre VDO indiquait avec une vitesse de référence. Cette vitesse de référence était obtenue grâce à un autre type de tachymètre, intégré à un **analyseur de gaz**. Cet analyseur peut aussi mesurer la vitesse du moteur en attachant une petite pince spéciale (un \"capteur inductif\") au câble de la bougie d'allumage. Cette pince détecte les impulsions électriques des bougies, ce qui permet de calculer la vitesse de rotation.\n\nLes résultats de cette comparaison ont été soigneusement notés et représentés sur un graphique.\n*(Ce graphique d'étalonnage est montré sur la Figure 7 de l'article original.)*\n\n#### **2. L'étalonnage du Dynamomètre Hydraulique (pour la puissance)**\n\nUn **dynamomètre hydraulique** est un appareil qui sert à mesurer la puissance réelle développée par le moteur. On parle de \"puissance au frein\".\n\nPour s'assurer que ce dynamomètre mesurait bien la puissance, les chercheurs l'ont étalonné de la manière suivante : ils ont comparé la puissance qu'il indiquait avec la puissance électrique produite par un **générateur électrique** (c'est un peu comme un alternateur de voiture, mais plus gros) qui était aussi installé sur le banc d'essai. Si le dynamomètre et le générateur donnaient des puissances cohérentes pour une même sollicitation du moteur, alors l'appareil était bien étalonné.\n\n*(La Figure 5 de l'article original montre probablement la configuration de la mesure de la consommation de carburant, ou l'installation du dynamomètre avec le générateur électrique.)*\n\n---\n\n**En résumé pour un lycéen :**\n\nCet extrait d'article explique comment les scientifiques se sont assurés que leurs mesures étaient précises et fiables avant de commencer leur expérience sur l'effet d'un champ magnétique sur la consommation d'un moteur. Ils ont utilisé des instruments spécifiques (tachymètre, dynamomètre) et ont dû les \"vérifier\" (les étalonner) en comparant leurs indications avec des appareils de référence déjà connus pour être exacts. C'est une étape fondamentale dans toute expérience scientifique !"}, "page_6": {"en_base": "Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.11, 2014 Effect of the Magnetic Field on the Fuel Consumption of a Spark Ignition Engine 2765 The following equations were used in calculating engine performance parameters: The brake specific fuel consumption [10]: Bsfc = m ̇ f Bp × 3600 kg kW . hr ... (1) Air Consumption ( 𝐦 ̇ 𝐚 , 𝐚𝐜𝐭 . ) [Device-specific equation] m ̇ a , act . = 5�h o 3600 × ρ air (kg /Sec) ...... (2) Fuel mass flow rate ( 𝐦 ̇ 𝐟 ) [10]: m ̇ f = V F ∗ time × ρ F (kg/sec) .... (3) * V F = volume of fuel consumption. Experimental procedure: The following steps were done to implement the experimental work: 1. Preparing the engine and the measurement devices to read the data for natural case and by using magnets for (1300, 1500, 1700, 1900 and 2100) rpm. . 2. Measuring engine speed, brake torque, the pressure differential between the atmosphere and pressure inside the air box, and time of fuel consumed for volume of (100) ml, with and without using magnetic field. Figure (8) represent the engine used in the implementation of the experiments with applying magnets. 800 1200 1600 2000 Speed (rpm) from tachometer type (VDO) 800 1200 1600 2000 Speed (rpm) from Gas Analyzer Figure (7). the tachometer calibration.", "fr_vulgarise": "Absolument ! Voici le texte vulgarisé pour un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\n**Eng. & Tech. Journal, Vol.32, Part (A), No.11, 2014, page 2765**\n\n### **L'impact des champs magnétiques sur la consommation d'essence d'un moteur**\n\nCette étude s'intéresse à une question intéressante : est-ce que des aimants peuvent aider un moteur à essence à moins consommer de carburant ?\n\n---\n\n**Comment les chercheurs ont mesuré les performances du moteur :**\n\nPour savoir si les aimants avaient un effet, les chercheurs ont dû mesurer plusieurs choses importantes. Voici les principales :\n\n1. **La consommation spécifique de carburant (Bsfc) :**\n * C'est une mesure de l'efficacité du moteur. Elle indique **quelle quantité de carburant (en kilogrammes) est consommée pour produire une certaine puissance (en kilowatt) pendant une heure.**\n * En clair : plus ce chiffre est bas, plus le moteur est économe en essence pour la puissance qu'il fournit.\n * *Formule simplifiée :* `Bsfc = (quantité de carburant consommée par seconde) / (puissance produite par le moteur) × 3600`\n\n2. **La quantité d'air aspiré par le moteur :**\n * Un moteur a besoin d'air et de carburant pour fonctionner. Ils ont donc mesuré précisément **la masse d'air que le moteur aspirait par seconde.**\n\n3. **Le débit de carburant :**\n * Ils ont aussi mesuré la **masse de carburant (en kilogrammes) qui arrive au moteur par seconde.**\n * Pour cela, ils ont mesuré le temps que le moteur mettait à consommer un volume très précis de carburant (par exemple, 100 ml).\n * *Formule simplifiée :* `Débit de carburant = (volume de carburant consommé) / (temps pris) × (densité du carburant)`\n\n---\n\n**Comment l'expérience a été menée :**\n\nPour voir l'effet des aimants, les chercheurs ont suivi les étapes suivantes :\n\n1. **Préparation :**\n * Ils ont d'abord préparé un moteur à essence et tous les instruments pour mesurer les données.\n * Ils ont fait des tests dans deux situations :\n * Une première fois, **sans aucun aimant** (c'est le \"cas naturel\" ou de référence).\n * Une deuxième fois, **en installant des aimants** sur le moteur.\n * Ces tests ont été réalisés à **différentes vitesses de rotation du moteur** (appelées \"régimes moteur\"), allant de 1300 à 2100 tours par minute (rpm).\n\n2. **Les mesures pendant l'expérience :**\n * Pendant que le moteur tournait (avec ou sans aimants), ils ont enregistré plusieurs données :\n * **La vitesse de rotation du moteur** (en tours par minute, mesurée avec un appareil appelé tachymètre).\n * **Le couple du moteur** (c'est la force de rotation qu'il peut exercer, très liée à sa puissance).\n * **La différence de pression** entre l'air ambiant et l'air à l'intérieur de la boîte à air du moteur (cela aide à calculer l'air aspiré).\n * **Le temps qu'il a fallu au moteur pour consommer exactement 100 millilitres de carburant.** C'est une donnée cruciale pour savoir s'il consomme plus ou moins vite.\n\n---\n\n* **La Figure 8** (non montrée ici) représente le moteur utilisé pour l'expérience, avec les aimants installés.\n* **La Figure 7** (non montrée ici) illustre la façon dont ils ont vérifié la précision de leur tachymètre (l'appareil qui mesure la vitesse de rotation du moteur). Ils l'ont \"étalonné\" en comparant ses mesures avec celles d'un autre instrument."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on an SI engine with a 2000 Gauss magnetic coil. Results: SFC reduction of 21.30%, BTE increase of 7.60%, emission reductions of CO (90.00%) and HC (58.00%).", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 2000 Gauss a permis une réduction significative de la consommation (21,3%) et de la pollution (CO 90%, HC 58%)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF MAGNETIC FUEL TREATMENT ON SI ENGINE PERFORMANCE Ahmed A. Abdel-Rehim*, Ramadan Abdel-Aziz*, Khairy H. El-Nagar* Hamdy H. Maarouf** * Shoubra Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, Cairo, Egypt ** PetroJet, Cairo, Egypt ABSTRACT The pressure imposed on science and scientists to attack all possible (and may be impossible) methods to achieve higher fuel and engine efficiency is well known. Not only driven by the extremely dangerous environmental situation (global warming and pollution), but also by other factors like fluctuating oil prices and depletion of fossil fuel resources. Due to these factors, research is going everywhere at a tremendous level to better use of available resources. In the present study, a series of experimental work is introduced to explore the impact of fuel magnetic treatment on engine performance. Two main types of magnetic treatments were tested; the first type is depending on a permanent magnet, while the second type is depending on an electromagnetic magnet. Two different designs for the electromagnetic device were examined to explore the effect of number of coils, material, source of electricity and some other parameters on engine performance. Two fuels were examined, gasoline as a liquid fuel and Natural gas as a gaseous fuel.Some attractive results showed that we can increase engine power by 20 % and reduce fuel consumption by the same percentage depending on engine operating conditions. Promising results were obtained for the reduction in engine main pollutants (CO, HC, and NO ). x A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 I. INTRODUCTION There are many ideas for fuel conditioning have been tried based on different techniques such as filters, catalysts, additives, etc. Many inventors propose fuel saving products depending on the idea that combustion can be improved by treating the fuel with a magnetic field. Many of these magnetic products or devices have been patented and produced in order to reduce fuel consumption and engine emissions [1-18]. Technologies have ranged from simple clamp-on magnets to a variety of electric and electronic devices. Many of these products have met with limited success because there are a number of factors to take into account and variables to accommodate. For example, a device that applies a constant magnetic field of a constant strength will have a limited effect because different fuels can be fed at different rates through pipes of different materials, thicknesses and bores. Therefore, a somewhat more sophisticated approach is required. For these reasons, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has published their reports, after testing some of these devices, to conclude that vehicles equipped with these devices (permanent magnets) did not show any improvement in fuel economy or in emissions reduction [19-23]. There are many different magnetic treatment methods used to treat engine fuels. A permanent magnet is a device which consists of multi-magnetic strips organized in an enclosure and produces a high frequency magnetic field on the fuel which passes through the device. Electromagnetic coils depend on generating the magnetic field from electricity using different circuit designs. In this case full control on the magnetic field strength is applicable depending on the operating conditions. In the present study, a series of experimental work is introduced to explore the impact of fuel magnetic treatment on engine performance. Two main types of magnetic treatments were tested; the first type is depending on a permanent magnet, while the second type is depending on an electromagnetic magnet. Two different designs for the electromagnetic device were examined to explore the effect of number of coils, material, source of electricity and some other parameters on engine performance. Two fuels were examined, gasoline (92 Octane Number) as a liquid fuel and Natural gas (NG) as a gaseous fuel. Results were compared at the same conditions using the following indications: 1- When the engine is running without any modifications e.g. without applying any magnetic field the following expression is used (WITHOUT MAG). 2- When a permanent magnet is used, the following indication is used (PERMANENT MAG). 3- When the iron coil is used alone, it is indicated by (IRON COIL). 4- When the fiber coil is used alone, it is indicated by (FIBER COIL). M62 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 5- When the two coils are used together, the iron and the fiber ones, it is indicated by (DOUBLE COIL). According to the source of the electricity, an alternative current is indicated by (AC), while a direct current is indicated by (DC). II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The experiments were conducted on a single-cylinder Honda model (GX390K1) 13 HP engine with a cylinder bore of 88 mm and a stroke of 64 mm. The compression ratio of the engine is 8. Three different magnetic coils were used. The first coil is a permanent magnetic device which is used commercially in the market. The other two electromagnetic coils were custom made with the specifications shown in table (1). Appendix (A) shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup Iron Coil Fiber Coil Core Material Iron Fiber Wire length (L) 55 m Number of wire turns (N) 500 Magnetic flux intensity 5.56xI mTesla (B) Where I is the current Current (I) 0.18 – 6.66 Amp. Table (1) Electromagnetic coils specifications III. EFFECT OF MAGNETIC FLUX INTENSITY AND COIL MATERIAL One important part to explore is the effectiveness of controlling magnetic flux intensity on engine performance and comparing the results with the permanent device. Three different values for the magnetic flux intensity have been chosen to indicate the low, medium and high values as shown in table (2). These values were chosen as an average depending on the specifications indicated in table (1), the circuit design and temperature limitations. No. Description Magnetic Flux Intensity (mT) 1 Low Flux 6.97 2 Medium Flux 13.95 3 High Flux 26.16 Table (2) Magnetic flux intensity used in the experiments. Limited effect is shown in figure (1) for the iron and fiber coils when low flux was used compared to the permanent device. Not only limited effect from the low flux, but also the permanent magnetic flux seems to be more effective in this case. This can be explained by two effective properties for the permanent coil: M63 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 1- Design factor which results in magnetic flux migration between the different sets of north poles and south poles where the fuel passes in this case through a swirling magnetic movement between the north and south poles. 2- The length of the permanent magnetic coil, which reflects the whole fuel traveling distance, is relatively longer than the other two coils. This means that there is a longer contact path in the case of permanent magnet. When a high flux was tested as shown in figures (2, 3 and 4) the magnetic effect started to be observed where table (3) summarizes the results. Average increase in the Device type output power (%) Fiber coil –AC 7.5 Fiber coil –DC 7.9 Iron coil –AC 12 Iron coil –DC 13 Double coil –AC 12.3 Double coil –DC 14.4 Permanent coil 3.63 Table (3): Average increase in the output power (%) at the same engine speed for different types of magnetic coils. As clearly seen in table (3), the following points can be stated: 1- The average increase in the engine power is 3.63% for the permanent coil over the range of speed and power in the present investigation. 2- Using high flux over the fiber coil doubled this effect. 3- Using iron coil at the same conditions increases the engine power compared to the fiber coil and this can be explained by the ability of iron to collect and concentrate the electromagnetic waves which means that the coil material is one important factor affecting the results. 4- In spite of this improvement in the coil effect on engine power when the iron coil was used, there is a side effect to increase the magnetic flux which is increasing the coil temperature. Increasing the coil temperature can burn the coil out. Accordingly we have limitations in using iron coil with variable or controllable flux. 5- Using the two coils in series (double coil) produced the maximum effect as shown in table (3). The reason behind this is the properties of the magnetic waves produced where the double coil has two properties: The first one is the nature of magnetic flux which is affected by the two coil specifications. The second is the total length of the two coils together. M64 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 IV. EFFECT OF CURRENT SOURCE AC OR DC. Another important parameter to explore is the effect of the origin of the current used. AC current from the outlet lab source was used accompanied by a suitable circuit, while the engine battery was used to generate the DC current using another suitable circuit. When fiber coil was tested with AC and DC, figure (2), no difference between the two sources was observed except the last point at high power and high speed. The experiment was repeated for the iron coil, and double coils where the same trend is clearly seen in figure (3) and figure (4) respectively. Accordingly from these observations, there is no difference between AC and DC current on the engine power, except the stability in the behavior of the data recorded by the DC current, which can be explained by the nature of the AC current which behaves as a sine wave compared to constant behavior of the DC current. Regardless of the initial observation of no difference between AC and DC, both types will be under investigation in most of the study. V. IMPACT OF MAGNETIC TREATMENT ON LIQUID FUEL (GASOLINE) V.1 Fuel Consumption Figures (5.a) and (5.b) represent a relationship between engine power and the corresponding fuel consumption for AC & DC current sources. The engine speed was maintained constant for the same compared power value while the throttling position was adjusted to obtain the same speed and power. The figures show reductions in fuel consumption by using magnetic fuel treatment. As clearly seen, using double coil with high flux results in better effect on the fuel consumption where a reduction of 20% can be achieved compared to 9 % for the permanent coil. A direct comparison between AC current and DC current is illustrated in figure (5.c). The previous observations still applied on this figure. Figure (6.a) shows the effect of magnetic field when allowing engine speed to be varied and maintaining the same throttling position for the engine power. The same trend was obtained as discussed earlier where the double coil is still producing the best effect over the other coils with an average reduction of 20 %. The whole experiment was repeated using DC current as shown in figure (6.b) and both current sources were compared in figure (6.c) where no effective variation between both currents is recorded. M65 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 V.2 Effect of Magnetic Treatment on Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) The effect of magnetic treatment on engine BSFC is shown in figure (7.a) for the coils under investigation. In this experiment AC current was used. As clearly seen in the figure the three coils (iron, fiber and double coil) are very close in their effect. But at the same time, the figure shows a noticeable reduction in BSFC when the magnetic effect is considered even for permanent magnet. The same treatment is obtained when the experiment is repeated using DC source as shown in figure (7.b). Figure (7.c) shows a comparison between the two current sources where no significant change is observed. Figures (8.a) and (8.b) show the effect of magnetic treatment when maintaining the same throttle position at the same power value. In this case, as mentioned earlier, it was allowed to the engine speed to change according to the output power. In this case the maximum reduction in engine BSFC of 26 % was obtained for the double coil using AC current, while the maximum reduction of 28.5 % in engine BSFC was obtained for the double coil using DC current. Figure (8.c) shows a direct comparison between AC and DC current. In this figure limited enhancement is observed and the difference between the two sources varied from 1 % to 6.2 %. V.3 Effect of Magnetic field Treatment on Engine Exhaust Emissions In this section, the impact of using magnetic field on engine emissions was investigated. In this case, measurements of unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO ) were plotted for the three coils x using DC current source. Three different output powers, 1500W, 3000W, 4500W were chosen to illustrate this effect. Figures (9, 10, and 11) represent the effect of magnetic flux intensity generated from DC current source on CO, HC, and NO emissions for the three coils at x three different output powers. The following points can be observed from the figures: a) A fairly linear relationship between the magnetic flux intensity and engine emissions for the three coils. b) The double coil represents the best choice due to its effect on CO, HC, and NO emissions which recorded to reach 61.5, 53, and 50 % respectively at x the maximum flux compared to the initial point (where no magnetic effect). c) Variable magnetic fluxes produce better effect on engine CO emissions compared to the permanent coil. d) There is no significant reduction in NO emissions with increasing flux x intensity compared to CO and HC. This can be explained by the dependence of M66 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 NO formation on operating temperatures which are affected by the engine x power. VI. EFFECT OF MAGNETIC TREATMENT ON GASEOUS FUEL (NATURAL GAS) It was reported in the previous sections that magnetic fuel treatment has an impact on the engine performance; especially the rate of fuel consumption and it was discussed that double coil has the best effect compared to the other two coils. Also, it was reported that DC current produces more stable output data compared to AC current. In the present section, the effect of magnetic field on gaseous fuels (specifically NG) is presented. Most parameters related to engine performance are discussed again for natural gas but in this case the investigation is limited to the double coil which proved to treat the fuel better than the others. VI.1 Effect of Magnetic Treatment on Fuel Consumption, Brake Power and BSFC for NG Figure (12) shows a comparison between the rate of fuel consumption without magnetic treatment and with magnetic treatment using double coil and AC source. The results show an increase in the range of 2.5-7% in engine's power at the same fuel flow rate or a reduction of about 4-10% in fuel consumption at the same power. At the same conditions, a reduction of 6.5-13.8% in BSFC can be obtained using magnetic treatment as shown in figure (13). VI.2 Effect of Magnetic Treatment on Exhaust Emission for NG The effect of magnetic treatment on HC, CO and NO emissions using NG as a fuel x is indicated in figure (14). The maximum reductions in CO, HC, and NO x emissions for the three tested loads are summarized in table (4). Figure (15) represents a comparison between the effect of magnetic treatment on gasoline and NG for CO, HC, and NO emissions at 1500 watt. Table (5) x summarizes this comparison. The comparison shows that the magnetic treatment is more effective on gasoline fuel than NG fuel which can be explained by the tendency of liquid fuel molecules to change their random organization to a more simple structure which simplifies the combustion reactions. On the other hand, it is not easy to force the gaseous molecules to keep their new positions for a long period of time. Accordingly, losing the magnetic effect on gaseous fuels is faster than liquid fuels due to the effect of their density. Another important reason that natural gas does not contains additives which increase the fuel tendency to the magnetic field effect. M67 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 Pollutant Maximum reduction 1500W 1900W 2500W CO 15.5% 19% 20% HC 19.1% 13.5% 9.7%. NO 55.5%, 25%, 26.4% x Table (4) Maximum reductions in engine emissions when NG was used Pollutant Maximum reduction Gasoline NG CO 32.7% 19.1% HC 52% 15.5% NO 46.4%, 55.7%, x Table (5) Maximum reductions in engine emissions when NG was used From the previous discussion, it can be concluded that using magnetic fuel treatment enhances the combustion characteristics of natural gas which results in better combustion and reduction in engine exhaust emissions. This reduction can reach 50% or more for some of these emissions. VII. CONCLUSIONS In the present study, two sets of experiments were carried out; the first set was focused on exploring the impact of magnetic fuel treatment on engine performance using gasoline as a liquid fuel, while the second set was concerned with natural gas as a gaseous fuel. Three different coils having different features were compared at different operating conditions. The main results are summarized as follows: 1. Magnetic coil design has a considerable effect on the engines measured parameters. Total wire length, coil length, magnetic flux intensity, current source are some examples of these design parameters. The difference between AC and DC current on the engine performance parameters is limited to the stability in the behavior of the data recorded by the DC current compared to AC current. 2. Magnetic fuel treatment has an acceptable effect on engine performance. Fuel consumption was reduced by more than 20 % at some operating conditions, and BSFC was reduced by more than 27 % for some other conditions. 3. A reduction in the engine pollutants was clearly observed when magnetic field was applied to reach reductions of 50 % or more depending on the operating conditions and design of the coil used. 4. Higher influence of magnetic fuel treatment was recorded for liquid fuels compared to gaseous fuels. M68 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 7000 7000 6000 6000 5000 )W 5000 )W ( r 4000 ( re w o P3 40 0 0 0 0 0 e w o P e 3000 e n ig n E 2000 WITHOUT MAG n ig n E 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 W FIB IT E H R O C U O T I L M H A I G GH FLUX AC PERMANENT MAG FIBER COIL HIGH FLUX DC 1000 IRON COIL LOW FLUX AC 0 FIBER COIL LOW FLUX AC 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Engine Speed (rpm) Engine Speed (rpm) Figure (1) Effect of low flux intensity Figure (2) Effect of current source on engine power using AC current. (current type) on the engine output power using fiber coil at high flux. 7000 7000 6000 6000 5000 5000 )W )W ( r e 4000 ( r e w 4000 w o o P 3000 P e 3000 e n n ig n 2000 WITHOUT MAG ig n E 2000 WITHOUT MAG E 1000 IRON COIL HIGH FLUX AC 1000 DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX AC IRON COIL HIGH FLUX DC DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX DC 0 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Engine Speed(rpm) Engine Speed (rpm) Figure (3) Effect of current source Figure (4) Effect of current source (current type) on the engine output (current type) on engine output power power using iron coil at high flux. using double coil at high flux. M69 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 3 3 2.5 2.5 4- 0 1 x )ce s/g k 1.5 2 4- 0 1 x )ces/g 1. 2 5 ( e ta R w o lF 0.5 1 W P I F R E IB I O R T E N M H R C O E C O U N O I T A L I N L M H T A H I G M G IG H A H G F L F U LU X X A A C C k ( eta R w o lF 0. 1 5 W P I F R E IB I O R T E N M H R C O E C O N U O A I T L I N L M H T H A I M G I G G A H H G F F L L U U X X A A C C DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX AC DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX AC 0 0 500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 Engine Power (W) Engine Power (W) Figure (5.a) Effect of magnetic treatment Figure (6.a) Effect of magnetic treatment on fuel flow rate using AC. on fuel flow rate using AC. 3 3 2.5 2.5 4- 0 1 x )ces/g k ( e 1. 2 5 4-0 1 x )ces/g 1.5 2 ta R w 1 WITHOUT MAG k ( e ta 1 W PE I R T M HO E U N T A N M T A M G AG o PERMENANT MAG R lF 0.5 I F R IB O E N R C C O O IL IL H H IG IG H H F L FL U U X X D D C C w o lF 0.5 I F R IB O E N R C C O O IL IL H H IG IG H H F F L L U U X X D D C C DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX DC DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX DC 0 0 500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 Engine Power (W) Engine Power (W) Figure (5.b) Effect of magnetic treatment Figure (6.b) Effect of magnetic treatment on fuel flow rate using DC. on fuel flow rate using DC. 3 3 2.5 2.5 4-0 4- 0 2 x 1 2 x 1 )c e )c e s /g k ( e 1. 1 5 s/g k ( e ta R 1. 1 5 ta w R o w o 0.5 DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX AC lF0.5 DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX AC lF DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX DC DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX DC 0 0 500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 Engine Power (W) Engine Power (W) Figure (5.c) Comparison between AC and Figure (6.c) Comparison between AC and DC. DC. Figure (5) Effect of magnetic Figure (6) Effect of magnetic treatment treatment on fuel flow rate using AC on fuel flow rate using AC and DC and DC current sources and current sources and maintaining the maintaining the engine speed constant same throttling position at the same at the same power. power. M70 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 0.45 0.45 WITHOUT MAG WITHOUT MAG PERMENANT MAG PERMENANT MAG 0.4 IRON COIL HIGH FLUX AC 0.4 IRON COIL HIGH FLUX AC FIBER COIL HIGH FLUX AC FIBER COIL HIGH FLUX AC 0.35 DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX AC 0.35 DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX AC )r h W 0.3 )r h W 0.3 k /g k ( C 0.25 k /g k ( C 0.25 F S B 0.2 F S B 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.1 0.1 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Engine Speed (rpm) Engine Speed (rpm) Figure (7.a) Effect of magnetic Figure (8.a) Effect of magnetic treatment treatment on BSFC using AC. on BSFC using AC. 0.45 0.45 WITHOUT MAG WITHOUT MAG PERMENANT MAG PERMENANT MAG 0.4 IRON COIL HIGH FLUX DC 0.4 IRON COIL HIGH FLUX DC FIBER COIL HIGH FLUX DC FIBER COIL HIGH FLUX DC 0.35 DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX DC 0.35 DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX DC )r h W 0.3 )r h W 0.3 k /g k ( C F S 0 0 .2 .2 5 k /g k ( C F 0 0 .2 .2 5 B S B 0.15 0.15 0.1 0.1 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Engine Speed (rpm) Engine Speed (rpm) Figure (7.b) Effect of magnetic Figure (8.b) Effect of magnetic treatment on BSFC using DC. treatment on BSFC using DC. 0.45 0.45 DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX AC DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX AC 0.4 DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX DC 0.4 DOUBLE COIL HIGH FLUX DC 0.35 0.35 )r h W 0.3 )r h W 0.3 k /g k ( C 0.25 k /g k ( C F 0.25 F S 0.2 S B 0.2 B 0.15 0.15 0.1 0.1 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Engine Speed (rpm) Engine Speed (rpm) Figure (7.c) Comparison between AC Figure (8.c) Comparison between AC and DC sources. and DC sources. Figure (7.b) Effect of magnetic Figure (8.a) Effect of magnetic treatment on BSFC using DC and AC treatment on BSFC using AC and DC sources while maintaining engine sources and maintaining the same speed at the same compared power. throttling position at the same power. M71 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 60 2.5 FIBER COIL DC 50 IRON COIL DC 2 DOUBLE COIL DC ) L 40 O ) L O 1.5 V m 30 V p p % ( O 1 ( C H 20 C 0.5 FIBER COIL DC 10 IRON COIL DC DOUBLE COIL DC 0 0 0 10 20 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Magnetic flux(mT) Magnetic flux (mT) Figure (9-a) 1500 W, 2000 rpm. Figure (10-a) 1500W, 2000 rpm. 40 1.4 35 1.2 30 1 )L25 )L O O0.8 V20 V m % 0.6 p p15 ( O ( C C 0.4 H10 FIBER COIL DC IRON COIL DC FIBER COIL DC 5 0.2 IRON COIL DC DOUBLE COIL DC 0 DOUBLE COIL DC 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 10 20 30 Magnetic flux (mT) Magnetic flux(mT) Figure (9-b) 3000 W, 2500 rpm. Figure (10-b) 3000W, 2500rpm. 45 1.4 40 1.2 35 1 ) 30 ) L L O0.8 O V 25 V % m 20 0.6 p ( O C0.4 p ( C H 1 1 0 5 FIBER COIL DC FIBER COIL DC IRON COIL DC 0.2 IRON COIL DC 5 DOUBLE COIL DC DOUBLE COIL DC 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 10 20 30 Magnetic flux(mT) Magnetic flux (mT) Figure (9-c) 4500 W, 3000 rpm. Figure (10-c) 4500W, 3000rpm. Figure (9) Effect of magnetic Figure (10) Effect of magnetic treatment on CO emission using DC treatment on HC emission using DC for different output powers and for different output powers and speeds speeds. M72 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 200 600 180 500 160 ) L 140 ) L400 O120 O V V m100 m300 p p p 80 p ( ( X X200 O 60 O N 40 FIBER COIL DC N FIBER COIL DC 100 IRON COIL DC IRON COIL DC 20 DOUBLE COIL DC DOUBLE COIL DC 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 10 20 30 Magnetic flux(mT) Magnetic flux(mT) Figure (11-a) 1500 W, 2000 rpm. Figure (11-b) 3000 W, 2500 rpm. 1400 1200 1000 ) L O V 800 m p 600 p ( X O 400 N FIBER COIL DC 200 IRON COIL DC DOUBLE COIL DC 0 0 10 20 30 Magnetic flux(mT) Figure (11-c) 4500 W, 3000 rpm. Figure (11) Effect of magnetic treatment on NOx emission using DC at different output powers and speeds. 4.5 1.6 4 WITHOUT MAG 1.4 4 3.5 WITH DOUBLE COIL AC 0- 1.2 x )c e 1 2.5 3 )r h .W 1 s /g k 2 k /g 0.8 ( e ta 1.5 k ( C 0.6 r w o lF 0.5 1 WITHOUT MAG F S B 0 0 . . 2 4 WITH DOUBLE COIL AC 0 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Power (W) Power (W) Figure (12): Effect of magnetic treatment Figure (13): Effect of magnetic on fuel flow rate for NG. treatment on BSFC for NG. M73 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 60 60 DOUBLE COIL DC Gasoline 50 50 DOUBLE COIL AC NG ) 40 L40 )L O V 30 O V m30 m p p p20 p ( C H 20 DOUBLE COIL AC 1500W ( C H 10 10 DOUBLE COIL AC 1900W DOUBLE COIL AC 2500W 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Magnetic flux (mT) Magnetic flux(mT) Figure (14.a) HC Figure (15.a) HC comparison. 5 2.5 4.5 4 2 3.5 ) L O 3 )L O1.5 V 2.5 V % % ( O 1.5 2 (O C 1 C 1 DOUBLE COIL 1500W 0.5 DOUBLE COIL 1900W 0.5 DOUBLE COIL DC Gasoline DOUBLE COIL 2500 0 DOUBLE COIL AC NG 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Magnetic flux(mT) Magnetic Flux (mT) Figure (14.b) CO Figure (15.b) CO comparison 180 180 160 DOUBLE COIL COIL AC 1500W 160 DOUBLE COIL DC Gasoline DOUBLE COIL COIL AC 1900W DOUBLE COIL COIL AC NG 140 DOUBLE COIL COIL AC 2500W 140 ) L 120 )L 120 O O V m 100 V m 100 p 80 p p 80 O p ( X 60 ( X O 60 N 40 N 40 20 20 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Magnetic flux(mT) Magnetic flux (mT) Figure (14.c) NOx Figure (15.c) NO comparison x Figure (14) Effect of magnetic Figure (15) A comparison between the treatment on CO, HC, and NO for NG effect of magnetic treatment on x at 1500, 1900, 2500 Watts and variable gasoline and NG for engine emissions speeds. at the same conditions of λ =0.95, 1500W and maintaining engine speed at the same compared points. M74 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 I. REFERENCES 1. Michael J. Kwartz; ''Device for internal combustion engines\", United States Patent Office no.3, 116,726, patented Jan.7, 1964. 2. Doyle H. Miller; ''Process and apparatus for effecting efficient combustion'', United States Patent Office no.3, 830,621, patented Aug.20, 1974. 3. Charles H. Sanderson; ''Device for the magnetic treatment of water and liquid and gaseous fuels'', United States Patent Office no.4, 357,237, patented Nov.2, 1982. 4. Karl Heckel; ''Electromagnetic fuel saving device'', United States Patent Office no.4, 381,754, patented May.3, 1983. 5. Bill H. Brown; Fuel treating device and method'', United States Patent Office no.4, 429,665, patented Feb.7, 1984. 6. Edward Chow; \"Fuel treating device '', United States Patent Office no.4, 461,262, patented Jul.24, 1984. 7. 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Andrew Janczak &Edward Krensel; \"Permanent magnetic power cell system for treating fuel lines for more efficient combustion and less pollution ''; United States Patent Office no.5, 124,045, patented Jun.23, 1992. 15. Charlie W. Richard; \"Fuel treating methods, compositions and device ''; United States Patent Office no.5, 069,190, patented Dec. 3, 1991. 16. Romulo V. Dalupin; \"Magnetic apparatus for treating fuel''; United States Patent Office no.5, 127,385, patented Jul.7, 1992. 17. Brain Pascall; \"Fuel conditioning device ''; United States Patent Office no.5, 533,490, patented Jul. 9, 1996. 18. David J. Butt; \"Hydrocarbon fuel modification device and a method for improving the combustion characteristics of fuels ''; United States Patent Office no.6, 024,073, patented Jul. 9, 2000. M75 A. A. Abdel-Rehim, R. Abdel-Aziz, K. H. El-Nagar, H. H. Maarouf Engineering Research Journal 123 (September 2009) M61-M76 19. Barth E. A., “EPA Evaluation of the PETRO-MIZER Device under Section 511 of the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act”, EPA report, EPA-AA-TEB-511-83-2, December 1982. 20. Barth E. A., “EPA Evaluation of the POLARION-X Device under Section 511 of the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act”, EPA report, EPA-AA-TEB-511-82-9, August 1982. 21. Barth E. A., “Second EPA Evaluation of the POLARION-X Device under Section 511 of the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act”, EPA report, EPA-AATEB-511-85-2, April 1985. 22. Hashby H. A., “EPA Evaluation of the Super-Mag Fuel Extender under Section 511 of the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act”, EPA report, EPA-AATEB-511-82-3, January 1982. 23. Shelton J. C., “EPA Evaluation of the Wickliff Polarizer under Section 511 of the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act”, EPA report, EPA-AA- TEB-511-81-17, June 1981. Appendix (A): A schematic diagram of the experimental setup Cylinder Head Temp. DATA Intake Air Temp. READINGS Exhaust Temp. 1 Oil Temp. Methane Venturi Intake Exhaust Fuel Line Magnetic Device Engine Fuel consumption Power consumption (V&I) Throttle Position Variac Generator M76"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "P. Govindasamy et al./Journal of Energy & Environment, Vol. 6, May 2007 45 Experimental Investigation of Cyclic Variation of Combustion Parameters in Catalytically Activated and Magnetically Energised Two-stroke SI Engine P. Govindasamy* and S. Dhandapani** *Kongu Engineering College, Erode-638 052, India **Bharathiar College of Engineering and Technology, Karaikal-606 609, Pondichery, India Email: [email protected] (Received on 20 Nov 2006, revised on 12 May 2007) ____________________________________________________________________________________ Abstract The two stroke spark ignition engine is the major contributor of the total vehicular pollution in a country like India. It is therefore an area that requires great attention to reduce fuel consumption and hence pollution. The use of strong magnetic charge from the magnet put into the fuel line gives a complete and clean burn so that power is increased with reduced operating expenses. The magnetic flux on the fuel line dramatically reduces harmful exhaust emissions while increasing mileage, thereby saving money and improving engine performance. It increases combustion efficiency and provides higher-octane performance. The experimental results show that the magnetic flux on fuel reduces the carbon monoxide emission up to 13% for base engine, 23% in copper coated (inside the cylinder head) engine and 29% in zirconia coated (inside the cylinder head) engine. ____________________________________________________________________________________ Introduction Transport is the prime source of mobility in urban society. It not only provides a fast, convenient and economical mode of carrier to meet multifarious activities of citizens but also caters to the need of transportation of goods of commercial and industrial importance. However, it vitiates the environment in the process by emanating obnoxious and toxic pollutants in the surrounding atmosphere and thereby creates serious health hazards to biotic community. Automobiles have been castigated as polluters of the environment. Pollution due to automobile emissions is of great concern more, particularly in metropolitan cities. It creates a potential threat to the existence of healthy life [1-2]. Thus, safeguarding quality of air from degradation due to transportation is important. For complete combustion, air to fuel ratio is computed as 14.5. This ratio is a stoichiometric ratio [3]. But in spark ignited engines, complete combustion does not take place and pollutants are produced even at stoichiometric values of A/F ratio. This is because the spark induce reaction is not fully propagated inside the piston chamber. This paper presents an eco-friendly system to reduce harmful emissions while increasing engine performance. The fuel is energized by keeping high gauss magnet on fuel line [4-5]. It easily installs in minutes by strapping to the fuel line next to the carburetor, diesel pump or injector rail. Working Principles Mono pole technology The most important factors in the monopole technology are the magnetic field intensity and the collimation of the magnetic lines of flux [6-7]. It is these two aspects that render the monopole technology different from any ordinary permanent magnets.The intensity of the magnetic field is far superior to that", "fr_vulgarise": "Absolument ! Voici une version vulgarisée et simplifiée du texte, adaptée à un niveau lycéen, avec des paragraphes aérés et les concepts clés en gras.\n\n---\n\n**Comprendre l'Impact des Aimants sur les Moteurs : Une Étude Indienne de 2007**\n\nCet article scientifique, publié en mai 2007 par P. Govindasamy et S. Dhandapani, explore une méthode innovante pour améliorer le fonctionnement des moteurs. La recherche s'intitule \"Étude expérimentale de la variation cyclique des paramètres de combustion dans un moteur deux-temps à allumage commandé activé catalytiquement et dynamisé magnétiquement\". En des termes plus simples, il s'agit d'étudier comment les variations de la **combustion** se comportent dans un **moteur deux-temps à essence** lorsque l'on utilise un **catalyseur** et, surtout, des **aimants**.\n\n---\n\n### **Le Problème de la Pollution des Moteurs Deux-Temps**\n\nL'étude commence par souligner un problème majeur : les **moteurs deux-temps à allumage commandé** (ceux qui fonctionnent à l'essence, souvent trouvés dans les scooters, motos ou petits engins) sont de gros contributeurs à la **pollution atmosphérique**, particulièrement dans des pays comme l'Inde. Il est donc urgent de trouver des solutions pour **réduire leur consommation de carburant** et, par conséquent, les **émissions de polluants**.\n\n---\n\n### **La Solution Proposée : Le Carburant \"Magnétisé\"**\n\nC'est là que l'idée des aimants entre en jeu. Les chercheurs ont testé l'utilisation d'**aimants puissants** placés sur la conduite de carburant, juste avant qu'il n'entre dans le moteur. L'objectif est de \"dynamiser\" le carburant avec un **champ magnétique**. L'hypothèse est que cette **magnétisation** permettrait une **combustion plus complète et plus propre**.\n\nQuels seraient les avantages ? D'après les auteurs, cela entraînerait une **augmentation de la puissance** du moteur, une **réduction des coûts de fonctionnement** (grâce à une meilleure efficacité), une **diminution spectaculaire des gaz d'échappement nocifs** et une **augmentation du kilométrage** (on consomme moins de carburant pour la même distance). En somme, le moteur serait plus performant, plus économique et moins polluant. Les auteurs parlent même d'une **meilleure efficacité de combustion** et de performances similaires à celles obtenues avec un carburant à **indice d'octane plus élevé**.\n\n---\n\n### **Des Résultats Prometteurs pour Réduire les Émissions**\n\nLes résultats expérimentaux de l'étude sont encourageants. Les chercheurs se sont concentrés sur la réduction du **monoxyde de carbone (CO)**, un gaz toxique. Ils ont observé une **baisse significative des émissions de CO** :\n\n* **13%** pour un moteur standard (appelé \"moteur de base\").\n* **23%** pour un moteur dont l'intérieur de la culasse (la partie supérieure du cylindre) était revêtu de cuivre.\n* **29%** pour un moteur dont la culasse était revêtue de zircone.\n\nCes chiffres suggèrent que la magnétisation du carburant pourrait être une méthode efficace pour rendre les moteurs deux-temps moins polluants.\n\n---\n\n### **Pourquoi est-ce Important ? La Pollution des Transports**\n\nL'introduction de l'article rappelle l'importance des transports dans nos vies quotidiennes. Ils nous permettent de nous déplacer et de transporter des marchandises, ce qui est vital pour l'économie. Cependant, cette activité a un coût environnemental élevé. Les véhicules rejettent des **polluants toxiques** dans l'atmosphère, ce qui nuit gravement à notre santé et à l'environnement. Les **automobiles** sont souvent considérées comme les principaux responsables de cette pollution, surtout dans les grandes villes.\n\nPour qu'un moteur fonctionne idéalement, il faut un **mélange précis d'air et de carburant**, appelé **rapport stœchiométrique** (environ 14,5 parts d'air pour 1 part de carburant). Mais même avec ce rapport \"idéal\", les moteurs à essence ne brûlent pas complètement le carburant. La réaction de l'étincelle ne se propage pas parfaitement dans toute la chambre de combustion, ce qui entraîne la production de polluants.\n\nC'est pourquoi cet article propose une **solution écologique** : en \"énergisant\" le carburant avec un **aimant puissant** placé sur la conduite de carburant, on pourrait non seulement réduire les émissions nocives, mais aussi améliorer les performances du moteur. Le système serait simple à installer, ne prenant que quelques minutes à fixer."}, "page_2": {"en_base": "P. Govindasamy et al./Journal of Energy & Environment, Vol. 6, May 2007 46 generated by regular permanent magnets and the collimation of the magnetic fields (Fig. 1) renders the magnetic lines of flux exactly parallel to each other at extremely high densities (to the order of millions of lines of flux per sq. cm.). These devices are external online installations without cutting or modifying the fuel pipes and the magnetic energy generated through the monopole technology is rendered concentric and exactly perpendicular to the flow of the fuel. Fig. 1 Magnetic field on fuel line Ortho-para orientation The hydrogen atom has one positive charge (proton) and one negative charge (electron), i.e. it possesses a dipole moment. It can be either diamagnetic or paramagnetic (weaker or stronger response to the magnetic flux) depending on the relative orientation of its nucleus spins. Hence, it occurs in two distinct isomeric varieties (forms) - para and ortho, characterized by the different opposite nucleus spins [8]. In para H2 molecule, which occupies the even rotation levels (quantum number), the spin state of one atom relative to another is in the opposite direction rendering it diamagnetic. In the ortho molecule, which occupies the odd rotational levels, the spins are parallel with the same orientation for the two atoms, and therefore is paramagnetic and a catalyst for many reactions (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 Atomic orientation", "fr_vulgarise": "Voici une traduction vulgarisée et aérée du texte scientifique, adaptée à un niveau lycéen :\n\n---\n\nSelon des recherches menées par P. Govindasamy et son équipe (publiées dans le Journal of Energy & Environment en 2007), il existe des dispositifs qui utilisent des **aimants permanents** (comme ceux que l'on trouve sur les frigos, mais beaucoup plus puissants et précis) pour créer des champs magnétiques très particuliers.\n\nCes champs sont conçus pour que leurs **lignes magnétiques** (ces lignes invisibles qui représentent la force et la direction du champ) soient parfaitement parallèles les unes aux autres. Elles sont aussi incroyablement denses : on parle de millions de lignes magnétiques par centimètre carré !\n\nL'ingéniosité de ces systèmes est qu'ils s'installent à l'extérieur des conduites de carburant, sans avoir besoin de les couper ou de les modifier. L'énergie magnétique qu'ils génèrent est orientée de manière très spécifique : elle est concentrée et dirigée pour être **exactement perpendiculaire au flux de carburant** qui circule dans la conduite. Imaginez un mur magnétique traversant le tuyau.\n\n### L'orientation Ortho-Para\n\nPour comprendre comment cela agit sur le carburant, il faut d'abord regarder l'atome d'hydrogène. Un atome d'hydrogène est simple : il a une charge positive (son proton) et une charge négative (son électron). Cette composition lui donne un **moment dipolaire**, ce qui signifie qu'il se comporte un peu comme un tout petit aimant.\n\nLa façon dont cet atome réagit à un **champ magnétique** (qu'il soit faiblement ou fortement attiré) dépend d'une propriété interne de son noyau appelée le \"spin\" (imaginez une sorte de micro-rotation sur lui-même).\n\nC'est pourquoi la molécule d'hydrogène (H2, composée de deux atomes d'hydrogène) peut exister sous deux formes différentes, appelées **isomères** : l'**hydrogène para** et l'**hydrogène ortho**. Elles sont distinguées par l'orientation relative des spins de leurs noyaux.\n\nDans une molécule d'**hydrogène para** (H2), les spins des noyaux des deux atomes d'hydrogène sont orientés dans des **directions opposées**. Cette configuration rend la molécule **diamagnétique**, ce qui signifie qu'elle réagit faiblement à un champ magnétique et a même tendance à le repousser légèrement. Le texte mentionne qu'elle occupe des \"niveaux de rotation pairs\", un détail plus pointu de la mécanique quantique.\n\nÀ l'inverse, dans une molécule d'**hydrogène ortho** (H2), les spins des noyaux des deux atomes sont **parallèles**, c'est-à-dire qu'ils pointent dans la même direction. Cette configuration la rend **paramagnétique**, ce qui signifie qu'elle est attirée par le champ magnétique. De plus, l'hydrogène ortho est un **catalyseur** important, capable d'accélérer de nombreuses réactions chimiques. (Le texte parle ici de \"niveaux de rotation impairs\", un autre concept de mécanique quantique que nous pouvons simplifier pour l'explication).\n\n---"}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Magnetic flux on the fuel line reduces emissions and improves combustion performance in a two-stroke, catalytic-coated, spark-ignition engine.", "fr_vulgarise": "Des chercheurs ont appliqué un champ magnétique sur l'essence d'un moteur à deux temps. Le résultat optimal a montré une réduction de la consommation de carburant de plus de 21% et une augmentation de 7,6% de son efficacité. La réduction des émissions de pollution était particulièrement impressionnante (90% du CO et 58% des HC). L'aimant permet aux molécules d'essence de se séparer et de mieux s'orienter pour une combustion rapide et propre."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Page Not Found | Semantic Scholar Skip to search form Skip to main content Skip to account menu We can't find the page you're looking for. You may have mistyped the address or the page has been moved. Error: 404 Go back to home page By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our Privacy Policy (opens in a new tab) , Terms of Service (opens in a new tab) , and Dataset License (opens in a new tab) ACCEPT & CONTINUE"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on a magnetic intake air device (\"Air Energizer\"). Results: 20.00% fuel consumption gain and 19.00% HC reduction [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant est utilisé pour traiter l'air (et non le carburant) afin d'améliorer la combustion."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Experimental study on a DI Diesel engine (5.2 kW) using a 12,000 Gauss magnet. Magnetic treatment induced a 19.30% reduction in SFC. CO and HC emissions were reduced by 13.00% and 15.00% respectively, and Particulate Matter (PM) by 32.00%. The gain is attributed to magnetic ionization improving atomization.", "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant puissant (12000 Gauss) a permis d'économiser près de 19,3% de diesel et de réduire la pollution. Le champ magnétique améliore la pulvérisation du carburant, conduisant à une combustion plus efficace."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "The increase in usage of the automobiles day by day releases a huge amount of exhaust emissions such as HC, CO, CO2 and NOx etc. All these pollutants in exhaust emissions mainly depend on combustion phenomena which occur in engine cylinder. The effect of incomplete combustion releases a large amount of exhaust emissions as well as low brake thermal efficiency. To address these problems a noval method of magnetic fuel ionization method is adopted to condition the fuel. In the present investigation the experiments were conducted by using permanent Neodymium N52 magnet with field intensity 12,000 Gauss (1.2 Tesla) of Mono pole and Dipole that are fixed on fuel intake manifold before the fuel injector. This magnet creates a powerful magnetic field thereby the hydrocarbons changes their orientation. Due to this the molecules interlocked with the oxygen during combustion process and produces better combustion in the engine cylinder. The enhanced combustion causes to increase in the Combustion and reduction in poisonous gases from the engine."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~4319 Gauss ; magnetic field ~675.0 Tesla ; fuel consumption -93.0 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "En utilisant un électroaimant (jusqu'à 463 Gauss) sur un moteur à essence monocylindre, les chercheurs ont réduit la consommation spécifique de carburant de près de 19%. Le champ magnétique augmente la performance (couple et puissance)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "The quality of gasoline fuel is very important; therefore scientists are trying hard to improve the quality of this fuel. One of them is treating the fuel before it enters the combustion chamber or before experiencing the combustion process. The use of permanent magnets can reduce fuel consumption, and reduce exhaust emissions. This study aims to investigate the reduction of fuel consumption of a single-cylinder four-stroke gasoline engine by using electromagnetic field. Diameter and length of the copper wire used are 0.7 mm and 80 meters. The effect of the magnetic field on the engine performance was observed at various engine speed, such as 1500, 3000, 4500 and 6000 rpm. The results showed that the electromagnetic of solenoid winding reduced the specific fuel consumption. The percentage of reduction in the specific fuel consumption is 18.93%."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~2685 Gauss ; magnetic field ~422.8 Tesla ; fuel consumption -18.33 % ; thermal efficiency +16.4 % ; CO -45.0 % ; HC -50.0 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "En utilisant un champ magnétique puissant (9000 Gauss) sur le diesel, la consommation de carburant a été réduite de plus de 18%, et l'efficacité du moteur a augmenté de 16.4%. La pollution visible (fumées) a été réduite de 64%. Ces gains proviennent du fait que l'aimant rend le diesel plus fin et plus facile à pulvériser, assurant une combustion complète."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "ResearchGate - Temporarily Unavailable Connection issue We're experiencing a technical problem connecting to this page. Please try again later. Access denied You do not have access to www.researchgate.net. The site owner may have set restrictions that prevent you from accessing the site. Ray ID: 98e60a249e8de189 Timestamp: 2025-10-14 09:27:13 UTC Your IP address: 79.93.83.165 Requested URL: www.researchgate.net/publication/338013962_Study_Of_Diesel_Engine_Performance_On_The_Electromagnetic_Effect_Of_Biodiesel_Waste_Cooking_Oil Error reference number: 1020 Server ID: FL_951F26 User-Agent: python-requests/2.32.3 Ray ID: 98e60a249e8de189 Client IP: 79.93.83.165 © ResearchGate GmbH. All rights reserved."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~270 Gauss ; magnetic field ~1.5 Tesla ; CO -80.0 % ; HC -80.0 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Un dispositif magnétique simple (165 Gauss) installé sur une moto a réduit la consommation d'essence de 18,09% et la pollution par le CO de 91,18% et le HC de 77,03% ."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Reducing fuel consumption and improving fuel quality in motorcycle engines are very important in order to make the exhaust gas emission from the engine becomes more environmentally friendly. In this study, a magnetic field is attached to the fuel line so that the fuel is affected by the magnetic field. The magnetic field is obtained from electromagnetic magnets and permanent magnets. Fuel consumption is tested on a motorcycle engine that it uses a carburetor system and on an engine that uses a fuel injection system. The exhaust emissions observed were CO and HC by using exhaust gas analyzer. The results showed that the use of a magnetic field mounted on the fuel line can reduce the fuel consumption of a motorcycle engine, using either a carborator system or a fuel injection system by an average of 18%. The use of magnetic fields also shows a very good effect in reducing exhaust gas emissions from motorcycle engines. The length of the magnet attached to the fuel line, 80mm provides a reduction in exhaust gas emissions of CO by 80% - 90% and HC by 60% - 77%. The percentage reduction in exhause gas emission is better than the other length of magnets."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study using a 9000 Gauss magnetic field on a CI engine, showing an 18.33% reduction in BSFC, 45.00% reduction in CO, and 50.00% reduction in HC [481, Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'utilisation de champs magnétiques (9000 Gauss) sur le diesel améliore significativement l'efficacité et réduit les émissions."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Journal of Physics: Conference Series PAPER • OPEN ACCESS You may also like Study Of Diesel Engine Performance On The -Effective Implementation of low thermal conductivity material Yttrium Stabilized Zirconium Coating on a Diesel Engine Electromagnetic Effect Of Biodiesel (Waste Components Fuelled with neat Waste Cooking Oil-An Assessment Study Cooking Oil) E. Sangeethkumar, M. Jaikumar, P. Vijayabalan et al. -Droplet Combustion Characteristic of To cite this article: Tatun H Nufus et al 2019 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1364 012075 Biodiesel Produced from Waste Cooking Oil Mega Nur Sasongko -Waste cooking oil as source for renewable fuel in Romania View the article online for updates and enhancements. F Um Min Allah and G Alexandru This content was downloaded from IP address 79.93.83.165 on 02/10/2025 at 22:05 2018 1st Workshop on Engineering, Education, Applied Sciences, and Technology IOP Publishing Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1364 (2019) 012075 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1364/1/012075 Study Of Diesel Engine Performance On The Electromagnetic Effect Of Biodiesel (Waste Cooking Oil) Tatun H Nufus1, Sri Lestari K2, Andi Ulfiana1, Cecep S Abadi1, Ariek Sulistyowati1, Budi Yuwono1, Asep Apriana1, Budi Santoso1, Almahdi Kadir1 *Mechanical Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Prof. Dr. G.A Siwabessy street, Jawa Barat 16242, Indonesia. ** Electrical Engineering Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Prof. Dr. G.A Siwabessy street, Jawa Barat 16242, Indonesia [email protected] Abstract. Research has been conducted that the use of electromagnetic fields as a medium to conserve fuel, especially diesel fuel, has proven to be around 7-17%. Given that diesel is one of the conventional fuels whose supply is running low, so that alternative fuels are sought and to slow down the shortage of diesel fuel biodiesel is used from waste cooking oil. The purpose of this study is to analyze the use of electromagnets for biodiesel fuels derived from waste cooking oil. The engine used in this study is a 13 HP diesel engine, the fuel used is a mixture of diesel and biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil with a ratio of B0 (Diesel), B10 (10% Diesel and 90% Biodiesel), B20 (20% Diesel and 80% Biodiesel), B50 (50% Diesel and 50% Biodiesel), B100 (100% Biodiesel). Diesel engines are given a load of 4.45-10.39 KW. The data obtained in the form of the amount of fuel consumption per unit of time and exhaust emissions. The data is used to calculate specific fuel consumption (SFC). The result was a fuel saving of 7-11% this value is still below diesel, this happens considering the mixture uses biodiesel fuel (waste cooking oil) whose viscosity is greater than solar so that a magnetic field that is large enough to break down the molecule is not clumped so that combustion can be more perfect. Reduction of exhaust emissions of CO and NOx by 13-53% and 7-21% 1. Introduction The use of magnetic fields as a medium to improve the quality of combustion has been carried out by researchers. Most researchers use permanent magnets or razor iron as a magnetic field source, the weakness of the strength of the magnetic field will decrease as time goes by, otherwise the magnetic field generated from the winding of the wire at the core of the coil is electrically flowed, or commonly called an electromagnet, its magnetic strength is not reduced as long as there is an electric current.Okoronkwo reported the results of a study of electromagnet fields mounted on a 4-cylinder 1- cylinder gasoline engine against exhaust emissions [1]. Magnetic effects cause changes in fuel molecules from clusters to de-clusters, this effect is claimed to cause HC exhaust emissions to decrease by 40% and particulate material to decrease by 35%. The information given in this study is less complete due to the amount of coil in the coil, the magnitude of the magnetic field, the magnitude of the reduction in fuel consumption was not discussed in this study. The study of other electromagnetic fields was carried out by Habbowhich used a magnetic field intensity of 3000 Gauss on a 4-cylinder 1-cylinder gasoline engine [2]. The result is that using magnets of 1000 Gauss can increase thermal efficiency by 7% and power increase by 16.4%. HC ContentfromthisworkmaybeusedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0licence.Anyfurtherdistribution ofthisworkmustmaintainattributiontotheauthor(s)andthetitleofthework,journalcitationandDOI. PublishedunderlicencebyIOPPublishingLtd 1 2018 1st Workshop on Engineering, Education, Applied Sciences, and Technology IOP Publishing Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1364 (2019) 012075 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1364/1/012075 exhaust emissions decreased by 90% and COC decreased 58%.Faris reported the results of his research on the effect of magnetic fields on fuel consumption and exhaust emissions on a 4-cylinder 1- cylinder engine [3]. that with the addition of magnetic field intensity to the fuel effect on fuel consumption decreased by 9-14% and HC and CO exhaust emissions decreased by 30% and 40% respectively after the fuel was magnetized with a magnetic field intensity of 2000-9000 Gauss . In this study not discussed about the use of electromagnetic fields. Jain and Deshmukh. conducted a study of MFC (Magnetic Fuel Conditioner) with a strength of 1000-1800 Gauss on a 5 HP diesel engine with varying loads, this magnetic effect causes changes in fuel molecules from clusters to de cluster, this claimed to consume fuel consumption decreased by 10-30% and exhaust emissions of HC, CO and NOx decreased by 40% [4]. The advantage of this research is that the magnetic field used is relatively small but the results obtained such as fuel consumption and exhaust emissions are relatively large compared to previous researchers. Based on the results of the study above most researchers used a magnetic field above 1000 Gauss, in its application this will have an effect on other machine devices, besides that the fuel used in the previous researchers was fossil fuels, therefore in the research made quality enhancing devices The fuel uses an electromagnet field with a magnetic field strong intensity of less than 1000 Gauss and observes how it affects the performance of the engine and exhaust emissions for diesel fuel and biodiesel engines. The biodiesel used in this research uses used cooking oil. 2. Methodology This study uses experimental methods combined with theoretical analysis in answering the research objectives. Data obtained by direct observation and measurement in the field with available measuring instruments. The study was conducted in the Energy and Heavy Equipment Conversion Laboratory, Jakarta State Polytechnic, during the period June 2018 - September 2018. Tools and materials In this study used diesel generator (Perkin 403D-150) with 13 HP power which is connected to the bank load which ranges from 3-11KW. The fuel needed in the research is solar (B0), B10, B20, B50 and B100. Combustion quality enhancement devices (specifications are seen in table 1) and battery voltage sources are 12 volts. Emission testing uses the Gas Analyzer MRU NOVA 2000 tool. The research begins by calibrating the equipment needed, inspecting diesel engine components such as lubricating oil, lubricating oil filters, fuel filters, engine cooling water tanks and water tanks. Furthermore, all instruments are assembled as shown in Figure 1. The magnitude of the observed fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. The test was started by turning on the Perkin P135-4 diesel engine at 1550 rpm and then holding it for ± 10 minutes to get the engine's normal working temperature. After the machine is operating normally, data retrieval begins. Data retrieval is done by looking at the measuring instrument and recording on the recording sheet. Table 1Specifications of fuel quality enhancing devices Parameter Value unit Galvanum pipe length 1.206 meter Galvanum pipe diameter 35 mm Number of copper wire coils 1000 coil Copper wire diameter 0.15 mm Electric current 0.039 Amper Voltage source 12 Volt Copper wire type barriers 1.72 x 10-8 Ohm meter Magnetic field strength 713.57 Gauss The core permeability of the coil 0.57 Gauss m/Amp 2 2018 1st Workshop on Engineering, Education, Applied Sciences, and Technology IOP Publishing Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1364 (2019) 012075 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1364/1/012075 The independent variables in this test are the composition of the fuel (B0, B10, B20, B50& B100) and variations in load (4.5 and 10.37 kW). The dependent variable for this performance test is fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. Fuel consumption is calculated based on the difference in the reading of the fuel level in the measuring cup, which is attached to the fuel tank, per unit time. Measurement and recording of fuel consumption is carried out every time the fuel and load changes. this activity was carried out five times. Exhaust gas emissions of CO, NO and NOx are measured using the NOVA 2000 Gas analyzer. Figure 1 Flowchart of the generator set testing with bank load Data processing The results of the research data were compared between the fuel before and after magnetization and then processed quantitatively in the form of several graphs that graph the fuel consumption of the composition of the fuel, and CO and NOx gas emissions to the fuel composition, then analyzed again by referring to several reference journals that listed in the bibliography. Diesel engine performance is shown through the success rate in converting the chemical energy contained in the fuel into mechanical energy. Use of fuel (fuel consumption)Fuel consumption (fuel consumption) is the amount of fuel used by the engine for a certain time unit. Meanwhile, sfc (specific fuel consumption) is the amount of fuel consumption of the engine for a certain unit of time to produce an effective power. If in the test data is obtained regarding the use of fuel m (kg) in time s (seconds) and the power produced is bhp (hp), then the fuel consumption per hour : [5] 3600mbb mbb (kg/hour) s While the amount of specific fuel usage is 3600mbb Sfc (kg/kW.hour) bhp dengan : mbb= fuel consumption per unit of time (kg/secor kg/hour) 3 2018 1st Workshop on Engineering, Education, Applied Sciences, and Technology IOP Publishing Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1364 (2019) 012075 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1364/1/012075 s = fuel consumption time (sec) sfc = specific fuel consumption (kg/hp.hour) Combustion process with Stoichiometric calculation Hydrocarbon fuels will be oxidized thoroughly to carbon dioxide (CO ) and water vapor (H O) if 2 2 there is sufficient oxygen supply. Such combustion conditions are called stoichiometric combustion and the chemical reaction equation for stoichiometric combustion of a Biodiesel fuel (esters from palmitate) (C H O ) with air written as follows [6]. x y γ C H O + a(O + 3,76N ) → bCO + cH O + dN α β γ 2 2 2 2 2 equilibrium C : α =b equilibrium H : β =2cc =β /2 equilibrium O: γ + 2a = 2b + c  2a = 2α + β/2 - γa = α + β /4 – γ/2 equilibrium N :2(3,76)a = 2d  d = 3,76a d = 3,76 (α + β /4 – γ/2) Substitution of the equilibrium equations above into the combustion reaction equation CxHyOγ produces the following equation: C H O + a(O + 3.76N ) bCO + cH O + dN + energy α β γ 2 2 2 2 2 Incomplete combustion The combustion mechanism is demanded to take place quickly so that the combustion systems are designed with excess air conditions. This is intended to anticipate air shortages due to imperfect mixing between air and fuel. Such combustion is called non-stoichiometric combustion. The equation of the chemical reaction for non-stoichiometric combustion of a biodiesel fuel (ester of palmitate) (C α H O ) with air is written as follows β γ C H O + a(O + 3.76N ) b CO + cH O + dNOx + eN + energy α β γ 2 2 2 2 3. Results and Discussion The results of the research data were compared between the fuel before and after magnetization and then processed quantitatively in the form of several graphs that graph the fuel consumption of the composition of the fuel, and CO and NOx gas emissions to the fuel composition, then analyzed again by referring to several reference journals that listed in the bibliography. Diesel engine performance is shown through the success rate in converting the chemical energy contained in the fuel into mechanical energy. Fuel Magnetization on Fuel Consumption. Fuel consumption as a function of the composition of biodiesel at a load of 4.45 KW, is presented in Figure 2a, it appears that the magnetized fuel causes the SFC to be reduced by 4-8% but in the composition of biodiesel above 70%, the SFC has increased 1.8% compared to the fuel not magnetized This happens because the fuel composition is 0-70%, the magnetic field is 713.57 Gauss is able to break down the fuel molecules which initially become de cluster clusters which makes the reaction between fuel and air easier, and combustion becomes more perfect so the engine becomes more efficient . Fuel with a low biodiesel composition results in low viscosity and fuel molecules will be atomized better resulting in smaller fuel grains. With these conditions, the process of mixing fuel with air will be more homogeneous so that the fuel that burns more and the energy released increases. In other words, for the same load the amount of magnetized fuel is injected into the engine less or decreased. 4 2018 1st Workshop on Engineering, Education, Applied Sciences, and Technology IOP Publishing Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1364 (2019) 012075 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1364/1/012075 Figure 2 Specific fuel consumption (SFC) before and after magnetization for a 3 cylinder diesel engine. (a) 4.45 KW (b) 10.37 KW Conversely, if the composition of biodiesel is above 70% the magnetic field is 713.57 Gauss is unable to decompose the fuel into a de-cluster so that the fuel molecules are difficult to react with air as a result the combustion is not perfect and the engine becomes wasteful. Fuel with a large biodiesel composition results in high viscosity and fuel molecules will be difficult to atomize to produce larger fuel grains. With these conditions, the process of mixing fuel with air becomes homogeneous so that less fuel is burned or the use of fuel becomes more and the energy released decreases. The same thing happened to the engine that was given a load of 10.37 KW as shown in Figure 2b, the difference is for a large load, the specific fuel consumption is greater than the engine which is given a small load. SFC experienced a decrease of 2-9% in the composition of biodiesel 0-70% and increased 1.8% in the composition of bidiesel above 70%. Figure 3 CO exhaust gas before and after magnetized engine load (a) 4.45 KW (b) 10.37 KW. Figure 3a shows a graph of the relationship between CO exhaust emissions and the composition of biodiesel for a 4.45 KW load. It appears that the magnetized fuel causes CO (carbon monoxide) exhaust gas emissions to decrease by 45-67%, while for engines that are given a 10.37 KW load of CO 2 exhaust gas decreases 13-53%. The formation of CO gas due to lack of oxygen in the reaction with fuel during the combustion process. At a constant rotation of the diesel motor to overcome the increasing load, the more injected fuel. With the amount of fuel entering the combustion chamber, there will be greater combustion and higher temperatures. At high temperatures there is a reaction between carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon (C) which produces CO gas. The higher the temperature of combustion results, the greater the amount of CO2 gas that dissociates into CO and O [7]. 5 2018 1st Workshop on Engineering, Education, Applied Sciences, and Technology IOP Publishing Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1364 (2019) 012075 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1364/1/012075 The addition of the percentage of biodiesel mixture in diesel fuel causes a decrease in CO 2 emissions. This is due to the influence of oxygen which is bound to the methyl ester, this oxygen molecule causes no CO molecule formation but CO2 molecules are formed, causing a more perfect combustion. The greater the addition of biodiesel, the greater the oxygen in the mixture and the more complete combustion, resulting in low carbon monoxide [8]. This is evident from the data obtained from the results of the study that in B100 there was an average CO decrease of 56%. Fuel magnetization causes fuel viscosity to decrease so that when injected into the combustion chamber it will form finer granules so that the mixture of air and fuel becomes more homogeneous which results in a more perfect combustion. This perfect combustion causes CO emissions to decrease. Figure 4 NOx exhaust gases before and after magnetized engine load (a) 4.45 KW (b) 10.37 KW Figure 4 shows a graph of the relationship between NOx exhaust emissions and the composition of biodiesel. The vertical axis states the NOx (ppm) and horizontal axis states the composition of biodiesel. It appears that the magnetized fuel causes NOx exhaust emissions to decrease by 5-33% for engines that are given a load of 4.45 KW, while for engines that are given a 10.37 KW load of CO 2 exhaust decreases 7-21%. There are several causes of NOx emissions including high oxygen concentrations coupled with high temperature of the combustion chamber. In addition, the carbon crust in the combustion chamber will also increase engine compression and can cause hot spots that can increase NOx levels. Machines that often detonate will also cause high NOx concentrations [9] The addition of the percentage of biodiesel mixture in diesel fuel causes a decrease in NOx exhaust emissions. This is due to the influence of oxygen bound to the methyl ester so that for less combustion of the required air, this causes the combustion temperature to decrease, and NOx concentration also decreases [10]. Fuel magnetization causes fuel viscosity to decrease so that when injected into the combustion chamber it will form finer granules so that the mixture of air and fuel becomes more homogeneous which results in a more perfect combustion. This perfect combustion causes NOx exhaust emissions to decrease. NOx gas emissions decreased the most occurred in B100 fuel which was an average of 26.5%. All emission test results state that fuel magnetization causes decreased levels of exhaust emissions. 4. Conclusion In this research, a device has been successfully made to improve the quality of combustion in diesel engines made of electromagnet fields with a magnetic field strength of 713.57 Gauss, the specifications of the device: a. Email wire diameter = 0.15 mm b. Tube length = 1200 mm c. Tube diameter = 35 mm d. Number of turns = 1000 6 2018 1st Workshop on Engineering, Education, Applied Sciences, and Technology IOP Publishing Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1364 (2019) 012075 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1364/1/012075 e. Electric current = 0.03 amperes f. Voltage = 12 volts By using this tool, the performance of a diesel biodiesel-fueled diesel engine obtained from the results of this study: a. Fuel consumption decreases by 7-11% b. CO and NOx exhaust emissions decreased by 53% Reference [ 1] Okoronkwo C, Nwachukwu, Ngozi, Igbokwe. 2010. The effect of electromagnetic flux density on the ionization and the combustion of fuel. American Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. 1(3):527-534. [ 2] Habbo AR, Khalil AR, Hammoodi HS. 2011. Effect of Magnetizing the Fuel on the Performance of an S.I. Engine. Journal Al Rafidain Engineering,6(19): 84-90. [ 3] Faris AS, Saadi A, Jamal SK, N, Isse R, AbedM, Fouad Z, Kazim A, Reheem N, Chaloob A, Hazim M, Jasim H, Sadeq J, Salim A, Aws A. 2012. Effects of Magnetic Field on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emissions in Two-Stroke Engine. Elsevier Energy Procedia .18: 327–338 [ 4] Jain S, Deshmukh S. 2012. Experimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner in I.C. Engine, IOSR journal of Engineering. 2(7): 27-31. [ 5] Cengel, Yunus A, Boles, Michael A. Thermodinamika An Engineering Approach. Fifth. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2006. https://entegila.files.wordpress.com/.../thermodynamics- an-engineering-approach-5th-ed. [ 6] Guru M, Can Ç, Fatih S, Koca A. 2010. Biodiesel production from waste chicken fat based sources and evaluation with Mg based additive in a diesel engine. Renew Energy. 35:637-643. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2009.08.011. [ 7] Meng M, Niu D. 2011. Modeling CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion using the logistic equation. Energy. 36(5):3355-3359. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2011.03.032. [ 8] Subbarayan MR, Kumaar JSS, Padmanaban MRA. 2016. Experimental investigation of evaporation rate and exhaust emissions of diesel engine fuelled with cotton seed methyl ester and its blend with petro-diesel. 48:369-377. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2016.08.024. [ 9] Tesfa, Belachew, Gu, Fengshou, Mishra, Rakesh and Ball, Andrew. 2013. LHV Predication Models and LHV Effect on the Performance of CI Engine Running with Biodiesel Blends. Energy Conversion and Management, 71. pp. 217-226. ISSN 0196-8904 [ 10] Atabani AE, Silitonga AS, Ong HC. 2013. Non-edible vegetable oils : A critical evaluation of oil extraction , fatty acid compositions , biodiesel production , characteristics , engine performance and emissions production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 18:211-245. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.013. 7"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Des tests sur une moto utilisant un mélange de bioéthanol et d'essence, traité par un aimant de 1419 Gauss, ont montré une augmentation de l'efficacité du moteur de 21%. La pollution par le monoxyde de carbone (CO) a chuté de 71%. Ces gains s'expliquent par le fait que l'aimant aide les molécules d'éthanol et d'essence à mieux se mélanger à l'oxygène, ce qui améliore la puissance et réduit le gaspillage. Bien que le CO2 ait augmenté, l'objectif de combustion plus propre et de meilleure efficacité est atteint."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~13.24 Tesla ; CO -8.14 % ; HC -8.14 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "En utilisant un électroaimant (jusqu'à 2860 Gauss) sur une moto, la consommation d'essence a été réduite de 16,78%, et l'efficacité du moteur a augmenté de près de 16%. L'aimant le plus fort a donné le meilleur résultat, car il décompose parfaitement les particules de carburant, facilitant la réaction du carburant et améliorant la combustion."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Process combustion of fuel in room burn to be influenced by many factor , among others is temperature, closeness of mixture, composition, and turbulensi exist in mixture. When fuel temperature with air mount, hence will progressively easy to fuel with the air to on fire.Gas emission throw away which is yielded from combustion process at motor vehicle can have the character of poison and make negative effect at environment around, the mentioned in causing by less perfect combustion process, gas result of less the combustion perfect for example is CO, HC.The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the use of electromagnets in the fuel line gasolin engine 4 step with variations in the number of windings on exhaust emissions and fuel consumption . The study was conducted in Laboratory Convert Energi Majors Technical Engineering Faculty Of Technique University Jember . Equipments which is used in the testing is Motor gasoline 4 Step with machine brand Honda Supra x 125D, Gas Analyzer , buret, measure glass, stop wach, tachometer , and accumulator 12 volt. used by materials is Premium RON 88, strand of metal have diameter to 0,6 cm, pipe have diameter to 1\" with length 12 cm, and ring 18 cm.This study focuses on the variation of the number of windings on fuel saving devices on exhaust emissions of petrol 4 step. Analysis of the data sought includes AFR, Magnetic Field, Ampere each variation, emissions of CO gas (%), CO 2 emissions (%), HC emissions (ppm), O gas emissions (%). Fuel Consumption (FC). From the research 2conducted, it can be concluded that the larger the number of winding electromagnets, the more binding the amount of oxygen in the combustion chamber , so it would be more optimal combustion. The lower the value of the FC (Fuel Consumtion), the lower the fuel consumption required for the performance of the engine. Variations in the amount of electromagnetic windings affect fuel consumption . Fuel consumption is the most efficient use of the variation found in the number of windings of the coil 1000 fuel standard state conditions of 0.57 Kg / hr to 0.43 Kg / h at 3000 RPM rotation with increased efficiency of about 8.14% . Although these results are smaller than the results of previous research by 20.35 % , but at engine speed 9000 RPM FC results of this study resulted in a lower , ie 0.81 Kg / hour compared to 1.19 Kg / hour. Keywords : Magnetic Field, Emission Gas throw away , Fuel Consumtion."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Through building up a diesel engine test bench with the function of working condition control and power measurement,the energy conservation and emission reduction was studied from the perspective of fuel magnetization among all the preprocessing techniques of the diesel engine combustion,and the influence of fuel magnetization on combustion performance of diesel engine was tested.The test results show that the influence of fuel magnetization on combustion performance is different under different scales of magnetic field and loads.After the process of fuel magnetization,in the low load condition,the NO emission is reduced(with 5.85% at most) but the fuel consumption and smoke density are increased;in the middle load condition,the fuel consumption is reduced obviously(with 4.17% at most),but there is no obvious change of smoke density,content of CO2,O2 and NO;in the high load condition,there are no obvious influence of fuel magnetization on fuel consumption,smoke density,content of CO2,O2 and NO.According to this law,the fuel magnetization can be applied based on the working conditions.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Review on Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) applied to ICE combustion. The magnetic field induces realignment and ionization of hydrocarbon molecules, breaking up clusters and increasing the surface area for oxygen reaction. Fields between 150 Gs and 10,000 Gs are used to enhance combustion enthalpy and decrease Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC).", "fr_vulgarise": "Revue des études sur l'utilisation des aimants pour améliorer les moteurs. Le succès dépend de la magnitude et de la géométrie de l'aimant."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "(PDF) Effect of Fuel Magnetism on Engine Performance and Emissions Academia.edu uses cookies to personalize content, tailor ads and improve the user experience. By using our site, you agree to our collection of information through the use of cookies. To learn more, view our Privacy Policy. × Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer. To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser . Log In Sign Up more About Press Papers Terms Privacy Copyright We're Hiring! Help Center less Outline keyboard_arrow_down Title Abstract Figures Introduction Experimental Set Up Experimental Procedure Results and Discussion Conclusion and Recommendations References download Download Free PDF Download Free PDF Effect of Fuel Magnetism on Engine Performance and Emissions Mohammed Saber Gad 2010 visibility … description 5 pages link 1 file description See full PDF download Download PDF bookmark Save to Library share Share close Sign up for access to the world's latest research Sign up for free arrow_forward check Get notified about relevant papers check Save papers to use in your research check Join the discussion with peers check Track your impact Abstract The current research investigates the effect of magnetic field on internal combustion engines. The study concentrates on engine performance parameters such as fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. The magnetic field was applied to S.I.E. using gasoline fuel. Moreover, the fuel is subjected to a permanent magnet mounted on fuel inlet lines. The experiments were conducted at different idling engine speeds. The exhaust gas emissions of CO, NO, and CH 4 were measured by using an exhaust gas analyzer. The magnetic effect on fuel consumption reduction was up to 15%. CO reduction at all idling speed was range up to 7%. The effect on NO emission reduction at all idling speed was range up to 30%. The reduction of CH 4 at all idling speed was range up to 40% ... Read more Figures (6) arrow_back_ios Experimental procedure: Fig. 1: Photographic view of The Experimental Test Rig In Fig. 3, ‘the experimental work depicts ‘the emissions concentrations of CO with speed. CO concentrations decrease when the engine fuelled with fuel magnet than that without fuel magnet. CO concentration increases for the two fuels at all the range of idling speed due to the incomplete combustion and the increase of heat release rate. The fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. The experiment revealed that CO concentration is reduced up to 7%. Fig. 3: Variation of CO Concentration with idling engine speeds of S.I.E with and without fuel magnet Fig. 2: Variation of Fuel Consumption at idling engine speeds of S.I.E with and without Fuel Magnet Fig. 5: Variation of NO Concentration with idling engine speeds of S.I.E fueled with and without fuel magnet Fig. 4: Variation of CH4 Concentration with idling engine speeds of S.I.E fueled with and without fuel magnet In Fig.5, the concentration of NO in the exhaust gases was found to decrease when using fuel magnet as than without fuel magnet case. The fuel magnet makes the fuel is more receptive to oxygen, thus producing a leaner more efficient combustion. The heat is liberated inside the cylinder per unit time and cooling becomes less efficient. When the idling engine speed increases, dissociation of N, concentration increases due to the increase in the exhaust gas temperature. It was clear that the concentration of NO in the exhaust gases is reduced to about 30%. arrow_forward_ios Related papers EFFECT OF MAGNETIC FUEL ENERGIZER ON SINGLE CYLINDER C.I. ENGINE PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS Dr. Tushar M Patel ISBN 978-81-929261-0-0 NOx will measure by using an exhaust gas analyzer. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right NATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGIES CONFERENCE AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 2013 Effect of Magnetic Field on the Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emissions in Internal Combustion Engine (C. I. Engine Mohammed K A D H I M Allawi The combustion efficiency in most internal combustion engines are not up to (90%) so that a part of the fuel does not burn and comes out with the exhaust gases, leading to increase flowing fuel consumption and increasing emissions in the atmosphere. Therefore, several attempts have been made to increase the combustion efficiency and reduce emissions. The phenomenon is clear at the maximum load. In this work a new way to reduce the fuel consumption by using magnetic field, to ensure the complete combustion. This leads to obtain a maximum thermal efficiency and reduce the emissions by subjecting the fuel to force magnetic flux of the magnet installed at the entrance of the of fuel flowing, leading to more efficient combustion. From the experimental results, a reduction in the fuel consumption (L/h) in compression ignition engine (C.I. engine) was obtained up to (3%), brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) up to (2.877%) and brake thermal efficiency raised to about (3%). The exhaust gas emissions showed a reduction nearly by (13.8 %) of CO, (7.8 %) of CO2 and (10.8%) of HC. Lotus engine simulation (LES) program was used to study the effect of same parameters in experimental testing, this program gives the best performance of engine at maximum brake power, and the same input data given to the program is taken from the results of experimental results. For fuel consumption (L/h) for (C.I. engine) for two different values of (A/F), the use of magnetic field reduced the fuel consumption to about (2.83%). For brake thermal efficiency for (C.I. engine) for different values of (A/F), brake thermal efficiency for higher (A/F) increased. For (C.I. engine) using different values of the cetane number (48.5, 50, 55), when the cetane number increased, the brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) decreased compared with other values of cetane number. Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) decreased but is very low when density changes of diesel fuel during the days of the week. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Effect of Fuel Magnetism by Varying Intensity on Performance of Single Cylinder Four Stroke Diesel Engine IJSRD Journal The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of the fuel magnetisation on the performance of diesel engine. It has been observed that on magnetisation viscosity of hydrocarbon fuel decreases due to declustering of the Hydrocarbon fuel molecules which results in better atomization of the fuel and efficient combustion of air fuel mixture. This enhances thermal efficiency and improves the fuel economy of I.C engine. The magnetic field applied along the fuel line immediately before fuel injector. The magnetic field of different intensity 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000Gauss is applied with the help of solenoid Electro-magnetic coil and its effect on fuel consumption as well as on exhaust gas emission is studied and compared with performance without application of magnetic field. At different load conditions the experiments are conducted to analyse the fuel consumption, thermal efficiency and exhaust gas analyser is used to measure the exhaust gas emission such a NOX, HC, CO and CO2. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Effect of Magnetic Field to Reduce Emissions and Improve Combustion Performance in a Spark-Ignition Engine tharun Tomy 2018 Utilization of magnetic instrument is one effort to improve the performance and reduce exhaust emission produced by Otto engine. The experiments are done by varying the engine speed and variation of magnetic instrument mounting distance to the inlet valve when entering the combustion chamber. A magnetic instrument is installed in the intake manifold, before heading into the combustion chamber. The experimental results show that it is found that there is an increase in thermal efficiency and decreasing of fuel consumption when the engine uses 2500 gauss magnetic instrument ranging from 5.99 to 22.02%. The emissions of exhaust gas produced also reduced for CO and HC levels about 6-20%. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Experimental Inspection by using the Effect of Magnetic Field on the Performance of Diesel Engine IRJET Journal The present work deals with fuel ionization by using magnetic field which will ensure complete combustion of air-fuel mixture. Incomplete combustion in engine is due to improper mixing of hydrocarbon and oxygen molecule. These attempts is made in this work to improve the combustion efficiency of internal combustion engines by adopting a magnetic fuel ionization method in which the fuel is ionized due to the magnetic field. To overcome these issues magnets are used called as Magnetic fuel conditioner. This help to align the orientation of hydrocarbon molecules, for better atomization of fuel. Use of such magnet mounted in path of fuel lines improves mileage & reduces emission of vehicle. These experiments are conducted at different engine loading conditions. The work in particular is very significant on account of its impact on the global automobile market. The magnets help to disperse the hydrocarbon cluster into smaller particles which will improve the efficiency of combustion. This will maximize the combustion of fuel. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Performance and Emission Analysis of Single Cylinder Diesel Engine under the influence of Magnetic Fuel Energizer Dr. Tushar M Patel The present study about the experimental investigates on the Performance and Emission of Single Cylinder Four Stroke Diesel engine under the influence of magnetic field. The influence of magnetic field on the engine performance parameters such as specific fuel consumption, break thermal efficiency, exhausts emissions etc. by applying the magnetic field along the fuel line immediately before fuel injector. The strong permanent magnet of strength 9000 gauss is applied to fuel line for magnetic field. At different engine load conditions the experiments are conducted. An exhaust gas analyzer is used to measure the exhaust gas emissions such as CO, CO 2 , HC and NO X . With the application of magnetic field the percentage reduction in fuel consumption is about 8% at higher load, the percentage reduction in HC and NO X is about 32% and 27 % respectively. The CO emission gets reduced with the application of magnetic field at higher load. The percentage reduction in CO 2 emissions is reduced about 11% at average of all loads with the effect of magnetic field. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Effect of magnetic field on performance and emission of single cylinder four stroke diesel engine Dr. Tushar M Patel IOSR Journal of Engineering, 2014 Plastic has various advantages and is becoming more ubiquitous by the year, yet recycling and disposal remain challenges for the world. We conduct tests in this study to evaluate the appropriateness of various Plastic Pyrolysis Oils (PPOs) made from Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), and Polypropylene (PP) for diesel engine fuel. Determine which type of plastic pyrolysis oil would function best as an alternative fuel in an experimental investigation. The elemental composition of pyrolysis oil generated from LDPE, HDPE, and PP to diesel was assessed, tabulated, and compared in this study. This study examines emission characteristics (Nitrogen Oxide (NO X), Hydro Carbon (HC), and Carbon Monoxide (CO)) for Diesel, LDPE, HDPE and PP in CI engines using different injection pressure, compression ratio, and load in a specific configuration. In the result of experimental work the CO emission range for diesel and LDPE is exceeded only during overload situations or when the engine load is 100%. The average NO X emission is lowest when PP is used in comparison to other fuels, and the highest NO X emission occurs when LDPE is utilised as a fuel. Increased fumigation rates may be to blame for the rising hydrocarbon content of plastic oil. Unburned hydrocarbon levels are lower at lighter loads due to increased oxygen availability. The use of this whole pyrolysis oil results in a significant decrease in Nitrogen Oxide (NO X), Hydro Carbon (HC), and Carbon Monoxide (CO) exhaust emissions. With the help of this current study. one can solve plastic waste disposal problem and also find any unknown fuel (PPOs) that can be used as an alternative fuel for CI engine or not. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING PERFORMANCE OF SPARK IGNITION ENGINE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF MAGNETIC FIELD Nikhil Aniruddha Bhave The present study investigates the effect of magnetic field on the performance of Single Cylinder Four Stroke Spark Ignition engine. The study concentrates on the effect of magnetic field the engine performance parameters such as fuel consumption, break thermal efficiency and exhaust emissions and on fuel properties like density and calorific value. The magnetic field is applied along the fuel line immediately before carburetor. The magnetic field is applied with the help of strong permanent magnets of strength 5000 gauss. The experiments are conducted at different engine loading conditions. The exhaust gas emissions such as CO, CO 2 , HC and NO X are measured by using an exhaust gas analyser. With the application of magnetic field the percentage reduction in fuel consumption is about 12 %, the percentage reduction in HC and CO is about 27% and 11 % respectively. The NOx level in engine increases with the application of magnetic field. The percentage increase in NOx is about 19%. The effect of magnetic field on percentage increase of CO 2 emissions from SI engine is about 7 %. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Magnetization of Diesel fuel for Compression Ignition Engine to Enhance Efficiency and Emissions Swapnil Bhurat 2018 Due to two major factors, finite oil reserves and stringent emission norms vehicle manufacturer got a huge challenge to research, develop and produce ever cleaner and more fuel-efficient vehicles The last few years have seen a drastic change in emission levels and improvement in exhaust gas treatment techniques. In the following content, there is a comprehensive study based upon the changes in quality of performance of an engine while using magnetized fuel. Among many technologies in use to reduce the emission and subsequently improve the overall performance of the engine, magnetization of fuel (MOF) remains one of the most underdeveloped technologies of all. Magnetization of fuel is linked with altering the stereochemistry of fuel to instill proper combustion of fuel. Under the effect of strong magnetism fuel particles tend to react more with the incoming oxygen which leads to complete burning of fuel. The experiment was conducted on a single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine under c... download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Impact of Magnetic Tube on Pollutant Emissions from the Diesel Engine Jau Huai Lu Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 2017 Magnetic field applied to fuel can alter its characteristics in terms of forces that hold the hydrocarbons together. This principle was used to investigate the impact of incorporating a magnetic tube in the fuel intake in a diesel generator on specifically the energy performance and pollutant emissions. A diesel generator was fitted with a magnetic tube in the fuel intake, which had valves to switch from without magnetic tube case to with magnetic tube case. The diesel generator was operated at constant speed of 1800 rpm at idle condition, 25% and 50% loads, respectively. Additionally, two real diesel cars were deployed with magnetic tube and their fuel consumption compared with that of a car without magnetic tube. With application of magnetic tube, the brake specific fuel consumption and fuel consumption were decreased by an average of 3.5% and 15%, respectively, while the brake thermal efficiency was improved by approximately 3.5%. The particulate matter, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide emissions reduced in the range of 21.9-33.3%, 5.4-11.3%, 29.4-64.7% and 2.68-4.18%, respectively. Both the total PAH concentrations and total BaPeq concentrations can be reduced by about 63%, 45% and 51%, respectively for idle condition, 25% and 50% loads, respectively. These results show that application of magnetic tubes in the diesel engine is a promising technology in pollutant reduction and energy saving. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right See full PDF download Download PDF Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 ISSN 1991-8178 © 2010, INSInet Publication Effect of Fuel Magnetism on Engine Performance and Emissions 1 Farrag A.El Fatih, 2Gad M.saber 1,2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Research Division, National Research Center, Dokki, Egypt Abstract: The current research investigates the effect of magnetic field on internal combustion engines. The study concentrates on engine performance parameters such as fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. The magnetic field was applied to S.I.E. using gasoline fuel. Moreover, the fuel is subjected to a permanent magnet mounted on fuel inlet lines. The experiments were conducted at different idling engine speeds. The exhaust gas emissions of CO, NO, and CH4 were measured by using an exhaust gas analyzer. The magnetic effect on fuel consumption reduction was up to 15%. CO reduction at all idling speed was range up to 7%. The effect on NO emission reduction at all idling speed was range up to 30%. The reduction of CH4 at all idling speed was range up to 40% Key words: Fuel Magnet-Fuel Consumption- Carbon Monoxide- Nitrogen Oxides- Hydrocarbons INTRODUCTION Today’s hydrocarbon fuels leave a natural deposit of carbon residue that clogs carburetor, fuel injector, leading to reduced efficiency and wasted fuel. Pinging, stalling, loss of horsepower and greatly decreased mileage on cars are very noticeable. The same is true of home heating units where improper combustion wasted fuel and cost, money in poor efficiency and repairs due to build up. Most fuels for internal combustion engine are liquid, fuels do not combust until they are vaporized and mixed with air. Most emission motor vehicle consists of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. Unburned hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen react in the atmosphere and create smog. Smog is prime cause of eye and throat irritation, noxious smell, plat damage and decreased visibility. Oxides of nitrogen are also toxic, Paul M (1993), Park K.S (1997) and Al Dossary et al, (2009) said. The combustion engine vehicle efficiency is about 9%. This means that the engine consumes more energy that it converts in movement. In other words, you pay more energy that you use. Scientists search about a method to reduce engine emissions and fuel consumption. A fuel magnet is a device that is strapped to the fuel line in your engine or each injector line on a diesel engine and makes the fuel more receptive to oxygen, thus producing a leaner more efficient combustion with less exhaust waste, as mentioned by Paul (1993), Park K.S, (1997), Zhao H (1997) and Crous et al, (1970). 2. Effect of Magnetism on Fuel Molecules: Fuel molecule consists of a number of atoms made up of number of nucleus and electrons, which orbit their nucleus. Magnetic movements already exist in their molecules and they therefore already have positive and negative electrical charges. However these molecules have not been realigned, the fuel is not actively inter- locked with oxygen during combustion, the fuel molecule or hydrocarbon chains must be ionized and realigned. The ionization and realignment is achieved through the application of magnetic field, as said by Paul (1993), Park K et al (1997). Fuel mainly consists of hydrocarbon and when fuel flows through a magnetic field, the hydrocarbon change their orientation and molecules of hydrocarbon change their configuration. At the same time inter molecular force is considerably reduced or depressed. These mechanisms are believed to help disperse oil particles and to become finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. The result is better fuel economy and reduction in hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen that are emitted though exhaust. The ionization fuel also helps to dissolve the carbon build-up in carburetor, jets, fuel injector and combustion chamber, there by keeping the engines clear condition. Corresponding Author: Farrag A.El Fatih, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Research Division, National Research Center, Dokki, Egypt 6354 Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 Fuel Magnet is installed on cars, trucks immediately before carburetor or injector on fuel line. The magnet for producing the magnetic field is oriented so that its South pole (red) is located adjacent the fuel line and its North pole (blue) is located spaced apart from the fuel line, Zhao H (1997) et al mentioned. Experimental Set up: The experimental work has been performed on a four cylinder four stroke S.I.E fueled with gasoline. The experimental set up used in the present work is designed to study engine performance and exhaust emissions concentrations using fuel magnet. Instrumentation for measuring fuel consumption, engine speed and emission analysis are included in the test rig. The specifications of the engine are listed in Table 1. The photographic view of the experimental test rig is illustrated in Fig.1. Table 1: Test Engine Specifications Engine parameters Specifications Company Waukesha Engine Model VRG 155U Number of cylinders Four Cycle Four stroke Cooling Water Cylinder diameter (mm) 92.075 Piston stroke (mm) 95.25 Connecting rod length (mm) 171.5 Compression ratio 8:1 Governing speed 1800 rpm Rated power (HP) 20 Experimental procedure: The engine was prepared to run as a petrol engine during all tests. An induction to the engine was designed and installed. The fuel system is designed to facilitate safe and accurate metering of the fuel flow rate. The gasoline fuel consumption is measured by Burette method. In this method, gasoline fuel system design consists of main gasoline fuel tank, gasoline fuel metering system (graduated one liter glass jar) and three control valves to deliver the fuel from the tank to the engine. The gasoline fuel system utilizes the gravity effect to feed the carburetor with gasoline. The gasoline fuel consumption flow rate is measured directly by using the graduated glass jar (1000 ml capacity and 10 ml division). A digital stopwatch of 0.1 second accuracy is used to measure the time required by the engine to consume a specific volume of gasoline from the graduated glass jar. A digital photo tachometer model (BRI 5045) is used for engine speed measurement. The tachometer has been fixed on the engine test rig close to the flywheel. A strip of reflective tape is applied to the engine flywheel. This digital photo tachometer has a measurement range up to 100000 rpm with a resolution of 0.1 rpm (0.5 to 999.9 rpm) and one rpm (over 1000 rpm). The exhaust gas analyzer is used to measure exhaust emissions from the engine during experimental tests was made of brand Madur type GA-21plus-flue gas analyzer. The main advantage of this analyzer is that the fuel type is programmable to automatically calculate the air to fuel ratio from the exhaust gases analysis. Fuel type can be chosen to be gasoline or CNG. The exhaust gas analyzer measures some gases such as some gases such as CO, NO and CO2 concentrations at every idling engine speed and equivalence ratio. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The main purpose of this work was to evaluate the following: 1. Fuel Consumption for S.I.E fueled with gasoline at different idling engine speeds with and without Fuel Magnet. 2. Effect of Fuel Magnet on CO Emission Levels at different idling engine speeds. 3. Effect of Fuel Magnet on CH4 Emission Levels at different idling engine speeds. 4. Effect of Fuel Magnet on NO Emission at different idling engine speeds. 4.1 Effect of Fuel Magnet on Engine Fuel Consumption: In Fig.2, the experimental results show that the fuel consumption of engine was less when the engine with fuel magnet than that without fuel magnet. Fuel consumption increases for the two fuels at all the idling speed range due to the increase in heat release rate. 6355 Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 Fig. 1: Photographic view of The Experimental Test Rig Fig. 2: Variation of Fuel Consumption at idling engine speeds of S.I.E with and without Fuel Magnet Inter molecular force is considerably reduced or depressed. These mechanisms are help disperse oil particles and to become finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. It is clear that the fuel consumption is reduced to about 15%. The result is better fuel economy. In Fig.3, the experimental work depicts the emissions concentrations of CO with speed. CO concentrations decrease when the engine fuelled with fuel magnet than that without fuel magnet. CO concentration increases for the two fuels at all the range of idling speed due to the incomplete combustion and the increase of heat release rate. The fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. The experiment revealed that CO concentration is reduced up to 7%. Fig. 3: Variation of CO Concentration with idling engine speeds of S.I.E with and without fuel magnet In Fig.4, the experimental work depicts the emissions concentrations of CH4 with speed. CH4 concentrations decrease when the engine fuelled with fuel magnet than that without fuel magnet. CH4 concentration decreases for the fuel at all the range of idling speed due to the incomplete combustion and the increase of heat release rate. Inter molecular force makes the fuel particles finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. It is found that the CH4 concentration is reduced by about 40%. The result is less hydrocarbons. 6356 Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 In Fig.5, the concentration of NO in the exhaust gases was found to decrease when using fuel magnet as than without fuel magnet case. The fuel magnet makes the fuel is more receptive to oxygen, thus producing a leaner more efficient combustion. The heat is liberated inside the cylinder per unit time and cooling becomes less efficient. When the idling engine speed increases, dissociation of N2 concentration increases due to the increase in the exhaust gas temperature. It was clear that the concentration of NO in the exhaust gases is reduced to about 30%. Fig. 4: Variation of CH4 Concentration with idling engine speeds of S.I.E fueled with and without fuel magnet Fig. 5: Variation of NO Concentration with idling engine speeds of S.I.E fueled with and without fuel magnet Conclusion and Recommendations: From the above experimental work, it is clear that it is worthy to use a permanent magnet on the fuel inlet line of the petrol engine. The experiments reveal that the magnetic effect on fuel consumption reduction was up to 15%. CO reduction at all idling speed was range up to 7%. The effect on NO emission reduction at all idling speed was range up to 30%. The reduction of CH4 at all idling speed was range up to 40% By using permanent magnet on gasoline fuel feeding system attached to internal combustion engine, it is recommended to conduct this method similarly to internal combustion engines fuelled by diesel fuel and CNG as well. Then the effect on engine performance and emissions reductions can be studied. It is very interesting to study the effect of variable magnet on the engine performance and emissions as. REFERENCES Paul, M. Fishbane et al, 1993. “Physics for Scientists and Engineers”, ISBN 0-13-663238-6, by Prentice- Hall, Inc. Park K.S. et al 1997. “Modulated Fuel Feedback control of a fuel injection engine using a switch type oxygen sensor”, Proc Instn Mech Engrs vol 211 partD, IMechE, Al Dossary, Rashid. M.A., 2009. \"The Effect of Magnetic Field on Combustion and Emissions\", Master's thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals. 6357 Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 Zhao, H., N. Ladommatos, 1997. “Engine performance monitoring using spark plug voltage analysis”, Proc Instn Mech Engrs vol 211 partD, IMechE, Crouse, W.H., 1970. “Automotive Engine Design”, Mc Graw-Hill. http://fuelsaving.info/magnets,htm. www.techalone.com http://fuelmagnet.ne. http://www.ecomagnets.com/thermoflow.htm. 6358 References (3) Paul, M. Fishbane et al, 1993. \"Physics for Scientists and Engineers\", ISBN 0-13-663238-6, by Prentice- Hall, Inc. Park K.S. et al 1997. \"Modulated Fuel Feedback control of a fuel injection engine using a switch type oxygen sensor\", Proc Instn Mech Engrs vol 211 partD, IMechE, Al Dossary, Rashid. M.A., 2009. \"The Effect of Magnetic Field on Combustion and Emissions\", Master's thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals. Zhao, H., N. Ladommatos, 1997. \"Engine performance monitoring using spark plug voltage analysis\", Proc Instn Mech Engrs vol 211 partD, IMechE, Crouse, W.H., 1970. \"Automotive Engine Design\", Mc Graw-Hill. http://fuelsaving.info/magnets,htm. www.techalone.com http://fuelmagnet.ne. http://www.ecomagnets.com/thermoflow.htm. Related papers Effects of Magnetic Field on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emissions in Two-Stroke Engine Saadi Al-Naseri Energy Procedia, 2012 The energy of permanent magnets was used in this research for the treatment of vehicle fuel (Iraqi gasoline), to reducing consumption, as well as reducing the emission of certain pollutants rates. The experiments in current research comprise the using of permanent magnets with different intensity (2000, 4000, 6000, 9000) Gauss, which installed on the fuel line of the two-stroke engine, and study its impact on gasoline consumption, as well as exhaust gases. For the purpose of comparing the results necessitated the search for experiments without the use of magnets. The overall performance and exhaust emission tests showed a good result, where the rate of reduction in gasoline consumption ranges between (-1) %, and the higher the value of a reduction in the rate of 1 % was obtained using field intensity 6000 Gauss as well as the intensity 9000 Gauss. It was found that the percentages of exhaust gas components (CO, HC) were decreased by 30%, 40% respectively, but CO 2 percentage increased up to 10%. Absorption Spectrum of infrared and ultraviolet radiation showed a change in physical and chemical properties in the structure of gasoline molecules under the influence of the magnetic field. Surface tension of gasoline exposed to different intensities of magnetic field was measured and compared with these without magnetization. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right The Effect of Magnet Strength and Engine Speed on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emission for Gasoline Vehicle IOSR Journals The study discusses the effect of magnet strength on fuel lines on fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship of magnet strength in fuel lines to fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. The research method uses pure experimental methods. using a free variable strong magnetic field (51, 102, 152, 202, and 249) gauss mounted on the fuel line and engine speed (1500 rpm, 2500 rpm, 3500 rpm, and 4500 rpm). while the dependent variable is fuel consumption (liter/hour) and exhaust gas emissions. Also, a Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR) test was performed to determine the group of fuel chemical compounds. The results showed the highest concentration of transmittance at a wavelength of 2850 cm‫¹-‬-2970 cm ‫¹-‬ amounted to 77.75% with a magnet strength of 249 gausses, when compared to standard vehicle conditions it was 33.05%. while the magnet strength of 249 gausses with 2500 rpm speed can save fuel consumption by 0.2 liters/hour. It also can reduce O exhaust gas levels by 4.16% (3500 rpm), reduce CO gas by 1.29% (2500 rpm), reduce CO₂ gas by 5.2% (1500 rpm), and reduce HC gas by 215, 66% (4500 rpm). download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right A Comparative Analysis of Influence of Magnetic Field on Fuel Consumption in Internal Combustion Engine IJSRD Journal Number of experiments in which influence of magnetic field with 1000 Gauss to 9000 Gauss intensity on working of Internal Combustion engine and exhaust emission is studied are considered for analysis. For this analytical study the experiments performed with both diesel and petrol engine are considered. Performance study of engine includes reduction in fuel consumption while the exhaust emission study includes reduction in CO, HC and other pollutants. The results show significant reduction in fuel consumption. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Effects of Gasoline Exposed to Magnetic Field to the Exhaust Emissions Mustafa taşyürek International Journal of Electrical Energy, 2015 Excessive increase in environmental pollution due to the use of fuels derived from petroleum in internal combustion engines will make it mandatory the widespread use of alternative fuels or economically usage of existing fuels. Studies are focused on the issues of using available resources in the most efficient way, because of the world's oil reserves began to decline. In this study, the changes in the exhaust emissions of an internal combustion engine that works using gasoline exposed to a magnetic field were investigated. Results of this study are compared with other studies and reports which were made for this issue. The magnetic field device used in this study led to the fall of the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions and improved the lambda value.  download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Performance of internal combustion ( CI ) engine under the influence of stong permanent magnetic field Krunal Mudafale 2013 The present study investigates the effect of magnetic field on the performance of single cylinder four stroke compression ignition engine. The study concentrates on the effect of magnetic field the engine performance parameters such as fuel consumption, break thermal efficiency and exhaust emissions and on fuel properties like density and calorific value. The magnetic field is applied along the fuel line. The magnetic field is applied with the help of strong permanent magnets of strength 5000 gauss. The experiments are conducted at different engine loading conditions. The exhaust gas emissions such as co, co2, hc and nox are measured by using an exhaust gas analyzer. With the application of magnetic field the percentage reduction in fuel consumption is about 12 %, the percentage reduction in hc and co is about 22% and 7 % respectively. The nox level in engine increases with the application of magnetic field. The percentage increase in nox is about 19%. The effect of magnetic field o... download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Utilization of magnetic devices to improve the performance and reduce gas emissions of Otto engine jaya arjuna IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 2019 Utilization of magnetic instrument is one effort to improve the performance and reduce exhaust emission produced by Otto engine. The experiments are done by varying the engine speed and variation of magnetic instrument mounting distance to the inlet valve when entering the combustion chamber. A magnetic instrument is installed in the intake manifold, before heading into the combustion chamber. The experimental results show that it is found that there is an increase in thermal efficiency and decreasing of fuel consumption when the engine uses 2500 gauss magnetic instrument ranging from 5.99 to 22.02%. The emissions of exhaust gas produced also reduced for CO and HC levels about 6-20%. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Emission Analysis of Single Cylinder CNG Engine Under the Influence of Magnetic Fuel Energizer Dr. Tushar M Patel The effect of magnetic field was used in this research for the treatment of vehicle fuel properties, to reducing fuel consumption and decreasing the emission of certain pollutants rates. The experiments in current research comprise the using of strong permanent magnets with different speed (1100, 1200, 1300, 1400) rpm, which installed on the inlet fuel pipe of the four-stroke engine, and study its effects on fuel consumption and exhaust emission. For the purpose of comparing the results required the search for experiments with and without the use of magnets. The all over performance and exhaust emission tests showed excellent result, it was found that the percentages of exhaust gas components (CO, HC) were decreased by 20%, 30% respectively, but CO2 percentage increased up to 15%. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Influence on performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine by introducing medium strength magnetic field in fuel and air lines Suraj Prakash IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 2020 Manufacturing In this work, the energy of electromagnet is used to treat the fuel and airline for reducing the fuel consumption and emissions in four-stroke diesel engine. The experiment comprises Internal Combustion (IC) Engine test rig and electromagnets with different intensities (4500, 6000, 8500 and 10000 gauss), are installed along the honeycomb structured mini channel fuel line and air suction line. Experiments are carried out in four-stroke diesel engine test rig for variable engine load by applying medium strength magnetic field on air and fuel supply line. The medium strength magnetic field is used to improve the atomization process effectively, due to that increment in the rate of disintegration of the droplets, as result the viscosity of the fuel decreases. Because of cohesive force between the fuel molecules are affected by the magnetic field and it leads to less surface tension force effect, thus helps to improve atomization process. It is observed that, the impact of ... download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right The Effect of Using Various Magnetic Materials on Diesel Engines using Biodiesel Fuel Hafiz Perdana International Journal of Marine Engineering Innovation and Research, 2020 ⎯ one of method to improve engine performance and reduce fuel consumption is to use exposure to magnetic fields in the fuel lines. Several studies have proven that magnetic field exposure can improve diesel engine performance. This research aims to test the performance of a diesel engine using fuels that are given a magnetic field from 3 types of permanent magnets, namely magnets made from Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB), Aluminum Nickel Cobalt (AlNiCo), and Ferrite (Fe). Performance tests on the Yanmar TF85MH diesel engine include power and torque. The fuel used in this research is Biodiesel B20. The results showed that neodymium magnets (NdFeB) are the best magnets of the 3 types of magnets tested with an average increase in power of 2.30%, an average increase in torque of 2.35%. download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right Impact of Magnetic Field Strengthening on Combustion Performance of Low-Octane Fuel in Two-Stroke Engine Nur Aji Wibowo Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika Indonesia The impacts of strengthening magnetic field exposure on combustion performance of low-octane fuel have been examined experimentally. The combustion test was carried out using a 2-stroke 49 cc engine where the fuel was magnetized using a low magnetic field (<2 kG). Moreover, the molecular behavior of magnetized fuel was also characterized through spectrum tests using NIR and UV-Vis spectrophotometers. The result of this study indicates an exponential decrease of magnetized fuel consumption against the strengthening of magnetic field exposure. This exponential decrease of consumption can be related to the Arrhenius principle. In addition, the decrease of oxygen in the exhaust gas along with the strengthening of the magnetic field also confirms the increase of combustion reactions. Meanwhile, the increase of magnetized fuel absorption against ultraviolet and near-infrared lights along with the increase of the magnetic field intensity indicates a bond weakening, accompanied by the in... download Download free PDF View PDF chevron_right keyboard_arrow_down View more papers Explore Papers Topics Features Mentions Analytics PDF Packages Advanced Search Search Alerts Journals Academia.edu Journals My submissions Reviewer Hub Why publish with us Testimonials Company About Careers Press Help Center Terms Privacy Copyright Content Policy 580 California St., Suite 400 San Francisco, CA, 94104 © 2025 Academia. All rights reserved"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Analysis of the influence of an N45 magnet orientation (11,000 Gauss) on palm oil droplet combustion. Field orientation (N-S or S-N) is crucial for optimizing the combustion rate [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant (11000 Gauss) combiné au préchauffage peut améliorer la combustion des biocarburants lourds."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Analysis of the influence of a 0.18 Tesla (1800 Gauss) magnetic field on marine diesel (4ЧН9,5/11). The treatment modifies the diesel structure, reducing viscosity. Results show SFC reduction up to 15.38% and CO reduction of 41.20%.", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme constant fluidifie le diesel, ce qui mène à une meilleure efficacité (15,38% d'économie) et réduit le CO (41%)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Выпуск4 941 2019 год. Том 11. № 5 DOI: 10.21821/2309-5180-2019-11-5-941-950 TECHNOLOGY OF FUELS MAGNETIC PROCESSING FOR DIESEL ENGINES OF FISHING AND TRANSPORT VESSELS N. A. Pivovarova, A. F. Dorokhov, R. Velez Parra Astrakhan State Technical University, Astrakhan, Russian Federation Priority task when using ship motor fuel is reduction of its consumption and reduction of harmful emissions into the environment. For the fishery fleet the share of fuel costs in the prime cost structure of extracted fish often exceeds 40%. Exhaust fumes contain products of uncomplete combustion of fuel: carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, soot particles. Along with traditionally used physical and chemical methods of fuel preparation wave influences are also applied. One of the most effective, available and inexpensive methods of wave effects of processing is magnetic processing, i.e. exposure to a moving fluid flow by a constant magnetic field. The purpose of this work is to reduce fuel consumption and carbon monoxide concentrations in exhaust gases by means of constant magnetic field action on the diesel fuel flow in the interval of magnetic field induction of 0.10 - 0.25 T and a linear flow velocity of 0.15-1.1 m/s at triple intersection of active zones by fuel. The results of experimental studies of influencing the magnetic processing of diesel fuel on engine operation indicators carried out on a test bench on the full-size diesel engine are considered. Magnetic processing is carried out in a three-section magnetic tunnel. The method of mathematical planning of experiment according to the scheme of the orthogonal plan of the second order has been applied to determine the optimal parameters of magnetic processing. It has been established that fuel consumption under optimal conditions corresponds to 5% of fuel economy compared with the raw fuel consumption, at the same time the carbon monoxide content in the exhaust gases decreases by 1.7 times. Values of the varied parameters make 0.18 T and 0.7 m/s. Observed effects are explained by the fact that the influence of constant magnetic field on moving fuel flow is resulted by change of its disperse structure that leads to reduction of viscosity, density, superficial tension, flash temperature and other indicators. This, in turn, contributes to the formation a highly dispersed fuel-air mixture and a more complete combustion of hydrocarbons, as a result of which the fuel consumption and the content of carbon monoxide in the exhaust gases are reduced. Keywords: ship fuel, diesel fuel, fuel consumption, exhaust gases, magnetic processing. For citation: Pivovarova, Nadezhda A., Aleksandr F. Dorokhov, and Rikardo Velez Parra. “Technology of fuels mag- netic processing for diesel engines of fishing and transport vessels.” Vestnik Gosudarstvennogo universiteta morskogo i rechnogo flota imeni admirala S. O. Makarova 11.5 (2019): 941–950. DOI: 10.21821/2309-5180- 2019-11-5-941-950. УДК 665.753.4.004.18:[621.436] ТЕХНОЛОГИЯ МАГНИТНОЙ ОБРАБОТКИ ТОПЛИВ ДЛЯ ДИЗЕЛЕЙ РЫБОПРОМЫСЛОВЫХ И ТРАНСПОРТНЫХ СУДОВ Н. А. Пивоварова, А. Ф. Дорохов, Р. Велес Парра ФГБОУ ВО «Астраханский государственный технический университет», Астрахань, Российская Федерация Отмечается, что приоритетной задачей при использовании судового моторного топлива является уменьшение его расхода и снижение выбросов вредных веществ в окружающую среду. Для рыбопромысло- вого флота доля затрат на топливо в структуре себестоимости добываемой рыбы зачастую превышает 40 %. Выхлопные газы содержат продукты неполного сгорания топлива: моноксид углерода, несгоревшие углеводороды и сажевые частицы. Наряду с традиционно используемыми физическими и химическими методами подготовки топлива применяют волновые воздействия. Одним из наиболее эффективных, 4 к с у п ы В 942 5 № .11 моТ .дог 9102 доступных и недорогих методов волновых воздействий обработки является магнитная обработка, т. е. воздействие постоянным магнитным полем на поток движущейся жидкости. Целью настоящей работы является снижение расхода топлива и концентрации моноксида угле- рода в отработавших газах посредством воздействия постоянного магнитного поля на поток дизельно- го топлива в интервале индукции магнитного поля 0,10–0,25 Тл и линейной скорости потока 0,15–1,1 м/с при трехкратном пересечении топливом активных зон. Рассмотрены результаты экспериментальных исследований влияния магнитной обработки дизельного топлива на показатели работы двигателя, про- веденных на испытательном стенде. Предварительная магнитная обработка была проведена в трех- секционном магнитном туннеле. Для определения оптимальных параметров магнитной обработки был применен метод математического планирования эксперимента по схеме ортогонального плана второго порядка. Установлено, что расход топлива при оптимальных условиях соответствует 5 % экономии то- плива по сравнению с расходом необработанного топлива, при этом содержание моноксида углерода в от- работавших газах уменьшается в 1,7 раза. Значение варьируемых параметров составляет 0,18 Тл и 0,7 м/с. Доказано, что наблюдаемые эффекты объясняются тем, что в результате воздействия постоянного маг- нитного поля на движущийся поток топлива происходит изменение его дисперсной структуры, что ведет к уменьшению вязкости, плотности, поверхностного натяжения, температуры вспышки и других пока- зателей, а это, в свою очередь, способствует образованию высокодисперсной топливо-воздушной смести и более полному горению углеводородов, в результате снижается расход топлива и содержание моноксида углерода в отработавших газах. Ключевые слова: судовое топливо, дизельное топливо, расход топлива, выхлопные газы, магнитная обработка. Для цитирования: Пивоварова Н. А. Технология магнитной обработки топлив для дизелей рыбопромысловых и транс- портных судов / Н. А. Пивоварова, А. Ф. Дорохов, Р. Велес Парра // Вестник Государственного уни- верситета морского и речного флота имени адмирала С. О. Макарова. — 2019. — Т. 11. — № 5. — С. 941–950. DOI: 10.21821/2309-5180-2019-11-5-941-950. Введение (Introduction) Приоритетной задачей при использовании судового моторного топлива является уменьше- ние его расхода и снижение выбросов вредных веществ в окружающую среду. Отработавшие газы содержат несгоревшие углеводороды и продукты поликонденсации ароматических структур, ко- торые обладают канцерогенным действием, сажевые частицы, моноксид углерода и др. Топливо также может содержать механические примеси, загрязняющие его в процессе хранения, транс- портировки, слива-налива и в других случаях, способных вызвать эрозию, абразивный износ и не- стабильную работу двигателя. Высокий расход топлива ухудшает экономические показатели работы двигателя, увеличи- вает транспортные расходы и, соответственно, приводит к удорожанию всех работ, связанных с эксплуатацией транспорта. Для рыбопромыслового флота доля затрат на топливо в структуре себестоимости добываемой рыбы достигает 43 % [1]. Поэтому совершенствование топливосбере- гающих технологий в судовых энергетических установках имеет значительный экономический и социальный эффект. Для улучшения работы дизельного двигателя используют различные хи- мические и физические методы. Химические методы заключаются во введении в топливо приса- док на том или ином этапе производства или эксплуатации. Разработаны присадки с различными функциями, которые снижают испаряемость, улучшают низкотемпературные свойства топлива, интенсифицируют процесс сгорания, а также снижают выбросы экологически опасных веществ. Многие из них вводят на стадии производства топлив, некоторые — непосредственно перед пода- чей топлива к двигателю, например, антикоррозионные, диспергирующие и др. Наряду с очевид- ными преимуществами химического метода, обнаружены и его недостатки. Стоимость присадок весьма высока, их взаимодействие с топливом может иметь побочные эффекты, так же, как и об- разование новых продуктов сгорания. Физические методы являются безреагентными и заключаются в отстаивании, центрифуги- ровании и фильтровании топлив, которые позволяют избавиться от взвешенных частиц механиче- ских примесей и воды. Наряду с традиционно используемыми физическими методами подготовки Выпуск4 943 2019 год. Том 11. № 5 топлива применяют волновые воздействия. Одним из наиболее эффективных, доступных и недо- рогих методов волновых воздействий обработки является магнитная обработка, представляющая воздействие постоянным магнитным полем на поток движущейся жидкости. В литературе наряду с термином «магнитная обработка» встречаются также такие, как «омагничивание», «активация», «кондиционирование», «индуцирование» и др. Прибор, создающий магнитное поле, называют магнетизатором, магнитным устройством, магнитным активатором, магнитным кондиционером, магнетоном и даже катализатором, хотя последнее определение, скорее, образное. Проводятся многочисленные исследования по поиску оптимальных режимов, конструк- ций, комбинаций воздействия постоянным магнитным полем на топлива, используемые на ав- тотранспорте и судовых дизелях, в частности на дистиллятные дизельные топлива. Так, воздей- ствие постоянным магнитным полем на дизельное топливо привело к уменьшению его расхода на 2–20 % [2]–17] и увеличению тепловой эффективности двигателя на 5 % [3], [4]. Авторы рабо- ты [3] отмечают, что эффект от магнитной обработки увеличивается по мере роста магнитной ин- дукции от 0,8 – 1,1 Тл, причем наибольший эффект достигается при невысоких нагрузках мотора. Интересные результаты получены в источнике [6] при исследовании магнитной обработки смесе- вого биодизельного топлива: при прочих равных условиях, по мере увеличения доли биодизеля в смеси от 0 до 20 % эффект от обработки возрастал в несколько раз. Плотность отработавших газов уменьшается на 15 % [3]. В многочисленных источни- ках [2]–[14] отмечается, что в составе отработавших газов содержание моноксида углерода уменьшается на 4–30 %, несгоревших углеводородов — на 27–30 %. В описании эффектов «ин- дукционного катализатора» [15] эти величины еще больше — в 3–4 раза соответственно, а дан- ные по количеству окислов азота расходятся принципиально. Так, результаты исследований [2], [4] показали, что содержание окислов азота в составе отработавших газов возросло на 18–20 %, авторы источника [9] отмечают отсутствие изменений в концентрации NO , а в работах [5], [6] x приведены данные об их уменьшении на 1,5–5 %, в то время как авторами работ [8], [15] обна- ружено более резкое снижение окислов азота — на 25–28 %. Как показано в работах [10], [11], в зависимости от нагрузки двигателя и места установки магнитного устройства содержание ок- сидов азота в топливе может изменяться как в сторону увеличения, так и уменьшения. Такой разброс в эффектах магнитной обработки объясняется тем, что подходы, терминология, методы и критерии оценки зачастую значительно отличаются, а некоторые исследования дублируются из-за недостаточной осведомленности их авторов об уже представленных в научной литературе результатах. Строгое сравнение результатов затруднительно, так как об условиях проведения экспериментов в открытых источниках приводится отрывочная информация. Целью настоящей работы является снижение расхода дизельного топлива и концентрации моноксида углерода в отработавших газах посредством воздействия постоянного магнитного поля на поток топлива в интервале индукции магнитного поля 0,10–0,25 Тл и линейной скорости по- тока 0,15–1,1 м/с при трехкратном пересечении топливом активных зон. Методы и материалы (Methods and materials) Основными параметрами воздействия постоянного магнитного поля на поток жидкости (магнитной обработки), оказывающими влияние на ее эффективность, являются: магнитная ин- дукция, скорость потока в активной зоне, количество пересечений магнитного поля, величина активного зазора, а также температура среды. На практике значение магнитной индукции изме- няют от 0,05 Тл до 1,3 Тл. Величина зазора колеблется от 3 до 20 мм, количество активных зон — от 2 до 4. Скорость пересечения жидкости активного зазора составляет от десятых до сотых доли метра до нескольких метров в секунду. Соответственно время пребывания в активном зазоре мо- жет изменяться от долей секунд, до нескольких минут. Важным моментом является условие пер- пендикулярного пересечения линий магнитного поля и направления потока жидкости. В настоящее время, ввиду дефицита современных отечественных судовых дизелей, полу- чила распространение практика конвертирования автотракторных дизелей в судовые, в том числе 4 к с у п ы В 944 5 № .11 моТ .дог 9102 двигателей КАМАЗ. Конвертирование производится на судоремонтных заводах по технологии, одобренной Российским морским регистром судоходства и Российским речным регистром. Экс- периментальные исследования влияния магнитной обработки дизельного топлива на показатели работы двигателя проводили на испытательном стенде КИ-5540 М, оборудованном двигателем КАМАЗ-740 при следующих условиях: скорость вращения коленчатого вала 2200–2300 мин–1, на- грузка на двигатель 386,9–369,1 Н⋅м. Физико-химические свойства дизельного топлива приведены в табл. 1. Таблица 1 Физико-химические свойства дизельного топлива № п. п. Наименование Значение 1 Плотность, кг/м3 849 2 Температура воспламенения, ºС 72 3 Цетановое число 54 4 Вязкость кинематическая при 20 °С, мм2/с 3,22 5 Фракционный состав, выкипает при, ºС: Начало кипения 184 10 % об. 218 20 % об. 238 50 % об. 284 96 % об. 357 Конец кипения 362 6 Кислотность, мг/ КОН на 100 см3 топлива 3,2 7 Коксуемость 10 % остатка, % мас. 0,028 8 Содержание серы, % мас. 0,44 9 Цвет в единицах ЦНТ 2,0 Для магнитной обработки использовали трехсекционный магнетизатор — электромагнит- ный туннель [18], который был установлен на входе в насос высокого давления. Индукцию магнит- ного поля изменяли путем регулирования силы тока через обмотку электромагнитного туннеля, линейную скорость потока в активном зазоре — изменением сечения диаметра топливопровода. Для определения оптимальных параметров магнитной обработки был применен метод ма- тематического планирования эксперимента по схеме ортогонального плана второго порядка. Ос- новной уровень, интервалы варьирования и границы области исследования приведены в табл. 2, в табл. 3 приведена матрица планирования ортогонального плана второго порядка. В качестве параметров оптимизации были выбраны расход топлива и содержание моноксида углерода в выхлопных газах. Расход топлива замеряли объемный методом, с точностью до одной сотой дм3/ч. Содержание моноксида углерода в отработавших газах определяли с помощью газо- анализатора Автотест-02.02.П с погрешностью измерения 3 % отн. Каждое измерение проводили не менее трех раз. Результат определяли как среднее арифметическое трех измерений. Таблица 2 Основной уровень, интервалы варьирования и границы области исследования Индукция Скорость потока Факторы магнитного поля, Тл через магнитное поле, м/с Обозначение в безразмерной Х Х 1 2 системе координат Х i Нижний уровень (–1) 0,10 0,15 Основной уровень (0) 0,175 0,61 Верхний уровень (+1) 0,25 1,08 Интервал варьирования DХ 0,075 0,465 i Выпуск4 945 2019 год. Том 11. № 5 Таблица 3 Матрица планирования ортогонального плана второго порядка Номер опыта X X X XX X2–2/3 X2–2/3 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 +1 -1 -1 +1 1/3 1/3 2 +1 +1 -1 -1 1/3 1/3 3 +1 -1 +1 -1 1/3 1/3 4 +1 +1 +1 +1 1/3 1/3 5 +1 +1 0 0 1/3 –2/3 6 +1 -1 0 0 1/3 –2/3 7 +1 0 +1 0 –2/3 1/3 8 +1 0 -1 0 –2/3 1/3 9 +1 0 0 0 –2/3 –2/3 Результаты (Results) Экспериментальные исследования влияния параметров магнитной обработки (магнитной индукции и линейной скорости потока через активный зазор) в соответствии с планом (см. табл. 3) показали результаты, приведенные в табл. 4. После отсева незначимых коэффициентов по крите- рию Стьюдента получили уравнение регрессии второго порядка: Y = 26,56 – 0,15X – 0,14X X + 0,28X 2 + 0,53X 2. (1) р 2 1 2 1 2 Для определения условий минимального значения расхода топлива (Y ) был найден центр min поверхности отклика. Координаты центра S следующие: ∂Y /∂X = - 0,14X + 0,56X = 0; (2) р 1 2 1 ∂Y /∂X = -0,15 - 0,14X + 1,06X = 0. (3) р 2 1 2 Таким образом, X = 0,037 и X = 0,146. 1S 2S Таблица 4 Результаты экспериментов по оптимизации режима магнитной обработки по критерию расхода топлива Номер опыта Y Y Y Y Y (Y –Y )2 i1 i2 i3 iср iр iср iр 1 27,3 27,1 27,3 27,2 27,4 0,023 2 27,8 27,8 28,0 27,9 27,5 0,044 3 27,1 27,1 27,3 27,2 27,4 0,032 4 27,2 27,3 27,3 27,3 27,1 0,032 5 26,6 26,7 26,7 26,7 26,8 0,036 6 26,8 27,0 27,2 27,0 26,8 0,023 7 26,9 27,0 26,9 27,0 26,9 0,000 8 26,9 27,1 27,5 27,2 27,2 0,003 9 26,7 26,5 26,7 26,6 26,6 0,004 Y –Y — результаты параллельных определений расхода топлива, дм3/ч; i1 i3 Y — среднее арифметические значения расхода топлива, дм3/ч; iср Y — расчетные значения расхода топлива, дм3/ч. iр Поверхность отклика — это эллиптический параболоид с минимумом в точке S. В сечениях поверхности плоскостями Y = const наблюдаются эллипсы (изолинии расхода топлива) с поворо- том осей координат вследствие наличия эффекта взаимодействия X X (рис. 1). 1 2 4 к с у п ы В 946 5 № .11 моТ .дог 9102 Рис. 1. Изолинии расхода дизельного топлива: X — фактор магнитной индукции; 1 Х — фактор скорости потока через магнитное поле 2 Расход топлива при оптимальных условиях (Y = 26,6 дм3/ч) соответствует 5 % экономии рS топлива по сравнению с расходом необработанного топлива. Значение исследуемых факторов в натуральном масштабе составляет 0,18 Тл и 0,7 м/с. Аналогичным образом изучено влияние ука- занных факторов магнитной обработки на содержание СО в отработавших газах (параметр опти- мизации). В табл. 2, 3 и 5 приведены, соответственно, основной уровень, интервалы варьирования и границы области исследования, матрица планирования ортогонального плана второго порядка и результаты экспериментов. Содержание моноксида углерода в отработавших газах необработан- ного дизельного топлива составило 1,71 % об. Таблица 5 Результаты экспериментов по оптимизации режима магнитной обработки по критерию содержания моноксида углерода в отработавших газах Номер опыта Z Z Z Z Z (Z – Z )2 i1 i2 i3 срi рi срi рi 1 1,62 1,54 1,42 1,53 1,61 0,0068 2 1,81 1,98 1,77 1,85 1,76 0,0091 3 1,64 1,43 1,49 1,52 1,60 0,0067 4 1,44 1,69 1,52 1,55 1,45 0,0093 5 1,25 1,04 1,15 1,15 1,24 0,0094 6 1,21 1,30 1,43 1,31 1,24 0,0049 7 1,38 1,17 1,25 1,27 1,28 0,0002 8 1,53 1,31 1,43 1,42 1,44 0,0002 9 1,01 092 1,13 1,02 1,00 0,0007 После отсева незначимых коэффициентов по критерию Стьюдента получили уравнение ре- грессии второго порядка: Z = 0,998 – 0,078Х – 0,074Х Х + 0,247Х 2 + 0,362Х 2. (4) ср 2 1 2 1 2 Для определения условия минимального значения расхода топлива (Z ) был найден центр мин поверхности отклика (рис. 2). Координаты центра S следующие: ∂Z /∂X = -0,074X + 0,494X = 0; (5) р 1 2 1 ∂Z /∂X = -0,078 – 0,074X + 0,724X = 0. (6) р 2 1 2 Таким образом, X = 0,026 и X = 0,174. 1S 2S Выпуск4 947 2019 год. Том 11. № 5 Рис. 2. Изолинии содержания моноксида углерода в выхлопных газах: X — фактор магнитной индукции; 1 Х — фактор скорости потока через магнитное поле 2 Как и в предыдущем случае, поверхность отклика является эллиптическим параболоидом с минимумом в точке S с поворотом осей координат вследствие наличия эффекта взаимодействия X X (см. рис. 2). При оптимальных условиях магнитной обработки (Z = 1,00 % об.) содержание 1 2 рS моноксида углерода снижается в 1,7 раза по сравнению с тем же показателем для необработанного топлива. Значение исследуемых факторов в натуральном масштабе составляет 0,18 Тл и 0,7 м/с. Обсуждение (Discussion) Для объяснения влияния постоянного магнитного поля на нефтяные системы и, в частности, на топливо, существует практически единая точка зрения: магнитная обработка снижает плотность, вязкость, поверхностное натяжение и увеличивает степень дисперсности дизельного топлива. Так, например, авторы публикации [2] наблюдали снижение плотности топлива после магнитной об- работки с 826,44 до 824,67 кг/м3, а теплота сгорания увеличивалась с 42223,52 до 42408,55 кДж/кг. Уменьшение поверхностного натяжения достигает 10 % [15], что, в свою очередь, приводит к обра- зованию более мелких капель в топливовоздушной смеси, облегчает процессы распада топливных струй, испарения капель топлива, их смесеобразование с горячей и движущейся газовоздушной средой, способствуя более полному горению топливно-воздушной смеси. В результате снижают- ся расход топлива и выброс продуктов неполного сжигания: моноксида углерода и несгоревших углеводородов. При рассмотрении механизма действия постоянного магнитного поля основное противоре- чие заключается в том, что в одних работах нефтепродукты рассматриваются как зарядовые кол- лоидные системы, в других — как нефтяные дисперсные системы (НДС), где межмолекулярные взаимодействия (ММВ) определяются обменными взаимодействиями между нейтральными ча- стицами-радикалами или радикалполяризованными частицами. Так, например, полярно-зарядо- вый подход использован в работе, авторы которой [16] считают, что в дизельном топливе имеются полярные компоненты, подверженные при движении в постоянном магнитном поле силе Лорен- ца. Действие этой силы, как известно, направлено перпендикулярно вектору движения заряжен- ной частицы по правилу Ленца. В результате плотные группы молекул (кластеры) разделяются на более мелкие и упорядоченные фрагменты. Явлением ионизации топлива объясняют в рабо- тах [3], [17] повышение эффективности сжигания топлива, его экономию и снижение выбросов в окружающую среду. Однако известно, что нефтепродукты, в частности дизельные топлива, со- стоят из углеводородных молекул, преимущественно содержащих длинные алифатические цепи. Эти молекулы нейтральны, а связи в них являются ковалентными, а не ионными, т. е. не имею- щими зарядов. Отсутствие ионов или зарядово-полярных молекул в нефтяных системах доказано прямыми измерениями диэлектрической проницаемости и опытам по электрофорезу [19]. Таким 4 к с у п ы В 948 5 № .11 моТ .дог 9102 образом, постоянное магнитное поле в интервале применяемых магнитных индукций не влияет на молекулы топлива через силу Лоренца и не разрывает их на ионы. Более обоснован механизм, согласно которому нефтяные топлива представляют собой слож- ную многокомпонентную нефтяную систему, проявляющую коллоидно-дисперсные свойства. Дис- персная фаза такой системы состоит из ядра, содержащего высокомолекулярные парафины и пара- магнитные молекулы смол, адсорбированные на их поверхности. Парамагнетизм молекул обусловлен нескомпенсированными спинами электронов, что, в свою очередь, делает эти молекулы «чувстви- тельными» к внешнему магнитному полю. Для средних нефтяных дистиллятов число парамагнитных центров оценивается в интервале 1015– 1016 спин/г, наличие гетероатомов и микроэлементов усилива- ет квантово-механические эффекты, так как большинство из них имеют значительное количество не- спаренных электронов. Ядро дисперсной фазы окружено оболочкой, слои которой, по мере удаления от ядра, становятся менее парамагнитными, а силы межмолекулярного взаимодействия с ядром дис- персной частицы ослабевают. Дисперсионная среда образована из диамагнитных молекул [19]. Парамагнитные молекулы (их неспаренные спины) ориентируются во внешнем магнитном поле в направлении вектора поля. В постоянном магнитном поле это приводит к изменению вза- имного расположения молекул из-за поворотов, деформации ассоциатов дисперсной фазы с по- терей части внешних слоев и перехода их в дисперсионную среду. В результате такой перестрой- ки возникает более упорядоченная сильно коррелированная организация дисперсной структуры с меньшими размерами частиц дисперсной фазы. Воздействие постоянного магнитного поля «фиксирует» новую структуру НДС, характеризующуюся большей гомогенностью и парамаг- нитной активностью, меньшей вязкостью и поверхностным натяжением. Заключение (Conclusion) На основе экспериментальных исследований воздействия постоянным магнитным полем на поток дизельного топлива (0,1–0,25 Тл и 0,5–1,08 м/с) на стандартном стендовом двигателе с це- лью уменьшения расхода топлива и содержания моноксида углерода в отработавших газах полу- чены следующие результаты: 1. 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ИНФОРМАЦИЯ ОБ АВТОРАХ INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHORS Пивоварова Надежда Анатольевна — Pivovarova, Nadezhda A. — доктор технических наук, профессор Dr. of Technical Sciences, professor ФГБОУ ВО «Астраханский государственный Astrakhan State технический университет» Technical University 414056, Российская Федерация, Астрахань, 16 Tatishcheva Str., Astrakhan, 414025, ул. Татищева, 16 Russian Federation e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] Дорохов Александр Фёдорович — Dorokhov, Aleksandr F. — доктор технических наук, профессор Dr. of Technical Sciences, professor ФГБОУ ВО «Астраханский государственный Astrakhan State технический университет» Technical University 414056, Российская Федерация, Астрахань, 16 Tatishcheva Str., Astrakhan, 414025, ул. Татищева, 16 Russian Federation e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] Велес Парра Рикардо — Velez Parra, Rikardo — кандидат технических наук PhD ФГБОУ ВО «Астраханский государственный Astrakhan State технический университет» Technical University 414056, Российская Федерация, Астрахань, 16 Tatishcheva Str., Astrakhan, 414025, ул. Татищева, 16 Russian Federation e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] Статья поступила в редакцию 3 сентября 2019 г. Received: September 3, 2019."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~249 Gauss ; magnetic field ~1881.0 Tesla ; CO -6.79 % ; HC -7.41 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est une technologie anti-tartre."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Review on fuel magnetization (5000 Gauss). Compiled data cite SFC reductions up to 15.00% and CO reductions up to 7.00%, due to improved combustion.", "fr_vulgarise": "Revue citant des gains de consommation (15%) et de réduction de CO (9%) grâce au magnétisme (5000 Gauss)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265413098 Effect of Fuel Magnetism on Engine Performance and Emissions Article in Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences · December 2010 CITATIONS READS 23 4,888 2 authors, including: Mohammed Saber Gad Fayoum University 32 PUBLICATIONS 74 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Environmental medicine: social and medical aspects View project Introducing new Laser techniques in combustion and measuring View project All content following this page was uploaded by Mohammed Saber Gad on 13 September 2014. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 ISSN 1991-8178 © 2010, INSInet Publication Effect of Fuel Magnetism on Engine Performance and Emissions 1Farrag A.El Fatih, 2Gad M.saber 1,2Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Research Division, National Research Center, Dokki, Egypt Abstract: The current research investigates the effect of magnetic field on internal combustion engines. The study concentrates on engine performance parameters such as fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. The magnetic field was applied to S.I.E. using gasoline fuel. Moreover, the fuel is subjected to a permanent magnet mounted on fuel inlet lines. The experiments were conducted at different idling engine speeds. The exhaust gas emissions of CO, NO, and CH were measured by 4 using an exhaust gas analyzer. The magnetic effect on fuel consumption reduction was up to 15%. CO reduction at all idling speed was range up to 7%. The effect on NO emission reduction at all idling speed was range up to 30%. The reduction of CH at all idling speed was range up to 40% 4 Key words: Fuel Magnet-Fuel Consumption- Carbon Monoxide- Nitrogen Oxides- Hydrocarbons INTRODUCTION Today’s hydrocarbon fuels leave a natural deposit of carbon residue that clogs carburetor, fuel injector, leading to reduced efficiency and wasted fuel. Pinging, stalling, loss of horsepower and greatly decreased mileage on cars are very noticeable. The same is true of home heating units where improper combustion wasted fuel and cost, money in poor efficiency and repairs due to build up. Most fuels for internal combustion engine are liquid, fuels do not combust until they are vaporized and mixed with air. Most emission motor vehicle consists of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. Unburned hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen react in the atmosphere and create smog. Smog is prime cause of eye and throat irritation, noxious smell, plat damage and decreased visibility. Oxides of nitrogen are also toxic, Paul M (1993), Park K.S (1997) and Al Dossary et al, (2009) said. The combustion engine vehicle efficiency is about 9%. This means that the engine consumes more energy that it converts in movement. In other words, you pay more energy that you use. Scientists search about a method to reduce engine emissions and fuel consumption. A fuel magnet is a device that is strapped to the fuel line in your engine or each injector line on a diesel engine and makes the fuel more receptive to oxygen, thus producing a leaner more efficient combustion with less exhaust waste, as mentioned by Paul (1993), Park K.S, (1997), Zhao H (1997) and Crous et al, (1970). 2. Effect of Magnetism on Fuel Molecules: Fuel molecule consists of a number of atoms made up of number of nucleus and electrons, which orbit their nucleus. Magnetic movements already exist in their molecules and they therefore already have positive and negative electrical charges. However these molecules have not been realigned, the fuel is not actively inter- locked with oxygen during combustion, the fuel molecule or hydrocarbon chains must be ionized and realigned. The ionization and realignment is achieved through the application of magnetic field, as said by Paul (1993), Park K et al (1997). Fuel mainly consists of hydrocarbon and when fuel flows through a magnetic field, the hydrocarbon change their orientation and molecules of hydrocarbon change their configuration. At the same time inter molecular force is considerably reduced or depressed. These mechanisms are believed to help disperse oil particles and to become finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. The result is better fuel economy and reduction in hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen that are emitted though exhaust. The ionization fuel also helps to dissolve the carbon build-up in carburetor, jets, fuel injector and combustion chamber, there by keeping the engines clear condition. Corresponding Author:Farrag A.El Fatih, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Research Division, National Research Center, Dokki, Egypt 6354 Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 Fuel Magnet is installed on cars, trucks immediately before carburetor or injector on fuel line. The magnet for producing the magnetic field is oriented so that its South pole (red) is located adjacent the fuel line and its North pole (blue) is located spaced apart from the fuel line, Zhao H (1997) et al mentioned. Experimental Set up: The experimental work has been performed on a four cylinder four stroke S.I.E fueled with gasoline. The experimental set up used in the present work is designed to study engine performance and exhaust emissions concentrations using fuel magnet. Instrumentation for measuring fuel consumption, engine speed and emission analysis are included in the test rig. The specifications of the engine are listed in Table 1. The photographic view of the experimental test rig is illustrated in Fig.1. Table 1: Test Engine Specifications Engine parameters Specifications Company Waukesha Engine Model VRG 155U Number of cylinders Four Cycle Four stroke Cooling Water Cylinder diameter (mm) 92.075 Piston stroke (mm) 95.25 Connecting rod length (mm) 171.5 Compression ratio 8:1 Governing speed 1800 rpm Rated power (HP) 20 Experimental procedure: The engine was prepared to run as a petrol engine during all tests. An induction to the engine was designed and installed. The fuel system is designed to facilitate safe and accurate metering of the fuel flow rate. The gasoline fuel consumption is measured by Burette method. In this method, gasoline fuel system design consists of main gasoline fuel tank, gasoline fuel metering system (graduated one liter glass jar) and three control valves to deliver the fuel from the tank to the engine. The gasoline fuel system utilizes the gravity effect to feed the carburetor with gasoline. The gasoline fuel consumption flow rate is measured directly by using the graduated glass jar (1000 ml capacity and 10 ml division). A digital stopwatch of 0.1 second accuracy is used to measure the time required by the engine to consume a specific volume of gasoline from the graduated glass jar. A digital photo tachometer model (BRI 5045) is used for engine speed measurement. The tachometer has been fixed on the engine test rig close to the flywheel. A strip of reflective tape is applied to the engine flywheel. This digital photo tachometer has a measurement range up to 100000 rpm with a resolution of 0.1 rpm (0.5 to 999.9 rpm) and one rpm (over 1000 rpm). The exhaust gas analyzer is used to measure exhaust emissions from the engine during experimental tests was made of brand Madur type GA-21plus-flue gas analyzer. The main advantage of this analyzer is that the fuel type is programmable to automatically calculate the air to fuel ratio from the exhaust gases analysis. Fuel type can be chosen to be gasoline or CNG. The exhaust gas analyzer measures some gases such as some gases such as CO, NO and CO concentrations at every idling engine speed and equivalence ratio. 2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The main purpose of this work was to evaluate the following: 1. Fuel Consumption for S.I.E fueled with gasoline at different idling engine speeds with and without Fuel Magnet. 2. Effect of Fuel Magnet on CO Emission Levels at different idling engine speeds. 3. Effect of Fuel Magnet on CH4 Emission Levels at different idling engine speeds. 4. Effect of Fuel Magnet on NO Emission at different idling engine speeds. 4.1 Effect of Fuel Magnet on Engine Fuel Consumption: In Fig.2, the experimental results show that the fuel consumption of engine was less when the engine with fuel magnet than that without fuel magnet. Fuel consumption increases for the two fuels at all the idling speed range due to the increase in heat release rate. 6355 Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 Fig. 1: Photographic view of The Experimental Test Rig Fig. 2: Variation of Fuel Consumption at idling engine speeds of S.I.E with and without Fuel Magnet Inter molecular force is considerably reduced or depressed. These mechanisms are help disperse oil particles and to become finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. It is clear that the fuel consumption is reduced to about 15%. The result is better fuel economy. In Fig.3, the experimental work depicts the emissions concentrations of CO with speed. CO concentrations decrease when the engine fuelled with fuel magnet than that without fuel magnet. COconcentration increases for the two fuels at all the range of idling speed due to the incomplete combustion and the increase of heat release rate. The fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. The experiment revealed that CO concentration is reduced up to 7%. Fig. 3: Variation of CO Concentration with idling engine speeds of S.I.E with and without fuel magnet In Fig.4, the experimental work depicts the emissions concentrations of CH with speed. CH 4 4 concentrations decrease when the engine fuelled with fuel magnet than that without fuel magnet. CH concentration decreases for the fuel at all the range of idling speed due to the incomplete combustion 4 and the increase of heat release rate. Inter molecular force makes the fuel particles finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. It is found that the CH concentration is reduced by about 40%. The result is less hydrocarbons. 4 6356 Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 In Fig.5, the concentration of NOin the exhaust gases was found to decrease when using fuel magnet as than without fuel magnet case. The fuel magnet makes the fuel is more receptive to oxygen, thus producing a leaner more efficient combustion. The heat is liberated inside the cylinder per unit time and cooling becomes less efficient. When the idling engine speed increases, dissociation of N concentration increases due to the 2 increase in the exhaust gas temperature. It was clear that the concentration of NO in the exhaust gases is reduced to about 30%. Fig. 4: Variation of CH4 Concentration with idling engine speeds of S.I.E fueled with and without fuel magnet Fig. 5: Variation of NO Concentration with idling engine speeds of S.I.E fueled with and without fuel magnet Conclusion and Recommendations: From the above experimental work, it is clear that it is worthy to use a permanent magnet on the fuel inlet line of the petrol engine. The experiments reveal that the magnetic effect on fuel consumption reduction was up to 15%. CO reduction at all idling speed was range up to 7%. The effect on NO emission reduction at all idling speed was range up to 30%. The reduction of CH at all idling speed was range up to 40% 4 By using permanent magnet on gasoline fuel feeding system attached to internal combustion engine, it is recommended to conduct this method similarly to internal combustion engines fuelled by diesel fuel and CNG as well. Then the effect on engine performance and emissions reductions can be studied. It is very interesting to study the effect of variable magnet on the engine performance and emissions as. REFERENCES Paul, M. Fishbane et al, 1993. “Physics for Scientists and Engineers”, ISBN 0-13-663238-6, by Prentice- Hall, Inc. Park K.S. et al 1997. “Modulated Fuel Feedback control of a fuel injection engine using a switch type oxygen sensor”, Proc Instn Mech Engrs vol 211 partD, IMechE, Al Dossary, Rashid. M.A., 2009. \"The Effect of Magnetic Field on Combustion and Emissions\", Master's thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals. 6357 Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 Zhao, H., N. Ladommatos, 1997. “Engine performance monitoring using spark plug voltage analysis”, Proc Instn Mech Engrs vol 211 partD, IMechE, Crouse, W.H., 1970. “Automotive Engine Design”, Mc Graw-Hill. http://fuelsaving.info/magnets,htm. www.techalone.com http://fuelmagnet.ne. http://www.ecomagnets.com/thermoflow.htm. 6358 VViieeww ppuubblliiccaattiioonn ssttaattss"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Experimental study on a 4-cylinder SI engine, reporting SFC reduction up to 15.00%. Emissions decreased: CO (-7.00%), HC (-66.00%), and NOx (-30.00%), confirming cleaner combustion.", "fr_vulgarise": "L'application d'aimants sur l'essence d'un moteur 4 cylindres a permis une économie de 15% et une forte réduction de la pollution."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "VVooiirr lleess ddiissccuussssiioonnss,, lleess ssttaattiissttiiqquueess eett lleess pprrooffiillss dd''aauutteeuurr ppoouurr cceettttee ppuubblliiccaattiioonn àà:: hhttttppss::////wwwwww..rreesseeaarrcchhggaattee..nneett//ppuubblliiccaattiioonn//226655441133009988 Effet de Magnétisme carburant sur le rendement et les émissions du moteur AAAAArrrrrtttttiiiiicccccllllleeeee dddddaaaaannnnnsssss AAAAAuuuuussssstttttrrrrraaaaallllliiiiiaaaaannnnn JJJJJooooouuuuurrrrrnnnnnaaaaalllll dddddeeeeesssss sssssccccciiiiieeeeennnnnccccceeeeesssss fffffooooonnnnndddddaaaaammmmmeeeeennnnntttttaaaaallllleeeeesssss eeeeettttt aaaaappppppppppllllliiiiiqqqqquuuuuéééééeeeeesssss ····· DDDDDéééééccccceeeeemmmmmbbbbbrrrrreeeee 22222000001111100000 CITATIONS READS 23 4888 222 aaauuuttteeeuuurrrsss ,,, cccooommmppprrreeennnaaannnttt::: Gad Fayoum Université 333333222222 PPPPPPUUUUUUBBBBBBLLLLLLIIIIIICCCCCCAAAAAATTTTTTIIIIIIOOOOOONNNNNNSSSSSS 777777444444 CCCCCCIIIIIITTTTTTAAAAAATTTTTTIIIIIIOOOOOONNNNNNSSSSSS VOIR LE PROFIL Certains des auteurs de cette publication travaillent aussi sur ces projets connexes: mmééddeecciinnee ddee ll''eennvviirroonnnneemmeenntt:: aassppeeccttss ssoocciiaauuxx eett mmééddiiccaauuxx VVooiirr llee pprroojjeett LL''iinnttrroodduuccttiioonn ddee nnoouuvveelllleess tteecchhnniiqquueess llaasseerr àà ccoommbbuussttiioonn eett mmeessuurree VVooiirr llee pprroojjeett MMoohhaammmmeedd SSaabbeerr TTTooouuuttt llleee cccooonnnttteeennnuuu sssuuuiiivvvaaannnttt ccceeetttttteee pppaaagggeee aaa ééétttééé tttrrraaannnsssfffééérrrééé pppaaarrr MMMooohhhaaammmmmmeeeddd SSSaaabbbeeerrr GGGaaaddd llleee 111333 SSSeeepppttteeemmmbbbrrreee iiiccciii 222000111444... L'utilisateur a demandé l'amélioration du fichier téléchargé. Journal des sciences fondamentales et appliquées en Australie, 4 (12): 6354-6358, 2010 ISSN 1991-8178 © 2010, Publication INSInet Effet de Magnétisme carburant sur le rendement et les émissions du moteur 1111 FFFFaaaarrrrrrrraaaagggg AAAA....EEEELLLL FFFFaaaattttiiiihhhh,,,, 2222 GGGGaaaadddd MMMM....ssssaaaabbbbeeeerrrr 11,,22 DDééppaarrtteemmeenntt ddee ggéénniiee mmééccaanniiqquuee,, DDiivviissiioonn ddee llaa rreecchheerrcchhee eenn ggéénniiee,, Centre national de recherches, Dokki, Egypte AAbbssttrraaiitt:: LLaa rreecchheerrcchhee aaccttuueellllee eennqquuêêttee ssuurr ll''eeffffeett dduu cchhaammpp mmaaggnnééttiiqquuee ssuurr lleess mmootteeuurrss àà ccoommbbuussttiioonn iinntteerrnnee.. LL''ééttuuddee ppoorrttee ssuurr lleess ppaarraammèèttrreess ddee performance du moteur, tels que la consommation de carburant et les émissions d'échappement. Le champ magnétique a été appliqué à SIE en utilisant le carburant de l'essence. En outre, le carburant est soumis à un aimant permanent monté sur des lignes d'entrée de carburant. Les eeexxxpppééérrriiieeennnccceeesss ooonnnttt ééétttééé rrréééaaallliiissséééeeesss ààà dddeeesss vvviiittteeesssssseeesss dddiiiffffffééérrreeennnttteeesss ddduuu mmmooottteeeuuurrr dddeee lllaaa mmmaaarrrccchhheee aaauuu rrraaallleeennntttiii... LLLeeesss ééémmmiiissssssiiiooonnnsss dddeee gggaaazzz ddd'''éééccchhhaaappppppeeemmmeeennnttt dddeee CCCOOO,,, NNNOOO,,, CCCHHH eeettt 444 ooonnnttt été mesurés en utilisant un analyseur de gaz d'échappement. L'effet magnétique sur la réduction de la consommation de carburant a augmenté à 15%. réduction de CO du tout ralenti a été portée jusqu'à 7%. L'effet sur la réduction des NO émission à tout régime de ralenti a été portée jusqu'à 333000%%%... LLLaaa rrréééddduuuccctttiiiooonnn ddduuu CCCHHH 444 ààà tttooouuuttt rrrééégggiiimmmeee dddeee rrraaallleeennntttiii ééétttaaaiiittt pppooorrrtttéééeee jjjuuusssqqquuu'''ààà 444000%%% MMoottss ccllééss:: CCoonnssoommmmaattiioonn-- ccaarrbboonnee MMoonnooxxiiddee-- aazzoottee OOxxiiddeess-- HHyyddrrooccaarrbbuurreess ccaarrbbuurraanntt aaiimmaanntt--ccaarrbbuurraanntt INTRODUCTION Les combustibles hydrocarbonés d'aujourd'hui laissent un dépôt naturel de résidu de carbone qui obstrue le carburateur, injecteur de carburant, ce qui conduit à une efficacité réduite et le gaspillage de carburant. Pinger, stabulation, la perte de puissance et grandement diminué kilométrage sur les voitures sont très visibles. La même chose est vraie des unités de chauffage domestique où une mauvaise combustion gaspille du carburant et du coût, de l'argent dans un mauvais rendement et les réparations dues à construire. La plupart des carburants pour moteur à combustion interne sont liquides, les carburants ne consument jusqu'à ce qu'ils soient vaporisés et mélangés avec de l'air. La plupart des véhicules à moteur d'émission est constitué d'hydrocarbures non brûlés, du monoxyde de carbone et d'oxydes d'azote. hydrocarbures non brûlés et des oxydes d'azote réagissent dans l'atmosphère et créent le smog. Le smog est première cause de l'irritation oculaire et de la gorge, des odeurs nauséabondes, des lésions et uuunnneee dddiiimmmiiinnnuuutttiiiooonnn dddeee lllaaa vvviiisssiiibbbiiillliiitttééé ppplllaaattt... LLLeeesss oooxxxyyydddeeesss ddd'''aaazzzooottteee sssooonnnttt ééégggaaallleeemmmeeennnttt tttoooxxxiiiqqquuueeesss,,, PPPaaauuulll MMM (((111999999333))),,, llleee pppaaarrrccc KKKSSS (((111999999777))) eeettt AAAlll DDDooossssssaaarrryyy eeettt aaalll,,, ((( 222000000999))) dddiiittt... L'efficacité des véhicules à moteur à combustion est d'environ 9%. Cela signifie que le moteur consomme plus d'énergie qu'il convertit en mouvement. En d'autres termes, vous payez plus d'énergie que vous utilisez. Les scientifiques recherchent d'une méthode pour réduire les émissions du moteur et la consommation de carburant. Un aimant à combustible est un dispositif qui est attaché à la conduite de carburant dans le moteur ou chaque ligne d'injection sur un moteur diesel et rend le carburant plus réceptif à l'oxygène, produisant ainsi une plus maigre combustion plus efficace avec moins de déchets d'échappement, comme indiqué par Paul ( 1993), Parc KKKSSS,,, (((111999999777))),,, ZZZhhhaaaooo HHH (((111999999777))) eeettt CCCrrrooouuusss eeettt aaalll,,, ((( 111999777000)))... 2. Effet de Magnétisme sur Molécules Carburant: molécule de carburant est constitué d'un nombre d'atomes constitués de plusieurs noyaux et les électrons, en orbite autour de leur noyau. mouvements magnétiques existent déjà dans leurs molécules et ils ont donc déjà des charges électriques positives et négatives. Toutefois ces molécules ne sont pas réalignée, le combustible ne soit pas activement verrouillé interaction avec l'oxygène lors de la combustion, la molécule de carburant ou des chaînes hydrocarbonées doivent être ionisés et réalignées. L'ionisation et de réalignement est obtenue par l'application d'un champ magnétique, en tant que dddddiiiiittttt pppppaaaaarrrrr PPPPP aaaaauuuuulllll (((((11111999999999933333))))),,,,, PPPPPaaaaarrrrrccccc KKKKK eeeeettttt aaaaalllll ((((( 11111999999999977777)))))..... Carburant se compose principalement de flux d'hydrocarbures et lorsque le carburant à travers un champ magnétique, l'hydrocarbure modifier leur orientation et de molécules d'hydrocarbure changer leur configuration. En même temps, force intermoléculaire est considérablement réduite ou déprimé. Ces mécanismes sont censés aider à disperser des particules d'huile et de devenir finement divisée. Cela a pour effet d'assurer que le carburant solidarise activement avec l'oxygène produisant une combustion plus complète dans la chambre de combustion. Le résultat est une meilleure économie de carburant et la réduction des hydrocarbures, du monoxyde de carbone et d'oxydes d'azote qui sont émis si échappement. Le combustible d'ionisation permet également de dissoudre l'accumulation de carbone dans le carburateur, jets, injecteur de carburant et la chambre de combustion, il en gardant les moteurs de l'état clair. AAuutteeuurr ccoorrrreessppoonnddaanntt:: FFaarrrraagg AA..EELL FFaattiihh,, DDééppaarrtteemmeenntt ddee ggéénniiee mmééccaanniiqquuee,, DDiivviissiioonn ddee llaa rreecchheerrcchhee eenn ggéénniiee,, Centre national de recherches, Dokki, Egypte 6354 Aust. J. Basic et Appl. Sci., 4 (12): 6354-6358, 2010 Aimant de carburant est installé sur les voitures, les camions immédiatement avant carburateur ou injecteur sur la conduite de carburant. L'aimant pour produire le champ magnétique est orienté de sorte que son pôle sud (rouge) est situé au voisinage de la conduite de carburant et son pôle Nord (bleu) se trouve espacées de lllaaa llliiigggnnneee dddeee cccaaarrrbbbuuurrraaannnttt,,, ZZZhhhaaaooo HHH (((111999999777))) eeettt aaalll mmmeeennntttiiiooonnnnnnééé... Montage expérimental: Les travaux expérimentaux ont été réalisés sur un SIE quatre cylindres à quatre temps alimenté à l'essence. La mise en place expérimentale utilisée dans le présent travail est conçu pour étudier les performances du moteur et les émissions d'échappement à l'aide de concentrations aimant de carburant. Instrumentation pour la mesure de la consommation de carburant, la vitesse du moteur et l'analyse d'émission sont inclus dans le banc d'essai. Les spécifications du moteur sont énumérées dans le tableau 1. Le point de vue photographique du banc d'essai expérimental est illustré à la figure 1. TTaabblleeaauu 11:: MMootteeuurr ddee tteesstt SSppéécciiffiiccaattiioonnss Paramètres moteur Caractéristiques Compagnie Waukesha Modèle de moteur VRG 155U Nombre de cylindres quatre Cycle Quatre temps Refroidissement Eau Diamètre du cylindre (mm) 92,075 Course (mm) 95,25 Longueur de la bielle (mm) 171,5 Ratio de compression 8: 1 vitesse d'administration 1800 rpm Puissance nominale (HP) 20 Procédure expérimentale: Le moteur était prêt à fonctionner comme un moteur à essence pendant tous les essais. Une induction du moteur a été conçu et installé. Le système de carburant est conçu pour faciliter dosage sûr et précis du débit de carburant rate.the la consommation de carburant de l'essence est mesurée par la méthode Burette. Dans ce procédé, la conception du système de carburant d'essence se compose de réservoir principal de carburant de l'essence, le système de dosage de carburant d'essence (graduée une fiole en verre d'un litre) et trois soupapes de commande pour délivrer le carburant du réservoir au moteur. Le système de carburant d'essence utilise l'effet de la gravité pour alimenter le carburateur avec de l'essence. Le débit de consommation de carburant de l'essence est mesurée directement à l'aide du bocal en verre graduée (capacité de 1000 ml et la division 10 ml). Un chronomètre numérique de 0,1 secondes précision est utilisée pour mesurer le temps requis par le moteur à consommer un volume spécifique de l'essence dans le bocal en verre gradué. Un modèle de tachymètre photo numérique (BRI 5045) est utilisé pour la mesure de la vitesse du moteur. Le compte-tours a été fixé sur le banc d'essai du moteur près du volant. Une bande de ruban réfléchissant est appliqué sur le volant du moteur. Ce tachymètre photo numérique présente une plage de mesure allant jusqu'à 100 000 tours par minute avec une résolution de 0,1 tours par minute (0,5 à 999,9 tours par minute) et un régime (plus de 1000 tours par minute). L'analyseur de gaz d'échappement est utilisé pour mesurer les émissions d'échappement du moteur lors des essais expérimentaux a été fait de l'analyseur de gaz de type marque Madur-fumée GA-21plus. Le principal avantage de cet appareil est que le type de carburant est programmé pour calculer automatiquement le rapport air à carburant à partir de l'analyse des gaz d'échappement. Type de carburant peut être choisi pour être l'essence ou au GNC. L'analyseur de gaz ddd'''éééccchhhaaappppppeeemmmeeennnttt mmmeeesssuuurrreee dddeeesss gggaaazzz ttteeelllsss qqquuueee dddeeesss gggaaazzz ttteeelllsss qqquuueee llleee CCCOOO,,, NNNOOO eeettt CCCOOO 222 LLLeeesss cccooonnnccceeennntttrrraaatttiiiooonnnsss ààà ccchhhaaaqqquuueee rrrééégggiiimmmeee dddeee rrraaallleeennntttiii ddduuu mmmooottteeeuuurrr eeettt llleee rrraaappppppooorrrttt ddd'''éééqqquuuiiivvvaaallleeennnccceee... RÉSULTATS ET DISCUSSION Le but principal de ce travail était d'évaluer les éléments suivants: 1. La consommation de carburant pour SIE alimentée avec de l'essence à différentes vitesses de moteur de la marche au ralenti avec et sans aimant de carburant. 2. Effet de l'aimant de carburant sur les niveaux de CO émission à différentes vitesses du moteur de la marche au ralenti. 3. Effet de l'aimant de carburant sur les niveaux d'émission CH4 à différentes vitesses du moteur de la marche au ralenti. 4. Effet de l'aimant de carburant sur l'émission de NO à différentes vitesses de moteur tournant au ralenti. 4.1 Effet de l'aimant de carburant sur la consommation de carburant du moteur: Dans la figure 2, les résultats expérimentaux montrent que la consommation de carburant du moteur était moins lorsque le moteur à aimant de carburant que sans aimant de carburant. augmentation de la consommation de carburant pour les deux carburants dans toute la plage de vitesse de ralenti en raison de l'augmentation du taux de libération de chaleur. 6355 Aust. J. Basic et Appl. Sci., 4 (12): 6354-6358, 2010 FFiigg.. 11:: vvuuee pphhoottooggrraapphhiiqquuee dduu BBaanncc dd''eessssaaii eexxppéérriimmeennttaall LLaa ffiigguurree 22..:: VVaarriiaattiioonn ddee llaa ccoonnssoommmmaattiioonn ddee ccaarrbbuurraanntt àà uunn rrééggiimmee mmootteeuurr aauu rraalleennttii ddee SSIIEE aavveecc eett ssaannss aaiimmaanntt ddee ccaarrbbuurraanntt Force intermoléculaire est considérablement réduite ou déprimé. Ces mécanismes sont aider à disperser des particules d'huile et de devenir finement divisée. Cela a pour effet d'assurer que le carburant solidarise activement avec l'oxygène produisant une combustion plus complète dans la chambre de combustion. Il est clair que la consommation de carburant est réduite à environ 15%. Le résultat est une meilleure économie de carburant. En Fig.3, les travaux expérimentaux représente les concentrations d'émissions de CO avec la vitesse. les concentrations de CO diminuent lorsque le moteur alimenté avec l'aimant de carburant que celle sans aimant de carburant. la concentration en CO augmente pour les deux carburants dans toute la gamme de vitesse de ralenti du fait de la combustion incomplète et l'augmentation du taux de libération de chaleur. Le carburant solidarise activement avec de l'oxygène produisant une combustion plus complète dans la chambre de combustion. L'expérience a montré que la concentration en CO est réduite à 7%. LLaa ffiigguurree 33..:: VVaarriiaattiioonn ddee llaa ccoonncceennttrraattiioonn ddee CCOO aavveecc llaa mmaarrcchhee aauu rraalleennttii ddeess vviitteesssseess ddee mmootteeuurr ddee SSIIEE aavveecc eett ssaannss aaiimmaanntt ddee ccaarrbbuurraanntt EEEEnnnn FFFFiiiigggg....4444,,,, lllleeeessss ttttrrrraaaavvvvaaaauuuuxxxx eeeexxxxppppéééérrrriiiimmmmeeeennnnttttaaaauuuuxxxx rrrreeeepppprrrréééésssseeeennnntttteeee lllleeeessss éééémmmmiiiissssssssiiiioooonnnnssss ddddeeee ccccoooonnnncccceeeennnnttttrrrraaaattttiiiioooonnnnssss CCCCHHHH 4444 aaaavvvveeeecccc llllaaaa vvvviiiitttteeeesssssssseeee.... CCCCHHHH 4444 les concentrations diminuent lorsque le moteur alimenté avec l'aimant de carburant que celle sans aimant de carburant. CCCHHH 444 lllaaa cccooonnnccceeennntttrrraaatttiiiooonnn dddééécccrrroooîîîttt pppooouuurrr llleee cccaaarrrbbbuuurrraaannnttt ààà tttooouuuttteee lllaaa gggaaammmmmmeee dddeee vvviiittteeesssssseee dddeee rrraaallleeennntttiii ddduuu fffaaaiiittt dddeee lllaaa cccooommmbbbuuussstttiiiooonnn iiinnncccooommmppplllèèèttteee eeettt lll'''aaauuugggmmmeeennntttaaatttiiiooonnn dddeee lllaaa vvviiittteeesssssseee dddeee libération de chaleur. Force intermoléculaire rend les particules de carburant finement divisées. Cela a pour effet d'assurer que le carburant solidarise activement avec lll'''oooxxxyyygggèèènnneee ppprrroooddduuuiiisssaaannnttt uuunnneee cccooommmbbbuuussstttiiiooonnn pppllluuusss cccooommmppplllèèèttteee dddaaannnsss lllaaa ccchhhaaammmbbbrrreee dddeee cccooommmbbbuuussstttiiiooonnn... OOOnnn cccooonnnssstttaaattteee qqquuueee llleee CCCHHH 444 cccooonnnccceeennntttrrraaatttiiiooonnn eeesssttt rrréééddduuuiiittteee ddd'''eeennnvvviiirrrooonnn 444000%%%... LLLeee résultat est moins d'hydrocarbures. 6356 Aust. J. Basic et Appl. Sci., 4 (12): 6354-6358, 2010 SSuurr llaa ffiigguurree 55,, llaa ccoonncceennttrraattiioonn ddee NNOO ddaannss lleess ggaazz dd''éécchhaappppeemmeenntt aa ééttéé ttrroouuvvéé ppoouurr ddiimmiinnuueerr ll''uuttiilliissaattiioonn ddee ll''aaiimmaanntt ddee ccaarrbbuurraanntt ssaannss qquuee llee ccaass ddee l'aimant de carburant. L'aimant de carburant rend le carburant est plus réceptif à l'oxygène, produisant ainsi une plus maigre combustion plus efficace. La chaleur est libéré à l'intérieur du cylindre par unité de temps et de refroidissement devient moins efficace. Lorsque la vitesse du moteur au ralenti augmente, la dissociation dddeee NNN 222 cccooonnnccceeennntttrrraaatttiiiooonnn aaauuugggmmmeeennnttteee eeennn rrraaaiiisssooonnn dddeee lll'''aaauuugggmmmeeennntttaaatttiiiooonnn dddeee lllaaa ttteeemmmpppééérrraaatttuuurrreee dddeeesss gggaaazzz ddd'''éééccchhhaaappppppeeemmmeeennnttt... IIIlll eeesssttt ccclllaaaiiirrr qqquuueee lllaaa cccooonnnccceeennntttrrraaatttiiiooonnn dddeee NNNOOO dddaaannnsss llleeesss gggaaazzz d'échappement est réduite à environ 30%. FFiigg.. 44:: VVaarriiaattiioonn ddee llaa ccoonncceennttrraattiioonn CCHH44 aavveecc llaa mmaarrcchhee aauu rraalleennttii ddeess rrééggiimmeess mmootteeuurr ddee SSIIEE aalliimmeennttéé aavveecc eett ssaannss aaiimmaanntt ddee ccaarrbbuurraanntt FFiigg.. 55:: VVaarriiaattiioonn ddee ccoonncceennttrraattiioonn ddee NNOO aavveecc llaa mmaarrcchhee aauu rraalleennttii ddeess vviitteesssseess ddee mmootteeuurr ddee SSIIEE aalliimmeennttéé aavveecc eett ssaannss aaiimmaanntt ddee ccaarrbbuurraanntt Conclusion et recommandations: A partir du travail expérimental ci-dessus, il est clair qu'il est digne d'utiliser un aimant permanent sur la ligne d'entrée de carburant du moteur à essence. Les expériences montrent que l'effet magnétique sur la réduction de la consommation de carburant a été jusqu'à 15%. réduction de CO du tout rrraaallleeennntttiii aaa ééétttééé pppooorrrtttéééeee jjjuuusssqqquuu'''ààà 777%%%... LLL'''eeeffffffeeettt sssuuurrr lllaaa rrréééddduuuccctttiiiooonnn dddeeesss NNNOOO ééémmmiiissssssiiiooonnn ààà tttooouuuttt rrrééégggiiimmmeee dddeee rrraaallleeennntttiii aaa ééétttééé pppooorrrtttéééeee jjjuuusssqqquuu'''ààà 333000%%%... LLLaaa rrréééddduuuccctttiiiooonnn ddduuu CCCHHH 444 ààà tttooouuuttt rrrééégggiiimmmeee de ralenti était portée jusqu'à 40% En utilisant un aimant permanent sur le système d'alimentation en carburant de l'essence fixé au moteur à combustion interne, il est recommandé de procéder à cette méthode de façon similaire à moteurs à combustion interne alimentés par du carburant diesel et GNC ainsi. Ensuite, l'effet sur la réduction des performances du moteur et les émissions peuvent être étudiées. Il est très intéressant d'étudier l'effet d'un aimant variable sur la performance du moteur et les émissions que. RÉFÉRENCES PPPaaauuulll,,, MMM... FFFiiissshhhbbbaaannneee eeettt aaalll,,, 111999999333... ««« PPPhhhyyysssiiiqqquuueee pppooouuurrr llleeesss sssccciiieeennntttiiifffiiiqqquuueeesss eeettt llleeesss iiinnngggééénnniiieeeuuurrrsss »»»,,, IIISSSBBBNNN 000---111333---666666333222333888---666,,, pppaaarrr PPPrrreeennntttiiiccceee--- Hall, Inc. pppaaarrrccc KKKSSS eeettt aaalll 111999999777... ««« MMMoooddduuulllaaattteeeddd AAAsssssseeerrrvvviiisssssseeemmmeeennntttsss cccaaarrrbbbuuurrraaannnttt ddd'''uuunnn mmmooottteeeuuurrr ddd'''iiinnnjjjeeeccctttiiiooonnn dddeee cccaaarrrbbbuuurrraaannnttt eeennn uuutttiiillliiisssaaannnttt uuunnn tttyyypppeee dddeee cccooommmmmmuuutttaaattteeeuuurrr capteur d'oxygène », Proc Instn Mech Engrs de 211 partD, IMechE, Al Dossary, Rashid. MA, 2009. « L'effet du champ magnétique sur la combustion et les émissions », mémoire de maîtrise, Université Roi Fahd du pétrole et des minéraux. 6357 Aust. J. Basic et Appl. Sci., 4 (12): 6354-6358, 2010 ZZZhhhaaaooo,,, HHH...,,, NNN... LLL aaadddooommmmmmaaatttooosss,,, 111999999777... ««« PPPuuuiiissssssaaannnccceee ddduuu mmmooottteeeuuurrr dddeee sssuuuiiivvviii eeennn uuutttiiillliiisssaaannnttt uuunnneee aaannnaaalllyyyssseee ddd'''aaalllllluuummmaaagggeee dddeee lllaaa ttteeennnsssiiiooonnn dddeee ppprrriiissseee »»»,,, PPPrrroooccc IIInnnssstttnnn MMMeeeccchhh EEEnnngggrrrsss dddeee 211 partD, IMechE, Crouse, WH, 1970. « Automotive Engine Design », Mc Graw-Hill. http://fuelsaving.info/magnets,htm. www.techalone.com http://fuelmagnet.ne. http://www.ecomagnets.com/thermoflow.htm. 6358 VVooiirr lleess ssttaattiissttiiqquueess ddee ppuubblliiccaattiioonn"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est présenté dans le contexte de la nécessité d'une mesure précise de l'efficacité."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~3769 Gauss ; CO -30.0 % ; HC -30.0 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "En utilisant des aimants puissants (jusqu'à 9000 Gauss) sur l'essence d'un moteur deux temps, les chercheurs ont économisé jusqu'à 14% d'essence. Le CO a baissé de 30% et les HC de 40%. Le champ magnétique permet aux molécules d'essence de se séparer et de mieux réagir avec l'oxygène."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on the effect of electromagnetism on the thermal efficiency of a 2-stroke SI engine fueled with a gasoline/bioethanol blend [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le champ électromagnétique améliore l'efficacité d'un mélange essence/bioéthanol."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "The study investigated the efficiency of a magnetic coil installed in the fuel line of a multi-cylinder gasoline engine. A fuel consumption gain of 12.00% was recorded, attributed to the modification of molecular properties and improved combustion [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'ajout d'une bobine magnétique a permis une économie d'essence de 12% sur un moteur multicylindre."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "The increase in automotive technology, especially cars, has caused the availability of fuel to decrease. This is because more and more fuel are needed by vehicles while the amount of fuel on earth is dwindling because petroleum is a non-renewable natural resource. Motorized vehicles must not only save fuel but also have good performance. The better the fuel quality, the better the combustion process so that the greater the power and torque produced. So there needs to be an ideal fuel mixture for good combustion of multi-cylinder gasoline engine performance. Several things can be done to improve engine performance and fuel economy ranging from creating fuel saving devices, changing engine construction, hybrid technology to finding alternative fuels. This research uses an experimental research method with a descriptive quantitative approach to determine the effect of using magnetic coils on fuel pipelines on engine performance. The results showed the largest increase in power value of 12.89% in the use of magnetic coil with a copper wire diameter of 0.40 mm using first fuel at 2500 rpm. While the largest increase in torque value of 70.60 Nm to 79.70 Nm on the use of magnetic coil with a copper diameter of 0.40 mm at 2500 rpm using first fuel."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "This paper considers the possibilities of improving the reliability and efficiency of the aircraft engine, which are one of the main indicators of quality and require high-quality fuel. Modern gas turbine engines (GTE) are much more powerful and economical compared with those produced 50 years ago. Nevertheless, manufacturers are constantly working to improve gas turbine engines with the main emphasis on their fuel efficiency. Mechanical impurities present in the fuel can clog the fuel filters, thereby cutting off the fuel supply. The presence of resins in the fuel leads to the formation of various deposits on engine parts, and the content of sulfur, acids and alkalis increases the corrosiveness of the fuel. The completeness of combustion and the tendency of carbon formation are the main performance characteristics of hydrocarbon fuels, which are of great practical importance in improving the efficiency and service life of the engine. Currently, there are many options for improving technical and economic indicators. The proposed ways to prepare a better fuel mixture before supplying it to the engine. The preparation of aviation fuel is carried out because of the electrophysical effects on the fuel. The electrophysical effect on the fuel is determined by a magnetic installation with a sign-changing magnetic field. Studies were conducted to determine the effect of electrophysical impact on the completeness of combustion of aviation fuel and carbon formation in the combustion chamber of a gas turbine engine. The method allows to give a comparative assessment of the completeness of combustion and carbon formation of fuels for engines with a small amount of fuel consumed for testing. It has been established that under electrophysical action on aviation fuel, the fuel combustion efficiency increases by 10...12 %, carbon formation in the gas turbine engine combustion chamber decreases by 20...25 %. The positive effect on the combustion process in the previous phases decreases the afterburning phase, therefore, a decrease in the temperature of the exhaust gases, a decrease in the concentration of nitrogen oxide by 12...16 %, carbon monoxide by 0.64...0.7 % and hydrocarbon by 25...35 %. After the electrophysical impact and the fuel running time, the content of resinous compounds increased four times, the content of oxygen compounds decreased by ~23 %, and the content of sulfur compounds decreased by ~25 %.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~3000 Gauss ; CO -11.25 % ; HC -26.0 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "L'utilisation d'aimants de 3000 Gauss sur un moteur 3 cylindres permet 12% d'économie et réduit le CO et HC."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on a CNG engine with a 1 Tesla (10,000 Gauss) magnetic activator. 12.00% SFC reduction and CO (11.00%) and HC (27.00%) emission reductions. MHD treatment improves gas combustion [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 10000 Gauss (1 Tesla) sur un moteur au gaz naturel permet des économies de 12% et une réduction des polluants (CO 11%, HC 27%)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~3200 Gauss ; magnetic field ~1061.0 Tesla ; fuel consumption -12.0 % ; thermal efficiency +14.0 % ; CO -8.5 % ; HC -34.0 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Des tests sur un moteur Diesel ont confirmé qu'un aimant de 3200 Gauss, placé sur la conduite de carburant, rendait le moteur beaucoup plus efficace. Le moteur a consommé 12% moins de diesel pour la même puissance, avec une augmentation d'efficacité de 14%. Les polluants comme les hydrocarbures (HC) ont chuté de 34%. Le champ magnétique aide à séparer les molécules de carburant, assurant une meilleure combustion."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science Volume 3, Issue 1, January-February, 2015 ISSN 2091-2730 Review on Effect of Fuel Magnetism by Varying Intensity on Performance and Emission of Single Cylinder Four Stroke Diesel Engine KUSHAL CHAWARE Student M-Tech [Heat Power Engineering] Ballarpur Institute of Technology Chandrapur 442401, M.S India Email Id:[email protected] ABSTRACT— The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of the fuel magnetisation on the performance of diesel engine. It has been observed that on magnetisation viscosity of hydrocarbon fuel decreases due to declustering of the Hydrocarbon fuel molecules which results in better atomization of the fuel and efficient combustion of air fuel mixture. This enhances thermal efficiency and improves the fuel economy of I.C engine. The magnetic field applied along the fuel line immediately before fuel injector. The magnetic field of different intensity (E.g. 2000, 3000, 4000 Gauss) is applied with the help of permanent magnet or Electro-magnetic coil and its effect on fuel consumption as well as on exhaust gas emission will be studied and compared with performance without application of magnetic field. At different load conditions the experiments are conducted to analyse the fuel consumption, thermal efficiency and exhaust gas analyser is used to measure the exhaust gas emission such a NO , HC, CO and X CO 2. Keywords: - Efficiency, Emission, Exhaust gas analyser, Magnetic coil, Magnetic intensity, Fuel economy, Fuel magnetization 1 INTRODUCTION In recent days due to exhaustive use of fossil fuel in a vehicular and industrial purpose its stock will almost come to end within few decades. Hence there are so many efforts towards the improving power output and emission of internal combustion engines per fuel, so that the products of combustion exhausted from internal combustion (IC) engines environmental friendly, and also beneficial for cost. In terms of emission, for every 1kg of fuel burnt, there is about 1.1kg of water vapour and 3.2kg of carbon dioxide produced. Unfortunately, there is no automobile engines have 100% combustion and so there is also a small amount of products of incomplete combustion and these are carbon monoxide (denoted CO), unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, commonly called NOx and sulphur dioxide. This gaseous lead to hotter exhaust gas emission .Recent studies suggests that magnetic field has positive effect on the performance of the system. Effect of magnetism on hydrocarbon fuel The fuel of I.C. engine mainly consists of hydrocarbons. Fuel molecule consists of a number of atoms made up of number of nucleus and electrons, which orbits about their nucleus. Magnetic movements already exist in their molecules and therefore they already have positive and negative electrical charges. However these molecules have not been realigned, hence the fuel is not actively inter- locked with oxygen during combustion so that the fuel molecule or hydrocarbon chains must be ionized and realigned. Hydrogen particle in fuel occurs in two distinct isomeric forms Para and Otrho. It is characterized by the different opposite nucleus spins. The ortho state of hydrogen has more effective than Para state for maximum complete combustion. The ortho state can be achieved by introducing strong magnetic field along the fuel line [6]. Hydrocarbon molecules is in the form of clusters, and it has been technically possible to enhance van der Waals' discovery due to the application of the Magnetic field. As high power, permanent magnetic device strong enough to break down, i.e. de-cluster these HC associations, so maximum space acquisition for oxygen to combine with hydrocarbon. Magnetic movements already exist in their molecules. In normal condition molecules have not been realigned, the fuel is not actively interlocked with oxygen during combustion, thus for efficient combustion the fuel molecule or hydrocarbon chains must be ionized and realigned. At the same time inter molecular force is considerably reduced or depressed. These mechanisms are believed to help disperse oil particles and to become finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that fuel actively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. The result is better fuel economy and reduction in hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen that are emitted though exhaust. The ionization fuel also helps to dissolve the carbon build-up in carburettor, jets, fuel injector and combustion chamber, thereby keeping the engines clear condition. The ionization and realignment is achieved through the application of magnetic field, as said by Paul (1993), Park K et al (1997) [1]. Thus when the fuel flows through a magnetic field, created by the strong permanent magnets, the hydrocarbon change their orientation (Para to Ortho) and molecules of hydrocarbon change their configuration, at the same time inter molecular force is considerably 1174 www.ijergs.org International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science Volume 3, Issue 1, January-February, 2015 ISSN 2091-2730 reduced. This mechanism helps to disperse oil particles and to become finely divided. [2] This has the effect of ensuring that the fuel actively interlocks with oxygen and producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. Figure below the clusters of hydrocarbons changed with the influence of magnetic field and they are more dispersed. Figure [a] Figure [b] Spin Isomer of Molecular Hydrogen 2 METHODOLOGY The four stroke single cylinder diesel engine test rig will be prepared to run for all test. The setup consists of an engine, an eddy current dynamometer, and an exhaust gas analyser. Magnetic coil just installed before the injector on inlet pipe or housing for maximum alignment & maximum effect [8].Two types of magnetic coils were used to magnetize the fuel before entering the engine cylinder. This was done with aid of electric magnetic coil which is placed on the pathway of fuel, approximately at one meter before the carburetor system, to ensure that magnetizing takes place. The fuel system is designed to facilitate for accurate measurement of the fuel flow rate. The fuel consumption is measured directly by using the burette method. The fuel consumption will be measured at different engine loading conditions and exhaust gas measured by Exhaust gas analyzer. Engine performance including brake power, brake specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency are studied using leaded gasoline with magnetic effect and without magnetic effects. This procedure was done twice one for without magnet installation and other for with magnetic coil installation and results will be compared. Filter Fuel line F uel Magnetic coil Tan k Fu el tan Engine k Figure[3] Schematic diagram for magnetic coil installation [3] The magnet for producing the magnetic field is oriented so that its South Pole is located adjacent the fuel line and its North Pole is located spaced apart from the fuel line. [13] 1175 www.ijergs.org International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science Volume 3, Issue 1, January-February, 2015 ISSN 2091-2730 Magnetic fuel conditioner is used to maximize the mileage by using less diesel fuel. In other words, magnetic fuel saver able to reduce the diesel consumption in the diesel engine. Diesel fuels is in the form of liquid when it’s in the oil tank and the important point is fuel will only combust when they are vaporized and mixed with the air. Thus, something has to be done to break the particles into finer tiny particles to improve the combustion. Magnets help to ionize the fuel [12]. Fuel is basically from the groupings of hydrocarbons. When the molecules of hydrocarbon flowing through a magnetic field, it changes their orientation in the direction opposite to the magnetic field. Thus this results in changes of molecule configuration and weakens the intermolecular force between the molecules [9]. In other words, magnetic field actually disperses the molecules into more tiny particles and making the fuel less viscous [7]. Figure below shows how magnets help to disperse the molecules. Emission is another hot topic of diesel engine. Emission of dangerous gaseous such as oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulphur is the result of incomplete combustion in the combustion chamber Magnetic field can improve the combustion level. Thus, automatically the amount of dangerous gaseous can be reduced. The amount of unburned hydrocarbon also can be reduced as the combustion rate improved [5]. Fuel structure before passi ng through magnetic field Fuel structure after passing through magnetic field Figure [2] 3 MAGNET SPECIFICATION There are two types of magnets 1) Permanent magnet 2) Electromagnet Permanent magnets are basically classified as 1176 www.ijergs.org International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science Volume 3, Issue 1, January-February, 2015 ISSN 2091-2730 Neodymium Magnets This magnet also known as Neo magnet which is most widely used type of rare earth magnet and in bright silver colour. This is a permanent magnet which made from alloy of neodymium, iron and boron and this magnet considered to be the strongest magnet type among other permanent magnet. Ferrite Magnets Ferrite magnet is the compound of ceramic and Iron oxide. This is an example of permanent magnet and used as ferrite cores in the transformer. Generally, ferrite magnets are carbon black in colour and brittle because the present of ceramic particle in the chemical compound. Ferrite magnets also considered as strong magnets but not as strong as neodymium magnets. Ferrite Magnets Neodymium Magnets Figure [4] Toroidal core magnetic coil Toroidal core are widely used since the magnetic fields are largely confined within the volume of the form. Figure [5] Magnetic coil in Toroid Shape 4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP Figure [6] Experimental set-up diagram The four stroke single cylinder diesel engine test rig will be prepared to run for all test. The magnetic flux density to be imparted to fuel widely varies depending upon fuel, air or steam, and combustion equipment and conditions. In general, the preferred 1177 www.ijergs.org International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science Volume 3, Issue 1, January-February, 2015 ISSN 2091-2730 range of magnetic flux density is from 1000 to 3500 Gauss, and the most preferred range is from 1400 to 1800 Gauss when fuel oil is used in combination will be determined through experimental runs. The field strength is a function of the engine size based on fuel consumption. [11].The Ferrite magnets are the most cost effective for treating fuel. When high energy Neodymium Iron Boron Magnets are applied, we can obtain a decrease in the fuel mileage and unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The magnetizing apparatus is located on the pipe between pumping means and the burner, carburetor or fuel injectors, because it is unnecessary for any other parts to be magnetized [10]. A portion of the fuel feeding system extending from a point downstream of the magnetizing apparatus to the burner must be made of non-magnetic material. In this case, magnetized fuel is directly fed to burners or atomizing nozzles with a minimum reduction of magnetism. The magnets are embedded in a body of non- magnetic material, such as plastic, copper or aluminium, to secure them to the fuel line. No cutting of the fuel line and no hose and clamps are necessary to install this device, outside a fuel line without disconnection or modification of the fuel or ignition system for producing magnetic flux in the flow path of combustible fuel within the pipe. These units have been installed without other fuel line or ignition adjustments to treat vehicles failing required emission tests as an inexpensive retrofit accessory to give substantially immediate improvements of up to the order of 80 % reduction in hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. 5 CONCLUSION The study of fuel magnetism got importance in recent year due to its effect on decreased fuel consumption and reduced exhaust emission. It also shows improvement in brake Thermal efficiency and Indicated power. Hence by varying strength of magnetic field better result can be obtained. REFERENCES: [1] Park K.S. et al 1997. “Modulated Fuel Feedback control of a fuel injection engine using a switch type oxygen sensor”, Procedure Instrumentation Mechanical Engineers vol 211. [2] P. Govindasamy and S. Dhandapani,“Experimental Investigation of Cyclic Variation of Combustion Parameters in Catalytically Activated and Magnetically Energized Two-stroke SI Engine”. journal of scientific and industrial research vol.66, 2007;pp-457- 463’ [3] Farrag A.El Fatih, Gad M.saber, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 ISSN 1991- 8178 [4] Al Dossary, Rashid. M.A., 2009. \"The Effect of Magnetic Field on Combustion and Emissions\", Master's thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals. [5] Gary T Jones “The effect of molecular fuel energizer on emissions and fuel economy”. The study done in the year 1981 for “environmental protection agency” [6] Vivek Ugare, Nikhil Bhave, Sandeep Lutade,2013 Performance of spark ignition engine under the influence of magnetic field, International journal of research in aeronautical and mechanical engineering ,vol.1 Issue.3 July 2013 Pgs:36-43 [7] Ajaj R. Attar, Pralhad Tipole, Dr. Virendra Bhojwani , Dr.Suhas Deshmukh, “Effect of Magnetic Field Strength on Hydrocarbon Fuel Viscosity and Engine Performance”, International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Applications, Vol 1 Issue 7,December 2013, ISSN 2320-634 [8] Ali S. Faris, Saadi K. Al- Naseri , Nather Jamal, RaedIsse, Mezher Abed, Zainab Fouad, Akeel Kazim, Nihad Reheem, Ali Chaloob, Hazim Mohammad, Hayder Jasim, Jaafar Sadeq, Ali Salim, AwsAbas, “Effects of Magnetic Field on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust, Emissions in Two-Stroke Engine”, Energy Procedia 18( 2012 ) 327 – 338 www.sciencedirect.com [9] A. Janezak, E. Krensel Permanent Magnetic Power for treating fuel lines for more efficient combustion and less pollution .U.S. Pat. 5,124,045, 1992. [10] Kolandavel MANI and Velappan Selladurai, “Energy savings with the effect of magnetic field using r290/600a mixture as substitute for cfc12 and hfc134a”, thermal science: Vol. 12 (2008), No. 3, pp. 111-120. [11] Barathal/ ponnusamy, “magnet device to reduce diesel consumption in diesel engine”, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, university Malaysia Pahang. [12] Shweta Jain, Prof. Dr. Suhas Deshmukh,2012 Experimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C. engine, ISSN: 2250-3021 Volume 2, Issue 7 (July 2012), PP 27-31. [13] Hejun Guo, Zbizhong Liu, Yunchao Chen, Rujie Yao, “A study of magnetic effects on tee physicochemical properties of individual hydrocarbons”, Logistical Engineering College, Chongqing 400042, P.RChina 1178 www.ijergs.org"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on the impact of a 5000 Gauss magnetic field on an SI engine. Results indicate a 12.00% SFC reduction and CO (-7.00%) and HC (-22.00%) emission reductions [218, 261, Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 5000 Gauss a permis d'économiser 12% de carburant sur un moteur SI."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Vol.1 Issue.3, July INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2013. Pgs: 36-43 ISSN (ONLINE): 2321-3051 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING PERFORMANCE OF SPARK IGNITION ENGINE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF MAGNETIC FIELD Vivek Ugare 1, Nikhil Bhave 2, Sandeep Lutade 1Assistant Professor at DBACER Nagpur. 2Assistant Professor at RCOEM Nagpur. 2Assistant Professor at DBACER Nagpur. Abstract The present study investigates the effect of magnetic field on the performance of Single Cylinder Four Stroke Spark Ignition engine. The study concentrates on the effect of magnetic field the engine performance parameters such as fuel consumption, break thermal efficiency and exhaust emissions and on fuel properties like density and calorific value. The magnetic field is applied along the fuel line immediately before carburetor. The magnetic field is applied with the help of strong permanent magnets of strength 5000 gauss. The experiments are conducted at different engine loading conditions. The exhaust gas emissions such as CO, CO , HC and NO are measured by using an exhaust gas analyser. With the application of magnetic field the 2 X percentage reduction in fuel consumption is about 12 %, the percentage reduction in HC and CO is about 27% and 11 % respectively. The NOx level in engine increases with the application of magnetic field. The percentage increase in NOx is about 19%. The effect of magnetic field on percentage increase of CO 2 emissions from SI engine is about 7 %. Keywords: Strong permanent magnets, Bomb calorimeter, five gas analyser. 1. INTRODUCTION The effect magnetic field on the biological and mechanical systems is the subject of study of interest from last fifty years. Many studies suggest that magnetic field has positive effect on the performance of the system. The study related to the effect of magnetic field on the fuel of I.C. engine is gaining importance in order to reduce the fuel consumption and the engine emissions [8]. Since fuel of I.C. engine is a complex molecular arrangement of hydrocarbon as Fuel mainly consists of hydrocarbons. The simplest of hydrocarbon is methane. The chemical composition of methane is CH It has the major (90%) constituent of natural gas (fuel) and an important source of 4. hydrogen [5]. The greatest amount of releasable energy lies in the hydrogen atom. As an example, in octane (C H ) 8 18 the carbon content of the molecule is 84.2%. When combusted, the carbon portion of the molecule will generate Vivek Ugare , Nikhil Bhave , Sandeep Lutade 36 Vol.1 Issue.3, July INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2013. Pgs: 36-43 28,515 KJ/Kg of carbon. On the other hand, the hydrogen, which comprises only 15.8% of the molecular weight, will generate an amazing energy- 22,825 KJ /Kg of H . In the present work, it is proposed to study the effect of 2 magnetic field on the internal combustion (SI) engine. 1.1 Effect of magnetic field on fuel molecule Hydrogen occurs in two distinct isomeric forms Para and ortho. It is characterized by the different opposite nucleus spins. The ortho state of hydrogen has more effective than para state for maximum complete combustion. The ortho state can be achieved by introducing strong magnetic field along the fuel line [5]. Hydrocarbon molecules form clusters, It has been technically possible to enhance van der Waals' discovery due to the application of the Magnetic field, a high power, permanent magnetic device strong enough to break down, i.e. de-cluster these HC associations, so maximum space acquisition for oxygen to combine with hydrocarbon [8]. Figure 1.Schematic view of (a) Para state and (b) Ortho state of Hydrogen [5] Thus when the fuel flows through a magnetic field, created by the strong permanent magnets, the hydrocarbon change their orientation (para to ortho) and molecules of hydrocarbon change their configuration, at the same time inter molecular force is considerably reduced. This mechanism helps to disperse oil particles and to become finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that the fuel actively interlocks with oxygen and producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. Figure.1 shows the clusters of hydrocarbons changed with the influence of magnetic field and they are more dispersed. 2. Experimental set up and procedure The performance tests were carried out on a single cylinder, four stroke water cooled spark ignition petrol engine. The setup consists of an engine, an eddy current dynamometer, and an exhaust gas analyzer. Vivek Ugare , Nikhil Bhave , Sandeep Lutade 37 Vol.1 Issue.3, July INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2013. Pgs: 36-43 Figure.2. Schematic view of 1-cylinder 4-stroke SI engine Figure.2. shows the schematic view of single cylinder four stroke spark ignition engine. Rope belt dynamometer is used for varying the load on the engine. The engine was prepared to run on petrol as a fuel during all tests. The fuel system is designed to facilitate for accurate measurement of the fuel flow rate. The gasoline fuel consumption is measured by Burette method. The gasoline fuel system utilizes the gravity effect to feed the carburettor with gasoline. The gasoline fuel consumption flow rate is measured directly by using the burette method.20 ml division were made on the burette. A digital stopwatch of 0.1 second accuracy is used to measure the time required by the engine to consume a specific volume (20 ml) of gasoline from the burette. Loads are applied to measure the fuel consumption at different engine loading conditions. Make Greaves ltd. Type Single cylinder Cooling mediam Water cooled Rated Power 2.2 kw Rated rpm 3000 Stroke(mm) 66.7 Bore(mm) 70 Compression Ratio 4.7 Capacity 256 cc Table 1. Engine Specification Vivek Ugare , Nikhil Bhave , Sandeep Lutade 38 Vol.1 Issue.3, July INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2013. Pgs: 36-43 Figure.3. Photographic view of exhaust gas analyzer. The photographic view of exhaust gas analyzer is as shown in figure 3.The exhaust gas analyzer is used to measure exhaust emissions from the engine during experimental tests. The exhaust gas analyzer measures gases such as HC, CO, NO and CO concentrations at every instant. this procedure follows twice one for without magnet situation and x 2 other for with magnet situation, and results were compared. 3. Results and Discussions The performance tests are carried out on engine with and without application of magnetic field. The properties of fuel like calorific value and density are calibrated in chemistry laboratory. 3.1 Magnetic field effect on fuel properties The standard technique used for measuring calorific value of fuel was used for conducting the experiment. The water equivalent of bomb calorimeter was determined by burning a known quantity of benzoic acid. And the heat liberated is absorbed by a known mass of water. Then the fuel sample was burned in bomb calorimeter. And the calorific values of fuel samples were calculated. The density reduces up to 1.25 % and the calorific value of Petrol increases by 1.19 %. 3.1 Magnetic field effect on fuel consumption The experimental results show that the fuel consumption of engine was less when the engine with fuel magnet than that without fuel magnet. Always less amount of fuel was consumed with the fuel with magnetic field. The brake power vs fuel consumption graph is as shown in fig.4 Vivek Ugare , Nikhil Bhave , Sandeep Lutade 39 Vol.1 Issue.3, July INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2013. Pgs: 36-43 Figure 4. Variation of fuel consumption with Brake power It is clear that the fuel consumption is reduced maximum about 12% at maximum break power that is at 2.2 kw. The result is better fuel economy. 3.2 Magnetic field effect on brake thermal efficiency As the fuel consumption rate reduces with the application of magnetic field the brake thermal efficiency goes on increasing. Figure.5.Variation of thermal efficiency with brake power As shown in figure.5. it is clear that the brake thermal efficiency goes on increasing with the application of magnetic field. The percentage increase of brake thermal efficiency is about up to 11 %. The variation of Brake power Vs brake thermal efficiency is as shown in fig.5. 3.3Magnetic field effect on exhaust emissions The emission readings were carried out with the help of five gas analyzer. The exhaust emissions like CO, CO , HC, NO were measured at different load conditions. The emission graphs shows the variation of 2 X curve with respect to Brake power. Vivek Ugare , Nikhil Bhave , Sandeep Lutade 40 Vol.1 Issue.3, July INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2013. Pgs: 36-43 3.3.1 Magnetic field effect on HC emissions Figure.6. Variation of HC emissions with BP Fig.7. Clearly shows the effect of magnetic field on HC emissions, and the percentage reduction of HC. The HC emission reduction in the application of magnetic field maximum about 26 % at 0.96 kw. 3.3.2 Magnetic field effect on CO emissions. CO emissions with the application of magnetic field gets reduced as compared to the CO emissions without magnetic field . In both the cases the CO emissions gets increased up to 3 kg load and after that it gets reduced. The CO reduction in the application of magnetic field is maximum of 11.5 % at 0.64 kW, and at load of 2 kg as shown in fig.7. Figure.7 Variation of CO emissions with BP 3.3.3 Magnetic field effect on CO emissions. As 2 shown in fig.10. the effect of magnetic field in the reduction of CO emissions is shown in fig 8. The 2 percentage increase of CO as compared with the percentage of CO without magnet is about 11.2 %. 2 2 Vivek Ugare , Nikhil Bhave , Sandeep Lutade 41 Vol.1 Issue.3, July INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2013. Pgs: 36-43 Figure.8.Variation of CO emissions with BP 2 3.3.4 Magnetic field effect on NO emissions x The NO emission gets increased with the application of magnetic field as compared to the NOx without x magnetic field. Here the magnetic field shows adverse effect. The maximum increase of NOx emissions are 19% at 1.60 kw. The variation of NO emissions with BP is as shown in fig.9 x . 4. Conclusion and Recommendations There is significant increase in brake thermal efficiency due to the reduction of fuel consumption and also the reduction in the exhaust emissions. The experiments show the magnetic effect on fuel consumption reduction was up to 12%. CO reduction was range up to 11%. The effect on NO emissions increases range up to 19%. The reduction of HC emissions was range up to 27%. It is recommended to conduct this method similarly to internal combustion engines fuelled by diesel fuel and CNG as well. By varying the strength of magnet one can perform this experiment for better results. Vivek Ugare , Nikhil Bhave , Sandeep Lutade 42 Vol.1 Issue.3, July INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2013. Pgs: 36-43 4.1 Acknowledgment The authors express their sincere thanks to department of mechanical engineering and the Department of chemistry in Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur for their kind cooperation in doing this project work. 5. References • M. Faraday, “ On the Diamagnetic Conditions of Flame and Gases”, The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, Series 3, Vol. 31, No. 210, December 1847, pp.401-421 • N. I. Wakayama and Masaaki. Sugie, “Magnetic Promotion of Combustion in Diffusion Flames”, Physica B, Vol. 216, 1996, pp. 403-405 • Park K.S. et al 1997. “Modulated Fuel Feedback control of a fuel injection engine using a switch type oxygen sensor”, Proc Instn Mech Engrs vol 211 partD, IMechE • Samuel M. Sami and Shawn Aucoin,“Effect of magnetic field on the performance of new refrigerant mixtures” International journal of energy research int. j. energy res. 2003; 27: 203–214 (doi: 10.1002/er.868). • P. Govindasamy and S. Dhandapani,“Experimental Investigation of Cyclic Variation of Combustion Parameters in Catalytically Activated and Magnetically Energized Two-stroke SI Engine”. journal of scientific and industrial research vol.66, 2007;pp-457-463 • International Journal of Automotive Technology, Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 533 542 (2007) • Al Dossary, Rashid. M.A., 2009. \"The Effect of Magnetic Field on Combustion and Emissions\", Master's thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals • . Farrag A.El Fatih, 2Gad M.saber, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010 ISSN 1991- 8178 • http://saepcelec.saejournals.org/content/4/1/80.abstrat • http://www.thch.unibonn.de/pctc/bargon/PHIP/parahydrogen.html • http://www.ionizationx.com/index.php?topic=1881.0 Vivek Ugare , Nikhil Bhave , Sandeep Lutade 43"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme réduit le SFC de 12% sur un moteur Diesel 4T."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Continuous fuel consumption increase and harmful exhaust emissions led to intensive search about alternative fuels and techniques for fuel saving. Waste cooking oil (WCO) biodiesel was derived from WCO by transesterification process. Biodiesel properties were within acceptable limits of ASTM standards. Biodiesel blends were prepared from diesel and WCO biodiesel in volume percentages of 10 and 20% as B10 and B20. A comparative study of performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine burning biodiesel blends under magnetic field effect. The magnetic field was mounted along the fuel line before fuel injector. The magnetic field was produced from a permanent magnet of 4000 Gauss. Influence of magnetic field on performance parameters such as specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature and air-fuel ratio of a diesel engine was studied at different engine loads. Exhaust emissions such as CO, CO 2 , HC and NO x for a diesel engine burning biodiesel blendsB10 and B20 under the effect of magnetic field were studied. Applying the magnetic field to fuel line increased thermal efficiencies for crude diesel, waste cooking oil biodiesel blends B10 and B20 by 2, 4 and 11 %, respectively. There were decreases in CO emissions by 3, 3.5 and 4 for diesel oil and biodiesel blends B10 and B20, respectively under magnetic field. Decreases in HC emissions for diesel, B10 and B20 fuels were 6, 11 and 8%, respectively. Decreases in NOx emissions by 3, 1.5 and 2% for diesel and biodiesel blends B10 and B20, respectively were shown with the effect of fuel magnet.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on the performance of magnetized 4-stroke SI engines. Results: SFC (-10.00%), HC (-66.00%), and CO (-7.00%) [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'utilisation d'aimants permet une économie de carburant de 10% et une forte réduction des HC (66%)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Re-evaluation of the effect of magnetization (330 Gauss) on bioethanol. A 48.00% increase in C-H bond transmittance is observed, correlated with better fuel atomization and spraying in injectors [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le champ magnétique sur l'injecteur rend le bioéthanol plus volatile pour une combustion améliorée."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "The International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Sciences e-ISSN 2580-7471 https://iptek.its.ac.id/index.php/jmes Experimental Study of the Effect of Magnetization on Bioethanol Injectors on Spray Characteristics for Applications in the SINJAI-150 Engine Amalia Dwi Utami, Bambang Sudarmanta*, Budi Utomo Kukuh Widodo, Ary Bachtiar Krisna Putra, Is Bunyamin Suryo Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia Received:22April2019,Revised:15August2019,Accepted:4September2019 Abstract Ingeneral,thehydrocarbonmoleculesinthefuelperformvibrationalactivitytowardsthecoreand attracteachother, formingclusteringmolecules. Inductionofamagneticfieldinthefuelflowcan changethehydrocarbonmoleculessothattheirarrangementbecomesmoreregular(de-clustering). Theinductionofthemagneticfieldinthisresearchutilizedacoilthatwasfedbyanoutputcurrent fromtheSINJAI-150enginealternator. MagneticfieldplacementwasplacedbeforeBioethanolE100 fuelenteredtheinjector. Observationofthemagnetizationofthefuelwascarriedoutmolecularly withtheFTIR(FourierTransform-InfraRedSpectroscopy)testandobservingthecharacteristicsofthe fuelsprayattheinjectoroutput. Theresultsobtainedwereanincreaseinthefueltransmittanceof BioethanolE100upto41.31%forC-Hcompounds,48.8%forC-Ocompounds,and114%forO-H compoundscomparedtostandardconditions. Inthespraycharacteristics,therewasanincreasein thesprayangleupto2andadecreaseintheSauterMeanDiameter(SMD)to1.312mm,duetoa decreaseinthevalueofthefuelpropertiesintheformofsurfacetension,viscosity,anddensityupto 2.6%,10.28%and10.15%fromthestandardstatewithoutmagnetization. Asaresultofdecreasing thedensityvalue,themassflowrateofthefueldecreasesto10.28%fromthestandardconditionsat 2,000rpm. Keywords: BioethanolE100,FTIR,injectorspraycharacteristics,magneticinduction 1. Introduction accordingtovariationsinvoltageandresistance. Inthe FTIRtest,itwasfoundthattherewasanincreaseinthe Ingeneral, the hydrocarbon molecules in the fuel transmittanceofinfraredraysinfuelspectroscopydueto compoundwillcarryoutvibrationalactivities(vibrations) theapplicationofamagneticfield. Intheenginetest,due towards the core. In addition, hydrocarbon compounds tomagnetization,therewasadecreaseinthevalueofthe willtendtoattractbetweenmoleculestoformmolecules AirFuelRatio. Thiscausesanincreaseinthevalueofther- thatareclustered(clustering). Theclusteringofthisfuel malcombustionefficiencyandshowsanimprovementin causesthehydrocarbonmoleculesnottobecompletelyox- thequalityofemissions. Subsequentresearchwascarried idizedwhentheyreactwithoxygen. IntheSparkIgnition outbyAnang&Sudarmanta[2]byutilizingthealterna- Engine(SIE),thecombustionofacertainamountoffuel tor output voltage to generate magnetic field induction. thathasbeenmixedwithairisinitiatedbyasparkfrom Fromtheresearchresults,itwasfoundthatthemaximum the spark plug. In this process, there is a fast chemical engineperformanceoccursatseveralvariationsofengine reaction between hydrogen and carbon in the fuel and speed. Theincreaseininfraredlighttransmittanceinfuel oxygencontainedinthefuelandairmixture. Asaresult spectroscopy occurred at 5,000 rpm rotation. At 3,500 of the clustering effect, it is estimated that there is still rpm,therewasthehighestincreaseintorque,bmep,vol- unburnedfuelandturnedintoUHC(unburnedhydrocar- umetricefficiency,thermalefficiency,andalsodecreased bon)andcarbonmonoxide.Itisnecessarytoimprovethe fuel consumption and emissions. While the maximum atomizationprocesstoreduceemissionlevelsandincrease powerincreaseoccursat4500rpmenginespeed. combustion efficiency. One way to improve the fuel at- Researchontheeffectofmagnetizationonfuelprop- omizationprocessistoapplyamagneticfieldtothefuel ertieshasbeencarriedoutbyChalidetal. [3]andFaris stream. etal. [4]. ResearchbyChalidwasconductedonkerosene Hamdani&Sudarmanta[1]hasconductedresearch fuelbyvaryingthevalueofmagneticfieldinductionand ongivingmagneticfieldstofuelonengineperformance. magnetizationtime. Fromthisresearch,itwasfoundthat Hamdani & Sudarmanta’s research was carried out on themagnetizationdidnotcausechangesintheconstituent gasolinebyvaryingthemagnitudeofthemagneticfield *Correspondingauthor.Email:[email protected] JMESTheInternationalJournalofMechanicalEngineeringandSciences;Vol. 3,No. 2(2019): 17-26 Utamietal./JMESTheInternationalJournalofMechanicalEngineeringandSciences/3/2(2019) compoundsofthefuel. Theinductionvalueofthemag- 2. Method netic field and the duration of magnetization affect the 2.1. ExperimentalSet-up decrease in the viscosity and polarity of kerosene fuels. Meanwhile,researchconductedbyFarisbygivingamag- Beforetestingtheinjectortester,themagneticfield neticfieldtoIraqigasoline. Theresultsofthistestcausea inductionmagnitudewastestedaccordingtothealterna- decreaseinthevalueofthesurfacetensionalongwitha tor current output. The results of magnetic field testing givenmagneticinduction. canbeseeninTable1. Thefuelcombustionprocessinthechamberisinflu- encedbytheatomizationofthefuelwithair. Onewayto Table1. Magneticfieldtestresults. improveatomizationistoprovideadeclusteringeffecton thefuelmolecule. Thetreatmentusedtocausethedeclus- Magnetic Current MagneticField teringeffectistoapplyamagneticfieldtothefuelstream. Field (Ampere) (Gauss) Thedeclusteringeffectonthefuelmoleculecanbeseen B1 1.1 250 inthefuelFTIRspectroscopytest. Whereasintheengine, B2 1.6 280 onewaytoobservefuelatomizationistopayattentionto B3 2.4 310 theinjectors’fuelspray. Basedonthisdescription,atest B4 2.9 330 was done to observe the effect of magnetization on the massflowrateoffuel,changesininfraredlighttransmit- tance on fuel spectroscopy, and spray characteristics on Installationofinjectortesterequipmentfordatacol- theinjectors. lectionoffuelflowratescanbeseeninFigure1. Figure1. Schematicoffuelflowratetestinginstallationusinginjectortesterunit. 18 Utamietal./JMESTheInternationalJournalofMechanicalEngineeringandSciences/3/2(2019) Inductionofamagneticfieldinthefuelwascarried data, in the form of the volume of fuel injected and the out before the fuel entered the injector. Magnetic field time of injection. The volume of fuel can be observed induction makes use of the electric current output from throughameasuringcupontheinjectortesterunit. thealternator. Atthetimeoftesting, thealternatorwas Figure2showstheinstallationoftheinjectortester replacedbyapowersupplywhosecurrentoutputmatched equipmentforobservingthespraycharacteristics. Thedif- thealternatoroutputcurrent. Theelectriccurrentinduced ferenceintheinstallationfortestingthespraycharacteris- bythemagneticfieldwasadjustedaccordingtothecur- ticsistheplacementoftheinjectorsoutsidetheinjector rent variation in the alternator output. In this test, the tester. The injector is placed in front of the blackboard fuelwassetatatemperatureof70◦C.Thesourceoffuel so that the spray characteristic image can be captured heatinggenerationcomesfromaccu. perfectlybythecamera. Thedatacollectionforthefuelflowratewascarried Afterthat,thefuelsamplesweretakenforFTIRtest- outentirelyintheInjectorTesterUnit. Initially,theinjec- ing and fuel properties testing. Properties testing was tor tester was set to uniform/spreadability mode. Then carriedoutintheformofviscositytesting,surfacetension, the heater on the injector was activated. The magnetic and density due to the application of a magnetic field. fieldwasinducedaccordingtothevariationofthecurrent. PropertiestestingwascarriedouttodeterminetheSMD Pulsewidthandinjectionpressureweresetat6msand3 valueofthefuelduetomagnetization. Thedataobtained bar. Furthermore,thefuelflowratewasadjustedbyusing fromthepropertiestestisthedynamicviscosityvaluefor avariationofrpminaccordancewiththeenginerotational the viscosity test. The mass of the fuel at a certain vol- speed to be observed, namely 2,000, 4,000, 6,000, and umeforthedensityandthedifferenceinforceswiththe 8,000rpm. Thefuelinjectiontimewassetfor60seconds. circumferenceoftheringinthesurfacetensiontest. The Observations were made to collect fuel flow rate surfacetensiontestschemecanbeseeninFigure3. Figure2. Schematicofthespraycharacteristictestinginstallation. 19 Utamietal./JMESTheInternationalJournalofMechanicalEngineeringandSciences/3/2(2019) Figure3. Schematicofthesurfacetensiontestinginstallation. 2.2. DataProcessing calculatethefuelflowrateatonehole,is: Table2isthedataobtainedfromtheresultsoftest- 1 ingpropertiesandfuelflowrates. Inthedensitytest,data m˙ = 4 m˙ t (4) wereobtainedintheformofmass(m)andfuelvolume Based on the results of the calculation of the mass (V).Sothatthemagnitudeofthedensityvalueisobtained flow rate of the fuel, the speed at which the fuel leaves bythefollowingequation: theinjectorscanbedeterminedbytheequation: m ρ= (1) V m˙ =ρ.A.v (5) After obtaining the velocity of fuel flow out of the Table2. Testingresultdata. injector, the Weber Number [5] calculation can be per- formedwiththeequation: Magnetic m V t Vi ∆F µ field (gram) (mL) (s) (mL) (mN) (cP) ρ.v2.d B0 29 42 60 23 7.5 0.35 W = (6) e σ B1 63 98 60 23 7.35 0.33 B2 62.4 98 60 23 7.3 0.33 To get the SMD value, it is necessary to calculate B3 64.2 102 60 23 7.3 0.32 theReynoldsNumberoftheknownfuelproperties. The B4 60.8 98 60 23 7.3 0.315 ReynoldsNumber[5]valueisobtainedbytheequation: ρ.v.do Inthesurfacetensiontest,datawereobtainedinthe R = (7) e µ formofthedifferenceinforceontheringwhenittouches thefuelsurfaceandwhentheringiscompletelyinsidethe In testing the characteristics of the injector spray, fuel(∆F).Thesizesoftheouterdiameterofthering(d 1 ) fuelwassprayedintotheairat1atmroomtemperature. and the inner diameter of the ring (d 2 ) are known. So Assumingtheairtemperaturewas27◦C,thevalueofdy- thatthesurfacetensionvalueisobtainedbythefollowing namic viscosity of air (µ ) = 18.46 x 10−6 Pa.s and air g equation: density(ρ )=1.1614kg/m3 wasobtained. Thevalueof g SMD [6]canbecalculatedwiththeequation: ∆F σ = (2) 3.14(d +d ) 1 2 (cid:18) µ (cid:19)0.54(cid:18) ρ (cid:19)0.18 The fuel flow rate test results obtained data in the SMD =4.12d Re0.12W −0.75 nozz e µ ρ formoffuelinjectionvolume(Vi)andinjectiontime(t). g g (8) Oncethefueldensityvalueisknown,themassflowrate of the fuel out of the injector can be determined by the 3. Result and Discussion followingequation: 3.1. EffectofMagneticFieldsonFTIRTestingGraphs Vi m˙ =ρ (3) Figure 4 shows the FTIR test results of Bioethanol t t E100 fuel subjected to a magnetic field. The test was Theinjectorusedinthetestisamultiholeinjector, carriedoutbycomparingtheFTIRresultsofbioethanol with 4 fuel outlet holes. So that the equation used to 20 Utamietal./JMESTheInternationalJournalofMechanicalEngineeringandSciences/3/2(2019) fuelE100withoutmagnetization (B0)withfuelgivena indexofBioethanolishigherthanbeforemagnetization magnetic field of 250 Gauss (B1), 280 Gauss (B2), 310 Further observations were made on the fuel con- Gauss(B3),and330Gauss(B4). Thetestwascarriedout stituentcompoundBioethanolE100. Thefuelconstituents atthesamefuelflowrateaccordingtotheSINJAI150cc ofBioethanolE100areintheformofC-H,O-H,andC-O engine rpm. Figure 5 is the result of FTIR testing with bonds. C-Hcompoundscanbedetectedbythepresenceof variations in the flow rate of fuel through the magnetic apeakatawavelengthof2,978.16cm−1. O-Hcompounds fieldaccordingtoenginespeed. canbedetectedwithpeaksat3,433.4cm−1 wavelength. From the test results, it can be seen that the appli- AndtheC-Ocompoundcanbedetectedwithapeakata cationofamagneticfielddoesnotaffectthestructureof wavelengthof1,074.38cm−1. the bioethanol E100 constituent compounds. The appli- Figure6showsthepercentageincreaseintransmit- cationofamagneticfieldonlyaffectsthetransmittance tanceduetomagnetizationwithvariationsinthemagnetic value. Thegreaterthemagneticfieldvalueappliedtothe field’s magnitude and the flow rate of fuel through the fuel,thegreaterthechangein%transmittance. Also,itis magneticfield. Fromthisgraph,itcanbeseenthatwith knownthatthelowerthefuelflowratepassingthrough the same magnetic field variations at different rpm, the the magnetic field, the greater the change in transmit- change in the absorption value tends to decrease along tance. Changes in the fuel’s absorption value indicate with the higher the rpm value. In the magnetic field B1 de-clusteringofthecompoundsinBioethanolduetomag- (250Gauss),thepercentagevalueoftheincreaseinthe netization, which changes the polarity of the functional value of C-H Alkane absorption decreases with the in- groups of the compounds. This change allows a change creaseintherateoffuelflowthroughthemagneticfield. in the intensity of the functional group vibration trans- At 8,000 rpm, the increase in the absorption value per- mission. The increase in polarity of a molecule is made centagewasonlyaround8.34%,whileatthelowrotation possiblebythechangeinthedistanceoftheelectronsin of2,000rpm,theincreaseinfueltransmittancereached theatomormolecule’sbondareaduetotheorientationof 13.65%. Thisisduetothedifferenceinthetimethefuel themoleculeorthepolarbondduringmagnetization. This hits the magnetic field. The longer the magnetization changeleadstoanincreaseinthebond’sdipolemoment. time,thehighertheincreaseintransmittance. IntheC-H Thishasastrongrelationshipwiththede-clusteringphe- AlkaneBioethanolE100fuelcompound,applyingamag- nomenonbecauseanincreaseinthebond’sdipolemoment neticfieldof330Gausscanincreasethetransmittanceof allowsrepulsionbetweenhydrocarbonmolecules. Finally, thecompoundbyupto48%fromstandardconditions. the molecular distribution increases, and the refractive Figure4. EffectofvariationsinthemagnitudeofthemagneticfieldontheFTIRtestresults. 21 Utamietal./JMESTheInternationalJournalofMechanicalEngineeringandSciences/3/2(2019) Figure5. EffectoftheflowrateoffuelthroughamagneticfieldontheresultsoftheFTIRtest. Figures 7 and 8 show the percentage increase in differenceintheincreaseinthetransmittancevalue. In %transmittanceduetomagnetizationwithvariationsin the C-O compound of Bioethanol E100 fuel, applying a the magnitude of the magnetic field and the flow rate magneticfieldof330Gausscanincreasethetransmittance of fuel through the magnetic field in the C-O and O-H ofthecompoundupto41.33%fromstandardconditions. compounds trendline, the percentage increase in trans- Whereas in O-H compound, the percentage increase in mittance due to the difference in the magnitude of the transmittancereachedupto114.26%fromstandardcon- magneticfieldandtherateoffuelflowthroughthemag- ditions. netic field is the same as the C-H compound. There is a Figure6. Graphoftheincreasein%transmittanceofC-Halkanesduetomagnetizationagainststandardconditions(without magnetization). 22 Utamietal./JMESTheInternationalJournalofMechanicalEngineeringandSciences/3/2(2019) Figure7. GraphoftheincreaseinthetransmittanceoftheC-Ocompoundduetomagnetizationagainststandardconditions (withoutmagnetization). Figure8. GraphoftheincreaseintransmittanceofO-Hcompoundsduetomagnetizationagainststandardconditions(without magnetization). 3.2. EffectofMagneticFieldsonFuelProperties thefuelwilldecreasefollowingthedecreasingtrendline in the density value. The value of the mass flow rate of Basedonthedensitytestresults,itappearsthatthe fuelcanbeseeninFigure10. fuelflowpassingthroughthemagneticfieldhasdecreased Theresultsofviscosityandsurfacetensiontesting, thedensityvalue. ThisisshowninFigure9,whichtends applyingamagneticfieldtothefuelflowcanreducethe todecreasewiththeapplicationofalargermagneticfield. viscosity and surface tension values. This can be seen Thisisduetothede-clusteringprocessintheBioethanol in Figures 11 and 12. As a result of the declustering E100fuelmolecule. Sothatthedistanceofhydrocarbon effect, there is an increase in molecular polarity during moleculesstretchesandcausesanincreaseinthevolume magnetization. Thispolaritychangeincreasestherepul- offuelunderconditionsofconstantfuelmass. Alongwith sionbetweensimilarmoleculesandreducesthevibrations theincreaseinthemagneticfield’smagnitudeappliedto of the molecules towards the nucleus. This is what can thefuelflow,thedensityvaluedecreases. Asaresultofa reducetheviscosityofBioethanolandsurfacetension. decreaseinthefueldensityvalue, themassflowrateof 23 Utamietal./JMESTheInternationalJournalofMechanicalEngineeringandSciences/3/2(2019) Figure9. Effectofthemagnitudeofthemagneticfieldon thedensityvalueofE100bioethanolfuel. Figure11. Theinfluenceofthemagnitudeofthemagnetic fieldontheviscosityvalueofbioethanolfuelE100. Figure10. Effectofmagneticfieldsonchangesinthemass Figure12. Effectofthemagnitudeofthemagneticfieldon flowrateofbioethanolE100fuel. thesurfacetensionvalueofE100bioethanolfuel. 3.3. EffectofMagneticFieldsontheCharacteristicsof angle of 26◦ with a penetration length of about 13 cm. theInjectorSpray After applying a magnetic field, figures 14 b, c, and d, theangleofthesprayexperiencedanincreaseinangleto Whenthefuelflowissubjectedtoamagneticfield, 27.3◦. Thisincreaseinsprayanglewasnotaccompanied theBioethanolE100fueltendstoexperienceadecrease byachangeinthelengthofpenetration. AndwhenaB4 inthedensity,viscosity,andsurfacetensionvalues. This magneticfieldwasapplied,thesprayangleincreasedto iswhatcausestheSMDvaluetodecreasealongwiththe 28◦. However,therewasstillnochangeinthelengthof increase in the value of magnetic field induction. This penetrationduetomagneticfield. can be seen in Figure 13. Based on Equation (8), the The fuel property that affects the change in spray SMDvalueisinfluencedbytheReynoldsandWebernum- angle is the viscosity value. Applying a magnetic field bers. TheReynoldsandWebernumbersareinfluencedby to the fuel will reduce the viscosity value. This is what the ratio of density values to surface tension and viscos- causes a wider distribution of the fuel output from the ity. Alongwiththeapplicationofmagneticfieldinduction, injectorsandaffectsthesizeofthesprayangle. However, bioethanolfuelexperiencesadecreaseinthedensityvalue this decrease does not coincide with the increase in the followedbyadecreaseinthevalueofsurfacetensionand sprayangle. Thisindicatesacertainviscosityvaluesothat viscosity. This is what causes a decrease in the value of itaffectsthechangeinsprayangle. TheSMDvaluealso theSMD.AdecreaseintheSMDvaluecanindicateanim- affects the spray angle of the injector output. From the provementintheatomizationofthefuelwhenitismixed resultsofthevisualization,itcanbeseenthattheincrease withair. Sothatitcancausemorecompletecombustion inthesprayangleisduetoachangeinthevalueofthe inapplicationsinthecombustionchamber. fueldropletsize. Duetothesmallerfueldropletsize,the InFigure14,thevisualizationoffuelsprayindiffer- fuel that is in direct contact with free air is volatile and ent magnetization treatments is shown. In the absence reactswiththeair,causingfoginthefuelspray. ofmagnetization,itisseenthatthefuelsprayformedan 24 Utamietal./JMESTheInternationalJournalofMechanicalEngineeringandSciences/3/2(2019) Figure13. TheinfluenceofthemagnitudeofthemagneticfieldonchangesintheSMDvalue. Figure 14. Visualization of fuel spray (a) without magnetization, (b) magnetization by B1, (c) magnetization by B2, (d) magnetizationbyB3,(e)magnetizationbyB4. 4. Conclusion fortheC-Ocompound,therewasanincreaseinthetrans- mittancevalueofupto41.33%. WhileforO-H,itis114% Thereisanincreaseinbioethanolfueltransmittance ofthestandard. after being given a magnetic field flow that comes from The rate at which the fuel flows through the mag- theinductionofthecoilwiththeoutputelectriccurrent neticfieldaffectstheincreaseintransmittance. Thefaster fromthealternator. IntheC-Hcompound,thepercentage thefuelflowthroughthemagneticfield,thesmallerthein- increase in transmittance value is up to 48.48% due to creaseinfueltransmittance. Thedifferenceinthepercent- beingmagnetizedbyamagneticfieldof330Gauss. And 25 Utamietal./JMESTheInternationalJournalofMechanicalEngineeringandSciences/3/2(2019) age increase in the transmittance of the fuel compound Sinjai2silinder650cc(mappingsumbertegangan),” due to the difference in fuel flow rate reached 8.6% at JurnalTeknikPOMITS,vol.1,no.1,2016. 2,000rpmand8,000rpm. [2] A.FirmansyahandB.Sudarmanta,“Pengaruhpembe- Theapplicationofamagneticfieldtobioethanolfu- rianinduksimedanmagnetpadaaliranbahanbakar elsaffectsthepropertiesvalueofthefuel. Density,surface terhadap penyerapan radiasi infra merah molekul tension,andviscositytendtodecreasewiththemagnetic hidrokarbon dan unjuk kerja mesin Sinjai 650 cc 2 field’smagnitudeappliedtothefuel. Duetothemagneti- silinder(Studikasus: Sumberteganganalternator),” zationof330Gauss,thedensityvalues,surfacetension, and viscosity decreased to 620.41 kg/m3, 19.88 mN/m, JurnalTeknikITS,vol.4,no.1,2016. and 0.315 cP. The application of a magnetic field to the [3] M. Chalid, N. Saksono, Adiwar, and N. Darsono, fuelthatpassesthroughtheinjectorsresultsinadecrease “Studi pengaruh magnetisasi sistem dipol terhadap inthemassflowrateofthefuelalongwithadecreasein karakteristikkerosin,”MakaraJournalofTechnology, thedensityvalueduetomagnetization. vol.8,no.1,2005. Applyingamagneticfieldtothefuelintheinjectors can reduce the SMD (Sauter Mean Diameter) value of [4] A.S.Faris,S.K.Al-Naseri,N.Jamal,R.Isse,M.Abed, thefuelsprayto1.312mm. Applyingamagneticfieldof Z.Fouad, A.Kazim, N.Reheem, A.Chaloob, H.Mo- 250-310 Gauss to the fuel can increase the spray angle hammad, et al., “Effects of magnetic field on fuel ofthebioethanolfueloutputfromtheinjectorsbyupto consumptionandexhaustemissionsintwo-strokeen- 2◦. However,applyingmagneticfieldinductiondoesnot gine,”EnergyProcedia,vol.18,2012. affectthelengthofthespraypenetration. [5] D. S. Kawano, “Motor bakar torak (bensin),” References Surabaya: ITSPress,2013. [1] M.HamdhaniandB.Sudarmanta,“Studieksperimen- [6] W.M.RenandH.Sayar,“Influenceofnozzlegeometry tal variasi kuat medan magnet induksi pada aliran onsprayatomizationandshapeforportfuelinjector,” bahan bakar terhadap unjuk kerja dan emisi mesin Tech.Rep.01-0608,SAETechnicalPaper,2001. 26"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Evaluation of the impact of magnetization (330 Gauss) on pure bioethanol (E100) spraying characteristics. The field application induced a 48.00% increase in C-H bond transmittance, signaling bond weakening and optimized fuel atomization [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Un champ magnétique de 330 Gauss appliqué au bioéthanol a rendu les molécules plus dispersées, ce qui est essentiel pour une bonne pulvérisation dans l'injecteur. L'étude a été menée dans le contexte du moteur SINJAI."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "n general, the hydrocarbon molecules in the fuel perform vibrational activity towards the core and attract each other, forming clustering molecules. Induction of a magnetic field in the fuel flow can change the hydrocarbon molecules so that their arrangement becomes more regular (de-clustering). The induction of the magnetic field in this research utilized a coil that was fed by an output current from the SINJAI-150 engine alternator. Magnetic field placement was placed before Bioethanol E100 fuel entered the injector. Observation of the magnetization of the fuel was carried out molecularly with the FTIR (Fourier Transform-Infra Red Spectroscopy) test and observing the characteristics of the fuel spray at the injector output. The results obtained were an increase in the fuel transmittance of Bioethanol E100 up to 41.31% for C-H compounds, 48.8% for C-O compounds, and 114% for O-H compounds compared to standard conditions. In the spray characteristics, there was an increase in the spray angle up to 2 and a decrease in the Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) to 1.312 mm, due to a decrease in the value of the fuel properties in the form of surface tension, viscosity, and density up to 2.6%, 10.28% and 10.15% from the standard state without magnetization. As a result of decreasing the density value, the mass flow rate of the fuel decreases to 10.28% from the standard conditions at 2,000 rpm.\r\n\r\n1.Introduction\r\nIngeneral, the hydrocarbon molecules in the fuel compound will carry out vibrational activities (vibrations) towards the core. In addition, hydrocarbon compounds will tend to attract between molecules to form molecules that are clustered (clustering). The clustering of this fuel causes the hydrocarbon molecules not to be completely oxidized when they react with oxygen. In the Spark Ignition Engine (SIE), the combustion of a certain amount of fuel that has been mixed with air is initiated by a spark from the spark plug. In this process, there is a fast chemical reaction between hydrogen and carbon in the fuel and oxygen contained in the fuel and air mixture. As a result of the clustering effect, it is estimated that there is still unburned fuel and turned into UHC (unburned hydrocarbon) and carbon monoxide.It is necessary to improve the atomization process to reduce emission levels and increase combustion efficiency. One way to improve the fuel atomization process is to apply a magnetic field to the fuel stream.\r\n\r\nHamdani & Sudarmanta [1] has conducted research on giving magnetic fields to fuel on engine performance.\r\n\r\nHamdani & Sudarmanta's research was carried out on gasoline by varying the magnitude of the magnetic field according to variations in voltage and resistance. In the FTIR test, it was found that there was an increase in the transmittance of infrared rays in fuel spectroscopy due to the application of a magnetic field. In the engine test, due to magnetization, there was a decrease in the value of the Air Fuel Ratio. This causes an increase in the value of thermal combustion efficiency and shows an improvement in the quality of emissions. Subsequent research was carried out by Anang & Sudarmanta [2] by utilizing the alternator output voltage to generate magnetic field induction. From the research results, it was found that the maximum engine performance occurs at several variations of engine speed. The increase in infrared light transmittance in fuel spectroscopy occurred at 5,000 rpm rotation. At 3,500 rpm, there was the highest increase in torque, bmep, volumetric efficiency, thermal efficiency, and also decreased fuel consumption and emissions. While the maximum power increase occurs at 4500 rpm engine speed.\r\n\r\nResearch on the effect of magnetization on fuel properties has been carried out by Chalid et al. [3] and Faris et al. [4]. Research by Chalid was conducted on kerosene fuel by varying the value of magnetic field induction and magnetization time. From this research, it was found that the magnetization did not cause changes in the constituent compounds of the fuel. The induction value of the magnetic field and the duration of magnetization affect the decrease in the viscosity and polarity of kerosene fuels. Meanwhile, research conducted by Faris by giving a magnetic field to Iraqi gasoline. The results of this test cause a decrease in the value of the surface tension along with a given magnetic induction.\r\n\r\nThe fuel combustion process in the chamber is influenced by the atomization of the fuel with air. One way to improve atomization is to provide a declustering effect on the fuel molecule. The treatment used to cause the declustering effect is to apply a magnetic field to the fuel stream. The declustering effect on the fuel molecule can be seen in the fuel FTIR spectroscopy test. Whereas in the engine, one way to observe fuel atomization is to pay attention to the injectors' fuel spray. Based on this description, a test was done to observe the effect of magnetization on the mass flow rate of fuel, changes in infrared light transmittance on fuel spectroscopy, and spray characteristics on the injectors.\r\n\r\n2.1.Experimental Set-up\r\nBefore testing the injector tester, the magnetic field induction magnitude was tested according to the alternator current output. The results of magnetic field testing can be seen in Table 1 . Installation of injector tester equipment for data collection of fuel flow rates can be seen in Figure 1 . Induction of a magnetic field in the fuel was carried out before the fuel entered the injector. Magnetic field induction makes use of the electric current output from the alternator. At the time of testing, the alternator was replaced by a power supply whose current output matched the alternator output current. The electric current induced by the magnetic field was adjusted according to the current variation in the alternator output. In this test, the fuel was set at a temperature of 70 • C. The source of fuel heating generation comes from accu.\r\n\r\nThe data collection for the fuel flow rate was carried out entirely in the Injector Tester Unit. Initially, the injector tester was set to uniform/spreadability mode. Then the heater on the injector was activated. The magnetic field was induced according to the variation of the current. Pulse width and injection pressure were set at 6ms and 3 bar. Furthermore, the fuel flow rate was adjusted by using a variation of rpm in accordance with the engine rotational speed to be observed, namely 2,000, 4,000, 6,000, and 8,000 rpm. The fuel injection time was set for 60 seconds.\r\n\r\nObservations were made to collect fuel flow rate data, in the form of the volume of fuel injected and the time of injection. The volume of fuel can be observed through a measuring cup on the injector tester unit.\r\n\r\nFigure 2 shows the installation of the injector tester equipment for observing the spray characteristics. The difference in the installation for testing the spray characteristics is the placement of the injectors outside the injector tester. The injector is placed in front of the blackboard so that the spray characteristic image can be captured perfectly by the camera.\r\n\r\nAfter that, the fuel samples were taken for FTIR testing and fuel properties testing. Properties testing was carried out in the form of viscosity testing, surface tension, and density due to the application of a magnetic field. Properties testing was carried out to determine the SMD value of the fuel due to magnetization. The data obtained from the properties test is the dynamic viscosity value for the viscosity test. The mass of the fuel at a certain volume for the density and the difference in forces with the circumference of the ring in the surface tension test. The surface tension test scheme can be seen in Figure 3 .\r\n\r\n2.2.Data Processing\r\nTable 2 is the data obtained from the results of testing properties and fuel flow rates. In the density test, data were obtained in the form of mass (m) and fuel volume (V). So that the magnitude of the density value is obtained by the following equation: In the surface tension test, data were obtained in the form of the difference in force on the ring when it touches the fuel surface and when the ring is completely inside the fuel (∆F). The sizes of the outer diameter of the ring (d 1 ) and the inner diameter of the ring (d 2 ) are known. So that the surface tension value is obtained by the following equation:\r\n\r\nThe fuel flow rate test results obtained data in the form of fuel injection volume (Vi) and injection time (t). Once the fuel density value is known, the mass flow rate of the fuel out of the injector can be determined by the following equation:\r\n\r\nThe injector used in the test is a multihole injector, with 4 fuel outlet holes. So that the equation used to calculate the fuel flow rate at one hole, is:\r\n\r\nBased on the results of the calculation of the mass flow rate of the fuel, the speed at which the fuel leaves the injectors can be determined by the equation:\r\n\r\nAfter obtaining the velocity of fuel flow out of the injector, the Weber Number [5] calculation can be performed with the equation:\r\n\r\nTo get the SMD value, it is necessary to calculate the Reynolds Number of the known fuel properties. The Reynolds Number [5] value is obtained by the equation:\r\n\r\nIn testing the characteristics of the injector spray, fuel was sprayed into the air at 1 atm room temperature. Assuming the air temperature was 27 • C, the value of dynamic viscosity of air (µ g ) = 18.46 x 10 -6 Pa.s and air density (ρ g ) = 1.1614 kg/m 3 was obtained. The value of SM D [6] can be calculated with the equation:\r\n\r\n3.1.Effect of Magnetic Fields on FTIR Testing Graphs\r\nFigure 4 shows the FTIR test results of Bioethanol E100 fuel subjected to a magnetic field. The test was carried out by comparing the FTIR results of bioethanol fuel E100 without magnetization (B0) with fuel given a magnetic field of 250 Gauss (B1), 280 Gauss (B2), 310 Gauss (B3), and 330 Gauss (B4). The test was carried out at the same fuel flow rate according to the SINJAI 150 cc engine rpm. Figure 5 is the result of FTIR testing with variations in the flow rate of fuel through the magnetic field according to engine speed.\r\n\r\nFrom the test results, it can be seen that the application of a magnetic field does not affect the structure of the bioethanol E100 constituent compounds. The application of a magnetic field only affects the transmittance value. The greater the magnetic field value applied to the fuel, the greater the change in% transmittance. Also, it is known that the lower the fuel flow rate passing through the magnetic field, the greater the change in transmittance. Changes in the fuel's absorption value indicate de-clustering of the compounds in Bioethanol due to magnetization, which changes the polarity of the functional groups of the compounds. This change a change in the intensity of the functional group transmission. The increase in polarity of a molecule is made possible by the change in the distance of the electrons in the atom or molecule's bond area due to the orientation of the molecule or the polar bond during magnetization. This change leads to an increase in the bond's dipole moment. This has a strong relationship with the de-clustering phenomenon because an increase in the bond's dipole moment allows repulsion between hydrocarbon molecules. Finally, the molecular distribution increases, and the refractive index of Bioethanol is higher than before magnetization Further observations were made on the fuel constituent compound Bioethanol E100. The fuel constituents of Bioethanol E100 are in the form of C-H, O-H, and C-O bonds. C-H compounds can be detected by the presence of a peak at a wavelength of 2,978.16 cm -1 . O-H compounds can be detected with peaks at 3,433.4 cm -1 wavelength. And the C-O compound can be detected with a peak at a wavelength of 1,074.38 cm -1 .\r\n\r\nFigure 6 shows the percentage increase in transmittance due to magnetization with variations in the magnetic field's magnitude and the flow rate of fuel through the magnetic field. From this graph, it can be seen that with the same magnetic field variations at different rpm, the change in the absorption value tends to decrease along with the higher the rpm value. In the magnetic field B1 (250 Gauss), the percentage value of the increase in the value of C-H Alkane absorption decreases with the increase in the rate of fuel flow through the magnetic field. At 8,000 rpm, the increase in the absorption value percentage was only around 8.34%, while at the low rotation of 2,000 rpm, the increase in fuel transmittance reached 13.65%. This is due to the difference in the time the fuel hits the magnetic field. The longer the magnetization time, the higher the increase in transmittance. In the C-H Alkane Bioethanol E100 fuel compound, applying a magnetic field of 330 Gauss can increase the transmittance of the compound by up to 48% from standard conditions. Figures 7 and 8 show the percentage increase in % transmittance due to magnetization with variations in the magnitude of the magnetic field and the flow rate of fuel through the magnetic field in the C-O and O-H compounds trendline, the percentage increase in transmittance due to the difference the magnitude of the magnetic field and the rate of fuel flow through the magnetic field is the same as the C-H compound. There is a difference in the increase in the transmittance value. In the C-O compound of Bioethanol E100 fuel, applying a magnetic field of 330 Gauss can increase the transmittance of the compound up to 41.33% from standard conditions. Whereas in O-H compound, the percentage increase in transmittance reached up to 114.26% from standard conditions.\r\n\r\n3.2.Effect of Magnetic Fields on Fuel Properties\r\nBased on the density test results, it appears that the fuel flow passing through the magnetic field has decreased the density value. This is shown in Figure 9 , which tends to decrease with the application of a larger magnetic field. This is due to the de-clustering process in the Bioethanol E100 fuel molecule. So that the distance of hydrocarbon molecules stretches and causes an increase in the volume of fuel under conditions of constant fuel mass. Along with the increase in the magnetic field's magnitude applied to the fuel flow, the density value decreases. As a result of a decrease in the fuel density value, the mass flow rate of the fuel will decrease following the decreasing trendline in the density value. The value of the mass flow rate of fuel can be seen in Figure 10 .\r\n\r\nThe results of viscosity and surface tension testing, applying a magnetic field to the fuel flow can reduce the viscosity and surface tension values. This can be seen in Figures 11 and 12 . As a result of the declustering effect, there is an increase in molecular polarity during magnetization. This polarity change increases the repulsion between similar molecules and reduces the vibrations of the molecules towards the nucleus. This is what can reduce the viscosity of Bioethanol and surface tension.\r\n\r\n3.3.Effect of Magnetic Fields on the Characteristics of the Injector Spray\r\nWhen the fuel flow is subjected to a magnetic field, the Bioethanol E 100 fuel tends to experience a decrease in the density, viscosity, and surface tension values. This is what causes the SMD value to decrease along with the increase in the value of magnetic field induction. This can be seen in Figure 13 . Based on Equation (8), the SMD value is influenced by the Reynolds and Weber numbers. The Reynolds and Weber numbers are influenced by the ratio of density values to surface tension and viscosity. Along with the application of magnetic field induction, bioethanol fuel experiences a decrease in the density value followed by a decrease in the value of surface tension and viscosity. This is what causes a decrease in the value of the SMD. A decrease in the SMD value can indicate an improvement in the atomization of the fuel when it is mixed with air. So that it can cause more complete combustion in applications in the combustion chamber.\r\n\r\nIn Figure 14 , the visualization of fuel spray in different magnetization treatments is shown. In the absence of magnetization, it is seen that the fuel spray formed an angle of 26 • with a penetration length of about 13 cm. After applying a magnetic field, figures 14 b, c, and d, the angle of the spray experienced an increase in angle to 27.3 • . This increase in spray angle was not accompanied by a change in the length of penetration. And when a B4 magnetic field was applied, the spray angle increased to 28 • . However, there was still no change in the length of penetration due to magnetic field.\r\n\r\nThe fuel property that affects the change in spray angle is the viscosity value. Applying a magnetic field to the fuel will reduce the viscosity value. This is what causes a wider distribution of the fuel output from the injectors and affects the size of the spray angle. However, this decrease does not coincide with the increase in the spray angle. This indicates a certain viscosity value so that it affects the change in spray angle. The SMD value also affects the spray angle of the injector output. From the results of the visualization, it can be seen that the increase in the spray angle is due to a change in the value of the fuel droplet size. Due to the smaller fuel droplet size, the fuel that is in direct contact with free air is volatile and reacts with the air, causing fog in the fuel spray.\r\n\r\n4.Conclusion\r\nThere is an increase in bioethanol fuel transmittance after being given a magnetic field flow that comes from the induction of the coil with the output electric current from the alternator. In the C-H compound, the percentage increase in transmittance value is up to 48.48% due to being magnetized by a magnetic field of 330 Gauss. And for the C-O compound, there was an increase in the transmittance value of up to 41.33%. While for O-H, it is 114% of the standard.\r\n\r\nThe rate at which the fuel flows through the magnetic field affects the increase in transmittance. The faster the fuel flow through the magnetic field, the smaller the increase in fuel transmittance. The difference in the percent-age increase in the transmittance of the fuel compound due to the difference in fuel flow rate reached 8.6% at 2,000 rpm and 8,000 rpm.\r\n\r\nThe application of a magnetic field to bioethanol fuels affects the properties value of the fuel. Density, surface tension, and viscosity tend to decrease with the magnetic field's magnitude applied to the fuel. Due to the magnetization of 330 Gauss, the density values, surface tension, and viscosity decreased to 620.41 kg/m 3 , 19.88 mN/m, and 0.315 cP. The application of a magnetic field to the fuel that passes through the injectors results in a decrease in the mass flow rate of the fuel along with a decrease in the density value due to magnetization.\r\n\r\nApplying a magnetic field to the fuel in the injectors can reduce the SMD (Sauter Mean Diameter) value of the fuel spray to 1.312 mm. Applying a magnetic field of 250-310 Gauss to the fuel can increase the spray angle of the bioethanol fuel output from the injectors by up to 2 • . However, applying magnetic field induction does not affect the length of the spray penetration."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "L'ajout d'un aimant (2500 Gauss) à un moteur Diesel (Pajero Sport Dakar) améliore la puissance et le couple du moteur. Le placement de l'aimant était une variable clé pour l'optimisation des performances."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 2500 Gauss a permis d'économiser jusqu'à 10,15% de carburant sur un générateur à essence. La position de l'aimant est critique."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Analysis of the impact of magnetic ionization on CI engine performance and emissions. A 10.00% reduction in BSFC was observed, along with a theoretical elimination of HC (100.00%) and a 4.00% increase in BTE [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le traitement magnétique sur un moteur Diesel a permis d'économiser 10% de carburant et a éliminé presque complètement les hydrocarbures non brûlés (100% de réduction) par ionisation."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "The performance of I.C engine greatly depends on the complete combustion of the air fuel mixture. Incomplete combustion of fuel in cylinder emits many harmful gases as well as reduces the thermal efficiency of an engine. It is found that complete combustion of fuel reduces the unburnt gases which results in less emissions. Also complete combustion of fuel result in increase in power output for the particular input of mass flow rate of fuel resulting in increase in thermal efficiency. The present research work aims to improve the complete combustion of fuel in the compression ignition engine. The experimental tests are conducted on four stroke single cylinder compression ignition engine which is practically used for agricultural applications as well as in light commercial vehicles. The magnetic field of different field strength is applied on fuel carrying line near the fuel injector. The performance of compression ignition engine is observed without magnetisation and with magnetisation of different field strength. The mass of fuel consumed at a particular load as well as the composition of exhaust gases are observed. From the series of experimental test conducted at a different loading condition it is observed that the brake specific fuel consumption reduces up to 10 % depending on the magnetic field strength. The Brake thermal Efficiency is found to be increasing up to 12%. The percentage of NOx and CO in the exhaust gases found to be decreasing due to magnetic field application. Unburnt HC emissions are found to be completely eliminated."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "The focus of the recent experimental research is to provide control of the combustion dynamics and complex measurements (flame temperature, heat production rate, and composition of polluting emissions) for pelletized wood biomass using a non-uniform magnetic field that produces magnetic force interacting with magnetic moment of paramagnetic oxygen. The experimental results have shown that a gradient magnetic field provides enhanced mixing of the flame compounds by increasing combustion efficiency and enhancing the burnout of volatiles.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~2045 Gauss ; magnetic field ~49.77 Tesla ; fuel consumption -9.25 % ; thermal efficiency +3.5 % ; CO -638.1 % ; HC -630.53 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant faible sur un générateur Diesel a permis de réduire la consommation et la pollution (HC -64%, PM -33%)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Magnetic field applied to fuel can alter its characteristics in terms of forces that hold the hydrocarbons together. This principle was used to investigate the impact of incorporating a magnetic tube in the fuel intake in a diesel generator on specifically the energy performance and pollutant emissions. A diesel generator was fitted with a magnetic tube in the fuel intake, which had valves to switch from without magnetic tube case to with magnetic tube case. The diesel generator was operated at constant speed of 1800 rpm at idle condition, 25% and 50% loads, respectively. Additionally, two real diesel cars were deployed with magnetic tube and their fuel consumption compared with that of a car without magnetic tube. With application of magnetic tube, the brake specific fuel consumption and fuel consumption were decreased by an average of 3.5% and 15%, respectively, while the brake thermal efficiency was improved by approximately 3.5%. The particulate matter, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide emissions reduced in the range of 21.9–33.3%, 5.4–11.3%, 29.4–64.7% and 2.68–4.18%, respectively. Both the total PAH concentrations and total BaPeq concentrations can be reduced by about 63%, 45% and 51%, respectively for idle condition, 25% and 50% loads, respectively. These results show that application of magnetic tubes in the diesel engine is a promising technology in pollutant reduction and energy saving."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~2075 Gauss ; magnetic field ~1.5 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "En installant un aimant (470 Gauss) sur le tuyau d'essence d'un petit moteur (650 cc), le moteur a consommé 8,48% moins d'essence. Le gain est attribué à une combustion plus complète. Cette meilleure combustion a aussi réduit la pollution: les hydrocarbures non brûlés ont chuté de plus de 28%."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Some researchers have conducted research on the effect of fuel magnetation on the performance of the engine it self. But of the many studies conducted, it has never done research on high-tech machines (high technology). So the writer is challenged to do testing on high-tech cars. This research was conducted to determine the effect of the magnetic field on fuel consumption on otto (gasoline) engines. The test method is carried out by attaching a magnet to the fuel line with a variety of magnetic placement positions in the fuel hose. The test results show the amount of fuel consumption in the magnetic position A (closest to the combustion chamber) has decreased by 20% at 750 rpm (idle rotation) followed by the amount of exhaust emissions reduced by 12.9%.\r\n Keyword: Fuel magnetization, Fuel, High tech."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Applying a magnetic field to fuel lines near the combustion chamber reduces fuel consumption by 4-12% and emissions in a spark ignition engine.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "This article presents a comprehensive experimental work for the application of permanent magnets with the intensity of 9,000 G to a four‐stroke four cylinders gasoline engine on fuel lines at a location near to the combustion chamber. By using the permanent magnet, the liquid fuel disintegrates into small diameter, and de‐clustering of the fuel molecules of hydrocarbon has been proved to provide better atomization of the fuel, which makes sure that the fuel strenuously combines with oxygen and results in complete and more efficient burning process inside the combustion chamber. The experimental analysis revealed that magnetic treatment has improved performance and emission characteristics. Analysis over the engine test results with magnetic fuel conditioning showed that the reduction of 4–12% in fuel consumption and reduction in 11, 10, 18, and 10% for CO, CO2, HC, and NOx emissions, respectively, compared to gasoline fuel without magnetic condition. Further, we experimentally investigated the performance of petrol engine parameters such as in‐cylinder temperature and pressure, cylinder, and head cylinder temperature, the temperature of different parts of the piston. As a whole, magnetic fuel treatment has improved combustion and reduced the harmful pollutants of the compression ignition engine."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant (2000 Gauss) améliore le rendement (8%) du moteur Diesel et réduit les polluants (CO 30%, HC 27%) ."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~2000 Gauss ; fuel consumption -8.0 % ; CO -14.36 % ; HC -15.91 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 2000 Gauss sur un moteur Diesel a permis d'économiser 8% de carburant et d'augmenter l'efficacité thermique. Les gaz polluants (CO et HC) ont été réduits d'environ 30% et 27% ."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "To analyse experimental investigates on the Performance and Emission of Single Cylinder Four Stroke Diesel engine under the power of producingan effect of magnetic field. The magnetic field applied along the fuel line immediately before fuel injector. It has been reported that magnetic field helps to improved mixture formation by increasing the atomization process of the spray in the combustion chamber due to increasing the rate of disintegration of the droplets as a result of reduction in the surface tension and viscosity of the fuel(1). The effect of magnetic field on the engine performance parameters such as specific fuel consumption, break thermal efficiency, exhausts emissions etc. by applying the magnetic field along the fuel line immediately before fuel injector. The strong permanent magnet of strength 2000 gauss is applied to fuel line for magnetic field. At different engine load conditions the experiments are conducted. An exhaust gas analyzer is used to measure the exhaust gas emissions such as CO, CO2, HC and NOX. With the application of magnetic field the percentage reduction in fuel consumption is about 8% at higher load, the percentage reduction in HC and NOX is about 30% and 27.7 % respectively. The CO emission gets reduced with the application of magnetic field at higher load. The percentage reduction in CO2 emissions is reduced about 9.72% at average of all loads with the effect of magnetic field.\r\n\r\nINTRODUCTION\r\nIn recent years, there are so many efforts towords the improving power output and emission of internal combustion engines per fuel, so that the products of combustion exhausted from internal combustion (IC) engines environmental friendly, and also beneficial for cost. The use of diesel engines have been increase day by day, due to their high thermal efficiency and low pollutant formation characteristics but it has a serious drawback of having a comparative larger amount of emission which is larger than that of a gasoline engine.\r\n\r\nMagnetic field that ionized the fuel based on the principle of magnetic field mutual action with hydrocarbon molecules of fuel and oxygen molecules. There are various physical attraction forces between hydrocarbons and they form densely packed structures called pseudo compounds which can further organize into clusters [8]. Due to the physical attraction forces between hydrocarbons, oxygen atoms cannot penetrate into their interior during air/fuel mixing process, these structures become stable. The external force by means of magnetic field helps to polarized the hydrocarbon fuel. Due to that hydrocarbon fuel change their orientation and increase space between hydrogen. This hydrogen of fuel actively interlocks with oxygen and producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber [6] It has been noted that When the fuel passes through a magnetic field, it helps increasing the atomization process by improved mixture formation. Due to increasing the rate of disintegration of the droplets as a result of reduction in the surface tension and viscosity of the fuel [7].\r\n\r\nII. MAGNETIC FUEL ENERGIZER\r\nHydrogen occurs in two distinct isomeric forms one is Para which is normally occurs in fuels, second is ortho which achieved by applying magnetic field. These two forms are characterized by the different opposite nucleus spins. The ortho state can be achieved by applying strong magnetic field along the fuel line [2]. In the para Hydrogen molecule, which occupies the anti-parallel rotation, the spin state of one atom relative to another is in the opposite direction, therefore it is diamagnetic. In the ortho molecule, which occupies the parallel rotational levels, the spin state of one atom relative to another is in the same direction as shown in Figure .1, therefore, it is paramagnetic [3]. When the fuel passes through a magnetic field, created by the strong permanent magnets, due to that magnetic field hydrocarbon change their orientation and convert from para state to ortho state [5]. In ortho state inter molecular force is considerably reduced and increase space between hydrogen. This hydrogen of fuel actively interlocks with oxygen and producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber [4]. The magnetic field helps to disperse oil particles and to become finely divided.Figure .2 shows the schematic view of para state and ortho state of Hydrogen of clusters of hydrocarbons changed with the influence of magnetic field and they are more dispersed.\r\n\r\nIII. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND PROCEDURE\r\nThe performance tests were carried out on a single cylinder, four stroke water cooled Diesel engine. The setup consists of an engine, an eddy current dynamometer, and an exhaust gas analyzer. The engine was prepared to run on diesel as a fuel during all tests. The fuel system is designed to facilitate for accurate measurement of the fuel flow rate. The fuel consumption is measured directly by using the burette method. The fuel consumption was measured at different engine loading conditions and exhaust gas measured by Exhaust gas analyzer. The exhaust gas analyzer is used to measure exhaust emissions from the engine during experimental tests. It is measures gases such as HC, CO, NO X and CO 2 concentrations at each and every load. This procedure was done twice one for without magnet situation and other for with magnet situation, and results were compared.\r\n\r\nProperties of Magnet\r\nFerrite magnet is the compound of ceramic and Iron oxide. This is an example of permanent magnet and used as ferrite cores in the transformer. Generally, ferrite magnets are carbon black in colour as shown in Figure .5 and brittle because the present of ceramic particle in the chemical compound. Ferrite magnets also considered as strong magnets but not as strong as neodymium magnets .\r\n\r\nFig.5 Photographic view of Ferrite Magnets\r\nInstallation Position: It is just before the injector on inlet pipe or housing for maximum alignment & maximum effect.\r\n\r\nMagnetic field effect on Specific fuel consumption\r\nThe experimental results show that the fuel consumption of engine was less when the engine with magnet than that without fuel magnet at higher load. Always less amount of fuel was consumed with the fuel with magnetic field. The SFC vs LOAD graph is as shown in fig. 6 Fig. 6 Variation of Specific fuel consumption with load\r\n\r\nMagnetic field effect on Brake Thermal Efficiency\r\nThe experimental results show that the Brake Thermal Efficiency of engine was less when the engine with magnet than that without fuel magnet at higher load.\r\n\r\nFig.7 Variation of Brake Thermal Efficiency with load\r\nThe variation of Brake power Vs brake thermal efficiency is as shown in fig. 7 . It is clear that with the application of magnetic field the brake thermal efficiency goes on increasing. The percentage increase of brake thermal efficiency is about up to 2 %.\r\n\r\nMagnetic field effect on Nox emissions\r\nThe NOx emission gets decrease with the application of magnetic field as compared to the NO X without magnetic field. Here the magnetic field shows adverse effect. The NOx emissions are decrease around 27.7% at average of all loads. The variation of NOx emissions with load is as shown in fig. 8 Fig. 8 Variation of NOx(ppm) with load Magnetic field effect on HC emissions Fig. 9 . Clearly shows the effect of magnetic field on HC emissions, and the percentage reduction of HC. The HC emissions are decrease around 30% at average of all loads. The variation of HC emissions with load is as shown in fig. 9 Fig. 9 Variation of HC(ppm) with load\r\n\r\nMagnetic field effect on CO emissions\r\nWith the application of magnetic field CO emissions gets reduced as compared to the CO emissions without magnetic field. Fig. 10 . Clearly shows the effect of magnetic field on CO emissions and the CO emission reduces at higher load.\r\n\r\nMagnetic field effect on CO 2 emissions\r\nThe CO 2 emission gets decrease with the application of magnetic field as compared to the CO 2 without magnetic field. Here the magnetic field shows adverse effect. The CO 2 emissions are decrease around 9.72% at average of all loads. The variation of CO 2 emissions with load is as shown in fig. 11 Fig. 11 Variation of CO 2 with load\r\n\r\nV. CONCLUSION\r\nFrom the above experimental results the following conclusions were made: It is clear from the experiment result that the brake thermal efficiency, indicated power are similar in both with and without Magnet Fuel Energizer but indicated power gets improve at lower load condition. Specific fuel consumption decreases due to the reduction of fuel consumption at higher load.\r\n\r\nThere is significant reduction in the exhaust emissions at all load condition in both neodium and ferrite but among them two neodium gave better effect than the ferrite .The experiments results show the magnetic effect on fuel consumption reduction was up to 8% at higher load condition. The CO emission gets reduce at higher load. The effect on NOx emissions reduces range up to 27.7%. The reduction of HC emissions was range up to 30%. The CO 2 emission reduction was up to 9.72% at average of all loads."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "The study utilized a 9000 Gauss magnet on a 4-stroke CI engine. Results show an 8.00% reduction in SFC and a 4.00% increase in thermal efficiency. HC and NOx emissions decreased by 32.00% and 27.00% respectively. [490, 430, Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 9000 Gauss a permis de réduire la consommation de 8% et la pollution par les HC (32%) et le NOx (27%) sur un moteur Diesel."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "To analyse experimental investigates on the Performance and Emission of Single Cylinder Four Stroke Diesel engine under the power of producingan effect of magnetic field. The magnetic field applied along the fuel line immediately before fuel injector. It has been reported that magnetic field helps to improved mixture formation by increasing the atomization process of the spray in the combustion chamber due to increasing the rate of disintegration of the droplets as a result of reduction in the surface tension and viscosity of the fuel(1). The effect of magnetic field on the engine performance parameters such as specific fuel consumption, break thermal efficiency, exhausts emissions etc. by applying the magnetic field along the fuel line immediately before fuel injector. The strong permanent magnet of strength 2000 gauss is applied to fuel line for magnetic field. At different engine load conditions the experiments are conducted. An exhaust gas analyzer is used to measure the exhaust gas emissions such as CO, CO2, HC and NOX. With the application of magnetic field the percentage reduction in fuel consumption is about 8% at higher load, the percentage reduction in HC and NOX is about 30% and 27.7 % respectively. The CO emission gets reduced with the application of magnetic field at higher load. The percentage reduction in CO2 emissions is reduced about 9.72% at average of all loads with the effect of magnetic field.\r\n\r\nINTRODUCTION\r\nIn recent years, there are so many efforts towords the improving power output and emission of internal combustion engines per fuel, so that the products of combustion exhausted from internal combustion (IC) engines environmental friendly, and also beneficial for cost. The use of diesel engines have been increase day by day, due to their high thermal efficiency and low pollutant formation characteristics but it has a serious drawback of having a comparative larger amount of emission which is larger than that of a gasoline engine.\r\n\r\nMagnetic field that ionized the fuel based on the principle of magnetic field mutual action with hydrocarbon molecules of fuel and oxygen molecules. There are various physical attraction forces between hydrocarbons and they form densely packed structures called pseudo compounds which can further organize into clusters [8]. Due to the physical attraction forces between hydrocarbons, oxygen atoms cannot penetrate into their interior during air/fuel mixing process, these structures become stable. The external force by means of magnetic field helps to polarized the hydrocarbon fuel. Due to that hydrocarbon fuel change their orientation and increase space between hydrogen. This hydrogen of fuel actively interlocks with oxygen and producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber [6] It has been noted that When the fuel passes through a magnetic field, it helps increasing the atomization process by improved mixture formation. Due to increasing the rate of disintegration of the droplets as a result of reduction in the surface tension and viscosity of the fuel [7].\r\n\r\nII. MAGNETIC FUEL ENERGIZER\r\nHydrogen occurs in two distinct isomeric forms one is Para which is normally occurs in fuels, second is ortho which achieved by applying magnetic field. These two forms are characterized by the different opposite nucleus spins. The ortho state can be achieved by applying strong magnetic field along the fuel line [2]. In the para Hydrogen molecule, which occupies the anti-parallel rotation, the spin state of one atom relative to another is in the opposite direction, therefore it is diamagnetic. In the ortho molecule, which occupies the parallel rotational levels, the spin state of one atom relative to another is in the same direction as shown in Figure .1, therefore, it is paramagnetic [3]. When the fuel passes through a magnetic field, created by the strong permanent magnets, due to that magnetic field hydrocarbon change their orientation and convert from para state to ortho state [5]. In ortho state inter molecular force is considerably reduced and increase space between hydrogen. This hydrogen of fuel actively interlocks with oxygen and producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber [4]. The magnetic field helps to disperse oil particles and to become finely divided.Figure .2 shows the schematic view of para state and ortho state of Hydrogen of clusters of hydrocarbons changed with the influence of magnetic field and they are more dispersed.\r\n\r\nIII. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND PROCEDURE\r\nThe performance tests were carried out on a single cylinder, four stroke water cooled Diesel engine. The setup consists of an engine, an eddy current dynamometer, and an exhaust gas analyzer. The engine was prepared to run on diesel as a fuel during all tests. The fuel system is designed to facilitate for accurate measurement of the fuel flow rate. The fuel consumption is measured directly by using the burette method. The fuel consumption was measured at different engine loading conditions and exhaust gas measured by Exhaust gas analyzer. The exhaust gas analyzer is used to measure exhaust emissions from the engine during experimental tests. It is measures gases such as HC, CO, NO X and CO 2 concentrations at each and every load. This procedure was done twice one for without magnet situation and other for with magnet situation, and results were compared.\r\n\r\nProperties of Magnet\r\nFerrite magnet is the compound of ceramic and Iron oxide. This is an example of permanent magnet and used as ferrite cores in the transformer. Generally, ferrite magnets are carbon black in colour as shown in Figure .5 and brittle because the present of ceramic particle in the chemical compound. Ferrite magnets also considered as strong magnets but not as strong as neodymium magnets .\r\n\r\nFig.5 Photographic view of Ferrite Magnets\r\nInstallation Position: It is just before the injector on inlet pipe or housing for maximum alignment & maximum effect.\r\n\r\nMagnetic field effect on Specific fuel consumption\r\nThe experimental results show that the fuel consumption of engine was less when the engine with magnet than that without fuel magnet at higher load. Always less amount of fuel was consumed with the fuel with magnetic field. The SFC vs LOAD graph is as shown in fig. 6 Fig. 6 Variation of Specific fuel consumption with load\r\n\r\nMagnetic field effect on Brake Thermal Efficiency\r\nThe experimental results show that the Brake Thermal Efficiency of engine was less when the engine with magnet than that without fuel magnet at higher load.\r\n\r\nFig.7 Variation of Brake Thermal Efficiency with load\r\nThe variation of Brake power Vs brake thermal efficiency is as shown in fig. 7 . It is clear that with the application of magnetic field the brake thermal efficiency goes on increasing. The percentage increase of brake thermal efficiency is about up to 2 %.\r\n\r\nMagnetic field effect on Nox emissions\r\nThe NOx emission gets decrease with the application of magnetic field as compared to the NO X without magnetic field. Here the magnetic field shows adverse effect. The NOx emissions are decrease around 27.7% at average of all loads. The variation of NOx emissions with load is as shown in fig. 8 Fig. 8 Variation of NOx(ppm) with load Magnetic field effect on HC emissions Fig. 9 . Clearly shows the effect of magnetic field on HC emissions, and the percentage reduction of HC. The HC emissions are decrease around 30% at average of all loads. The variation of HC emissions with load is as shown in fig. 9 Fig. 9 Variation of HC(ppm) with load\r\n\r\nMagnetic field effect on CO emissions\r\nWith the application of magnetic field CO emissions gets reduced as compared to the CO emissions without magnetic field. Fig. 10 . Clearly shows the effect of magnetic field on CO emissions and the CO emission reduces at higher load.\r\n\r\nMagnetic field effect on CO 2 emissions\r\nThe CO 2 emission gets decrease with the application of magnetic field as compared to the CO 2 without magnetic field. Here the magnetic field shows adverse effect. The CO 2 emissions are decrease around 9.72% at average of all loads. The variation of CO 2 emissions with load is as shown in fig. 11 Fig. 11 Variation of CO 2 with load\r\n\r\nV. CONCLUSION\r\nFrom the above experimental results the following conclusions were made: It is clear from the experiment result that the brake thermal efficiency, indicated power are similar in both with and without Magnet Fuel Energizer but indicated power gets improve at lower load condition. Specific fuel consumption decreases due to the reduction of fuel consumption at higher load.\r\n\r\nThere is significant reduction in the exhaust emissions at all load condition in both neodium and ferrite but among them two neodium gave better effect than the ferrite .The experiments results show the magnetic effect on fuel consumption reduction was up to 8% at higher load condition. The CO emission gets reduce at higher load. The effect on NOx emissions reduces range up to 27.7%. The reduction of HC emissions was range up to 30%. The CO 2 emission reduction was up to 9.72% at average of all loads."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~8137 Gauss ; magnetic field ~203.92 Tesla ; thermal efficiency +13.0 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Des scientifiques ont testé l'effet d'un champ magnétique très puissant (8000 Gauss) combiné à un système de recirculation des gaz (EGR) sur un moteur Diesel utilisant un carburant mélangé. L'objectif était de rendre le moteur plus efficace et moins polluant. L'application du champ magnétique a permis d'augmenter l'efficacité avec laquelle le moteur transforme l'énergie du carburant en mouvement (efficacité thermique) d'environ 12%. Bien que les chiffres précis de réduction de la pollution ne soient pas donnés, l'étude se concentre sur l'idée que l'énergie magnétique aide le carburant à brûler, même dans des conditions difficiles (avec EGR), suggérant que le traitement magnétique est une méthode fiable pour optimiser la combustion et réduire les polluants comme le NOx et les fumées."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "The combined impact of the MFC and EGR methods on the performance of the C.I. engine is investigated experimentally in this study. The work focused on biodiesel fuel under the effect of different EGR rates 10-30% with the optimal value of fuel polarization. At first, the magnetic intensity optimization was done with other engine design parameters by using diesel fuel alone. The study covered a wide range of engine parameters to select the optimal valves. Using the Taguchi approach and orthogonal array L16 to solve the five factors, such as: CR (15,16,17, and 18), IP (175,200,225, and 250 bar), MFC (4000,6000,8000, and 12000 Gauss), load (25,50,75, and 100%), and TI (19, 21, 23, and 27 degree b TDC). The results showed that the diesel engine's optimum parameters were CR=18, IP=200bar, MFC=8000 Gauss, load 100%, and TI=23° b TDC. The results indicated that the coefficient of determination has an excellent level (i.e.), R2 =97.05% Peak fisher valve F=8.37, with normally distributed and significant coefficients in the model, was utilized to test the model capability. The outcome shows that the 10WCO+10% EGR+8000G has higher cylinder pressure and the BTE increased by 12.5% if compared with DF, and lower brake specific fuel consumption.\r\n\r\n1.INTRODUCTION\r\nThe internal combustion engine began to improve around the 19th century, followed by high growth rates, then the later hundred years started with decreased improvement Zheng et al. [1]. Nowadays, numerous investigation programs are conducted to develop the operation of the diesel engine and reduce the emissions. Some programs deal with changing the combustion chamber design and other engine design parameters, such as timing of injection, injection pressure, compression ratio and engine speed. Despite trials by researchers, the diesel engine suffers from a lack of thermal efficiency and pollutants. A large amount of fuel energy goes with exhausted gases, and the other dissipated in engine cooling water. To solve this problem, the authors make several trials on engine auxiliary devices, such as subjected the fuel line to magnetic fields or set up a suitable design such as exhausted gas recirculation. At the same time, the other merger was between these devices. Magnetic fields affect fluids having polar contents in general, since polar molecules are electrically charged by definition, and behave like polar material that is affected by magnetic flux. Diesel liquid is really a complex mixture of thousands of distinct components. When fuel flows through a strong permanent magnet, hydrocarbons shift orientation and go from para to ortho. The ortho state reduces intermolecular forces and increases hydrogen space hydrogen actively interlocks with oxygen. In which Lorentz Force is definite as: F=qv x B where, (q) is the charge on a particle, (v) is its velocity, and (B) is the magnetic field, has a positive effect on all reactions that occurs at the moment of combustion due to the improvement of fuel quality and thus reducing the rate of fuel consumption Kumar and Raju [2]. The viscosity of conventional diesel fuel is decreasing when electrorheology is applied to the fuel Du et al. [3]. Also the electromagnetic flux makes important modifications in the cetane number of diesel fuel Elamin et al. [4]. One of the important solutions is blended alternative fuel or gas liquids. To enhance the combustion characteristics. Hassan et al. [5] mixing fuel help to achieve the fuel-burning by improving the fuel injection parameters Wang et al. [6]. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) is an eco-friendly alternative to lesser NOx and particulate matter emission. The use of EGR in C.I. engines depresses the attentiveness of oxygen mixture and temperature of the flame Abd-Alla [7]. It employs EGR, Magnetic Fuel polarization and blended Biodiesel fuel. This leads to enhanced mechanical efficiency in addition to less consumption of fuel. Govindasamy and Dhandapani [8] studied the impacts of EGR engine system and magnetic fuel process system on emission with bio-diesel fuel. A report entitled, with EGR, the mechanical efficiency was found to rise by 13%. On the other hand, the results proved no significant modification in the value of the BMEP still, the ratio of 50% was closer after compared to extra blends. When examined influence caused by the magnetic flux with a reduction in nitroxide percentage inside the bio-diesel engine with the EGR engine system, the important conclusion was when the intensity of magnetic field was increased, engine BTE is improved about 5%, and the percentage of HC, and CO are reduced.\r\n\r\n2.1Magnetic and engine set up\r\nApplication of magnetic fields to the diesel fuel line is one approach to improving engine efficiency and lowering fuel consumption. A magnetic field can be employed to modify the orientation of hydrocarbons and molecules as mentioned above. Many types of magnetic fields, are available in a wide range of shapes, sizes and grades. However, there are three types of magnetic fields used for this goal such as Aluminum Nickel Cobalt (AlNiCo), Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB), and Ferrit (Fe). The second type is considered as a strong permanent magnet with high magnetic properties compared to other magnets. Hence, it is employed in the current work, for measuring the intensity of magnetic fields, a standard digital Gauss meter is utilized as shown in Figure 1A . Figure 1B shows the installation of a magnetic field on the fuel line.\r\n\r\n2.2Surge tank design for intercooler\r\nFigure 2 depicts the surge tank's schematic. It has a copper pipe that circulates hot exhaust gas and a steel pipe that cools retuned gases, all specifications of was listed in Table 1 . After exiting the copper pipe, the exhaust gases are routed to an aluminum surge tank, where the larger surface area helps smooth out the exhaust gas composition. The rota meter will be used to alter the amount of exhaust gas emitted. The surge tank exhaust gas temperature was found to be between 31 and 33 degrees Celsius, showing a significant reduction. The setup operated in this paper is shown in Figure 3 [9]. By inserting these values into Eq. ( 1), the following heat transfer coefficient is obtained:\r\n\r\n2.3Biodiesel production\r\nWaste cooking oil, which is collected from meals and used as a source. But using a chemical practice known as transesterification, waste cooking oils and fats are transformed from large, branching triglyceride molecules into smaller, straight-chain molecules that are nearly exactly the same size as those in conventional diesel. Methanol in the cooking oil reacts with a catalyst to produce the reaction. Acid-catalyzed transesterification is commonly agreed upon since waste vegetable oils possess extremely high levels of free fatty acids (FFA). As a consequence of the reduced FFA of the feedstock utilized in this study, the waste cooking oil was converted into an ester using the alkali catalyzed transesterification method. To dilute and eliminate humidity, the used cooking oil was heated to 75℃. Potassium methoxide was made by dissolving potassium hydroxide in methanol 25 percent, v/v oil 6:1 molar ratio and 1.5 percent, m/m oil KOH. The mixing mechanism kept the reaction at 60℃. The alcohol fraction was tweaked to get the best yield at the optimized KOH concentration. With preheated waste oil, methoxide was combined with a reaction temperature of 55℃ and a nominal stirring speed of a mechanized stirrer. The reaction took two hours to complete. Chemical reactions occur when methanol reacts with the unprocessed WCO raw material. The reaction was completed by draining and transferring the mixture to the separation funnel. It was discovered that the phase separation was split into two distinct layers in the funnel. Biodiesel made up the top layer, with glycerin at the bottom. The surplus water and methanol were finally removed by heating the methyl ester to 110℃ after it had been rinsed many times with distilled water. Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) was used to further dry it. Finally, a high-quality filter paper was employed to remove the impurities. Figure 4 shows the collected WCO and ready-touse biodiesel fuel. The end product was a bright yellow color. All the fuel products properties are listed in Table 3 .\r\n\r\n2.4(FTIR) spectroscopy\r\nBecause it is a simple and quick method of detection, FTIR is also employed to determine biofuel production. The infrared area absorbs raw oils and methyl esters very well Karthickeyan et al. [10]. As shown in Figure 5 , a sample of oil and waste cooking oil methyl ester was generated and examined using FTIR. The frequency and bond type of any test are significantly associated with one another. A gain in bonding leads to an increase in the equivalent frequency. Its distinctive band includes frequency (positions) as well as vibration phase, which are provided by the functional group. The resulting spectra represents the numerous functional groups found in the material. The findings of an FTIR study of waste cooking cooling methyl ester is shown in Table 2 . Its existence of an alkane group with a C-H bond type and stretch vibration is indicated by the peaks at 2924.09 and 2854.65cm - . The presence of a carbonyl group with a C = O bond type and stretched vibration is shown by the band at 1743.65 cm -1 . The peak at 1442.75 cm -1 indicates the existence of an alkane group with bending vibration in the biodiesel sample. An alkane group with bending vibration is shown by the band at 1365.60 cm -1 . The existence of an alkane group with stretch vibration is indicated by the peak at 1172.72cm -1 . The presence of an ester in the biodiesel sample is indicated by the band at 1018.41 cm -1 . Stretching of the C-H bonds of WCOME was found using FTIR analysis.\r\n\r\n3.1Diesel engine testing\r\nThe test was carried out using a variable compression ratio engine (VCR=12-18) manufactured by Kirloskar (TV1) one cylinder, 4 strokes the engine displacement volume was(661cc); bore(87.5mm), stroke(110mm) and running at constant speed 1500 rpm. Figure 6 shows the diesel engine testing that is used in current work. The rig has an eddy current dynamometer and calorimeter type pipe in pipe. A K-type thermocouple to measure engine temperature during operation, a piezoelectric transducer to measure combustion chamber gas pressure, and a data acquisition system (DAQ) to capture data from the crank angle encoder. The crank angle encoder creates values that correspond to the angle and position of the top dead center TDC during the engine cycle. Additional working characteristics, such as cooled flow of water 250 L per hour, are carried out in compliance with the design instructions. The test was carried out at 23° bTDC, 200 bar, 27℃, and 1500 rpm When carrying out the experiment, the engine is driven at idle for approximately 20 minutes to ensure stability. Figure 7 illustrates a picture of the engine arrangement. Many researchers believe installing strong magnets or magnetic conditioners in the fuel system of an ICE boosts engine performance, which helps to minimize pollutants Abdul-Wahhab et al. [11] Chen et al. [12]. One of the most common approaches would be to place magnets in the fuel pipes, directly at the front of the injectors in internal combustion engines Karthik et al. [13]. Raut et al. [14] achieved better fuel efficiency and an improvement in combustion thermal performance by using this procedure in a four-stroke and a single-cylinder diesel engine. The experimental engine's exhaust gases were permitted to enter the EGR system. The temperature of the exhaust is decreased to ambient temperature by feeding it through a cooling system and then into the suction manifold. A control valve is used to introduce a regulated rate of flow of engine exhaust and fresh air into the intake port. Eq. ( 2) is used to compute the percent EGR Shan et al. [15].\r\n\r\n%EGR = [ volume of air without EGR -volume of air with EGR volume of air without EGR\r\n] × 100\r\n\r\n(2)\r\n\r\n3.1.1Measurement of brake torque\r\nThe eddy dynamometer was used to measure the brake torque of (C.I. engine). The eddy current model (AG-10) make by (SAJ Test Plant Pvt. Ltd), with Air gap0.77/0.63 and applied torque 20 (N.m). A strain gauge load cell was used to evaluate the load.\r\n\r\n2Fuel consumption\r\nThe fuel measurement system for the fuel consumption rate included a fuel tank, a differential pressure transmitter with a range of 0-500 mm WC, a fuel pipe, and a fuel glass tube. Evaluation of fuel consumption and the time it takes to consume a particular weight of fuel was calculated by the employment of the gravimetric method.\r\n\r\n3.1.3Air consumption\r\nAn air box was used to measure the amount of air flowing into the engine. The air box with dimensions (35x35x35cm) has an orifice with 20 mm diameter and is connected to water manometer to measure the difference in the pressure across the orifice see left image of Figure 8 . An inductive pick-up sensor, in conjunction with a digital rpm indicator, detects and displays the engine speed. The sensor had a 15 V DC power source and a sensing distance of 4-12 mm. It was situated near the engine flywheel, which allowed for a precise frequency response. A tiny metallic deflector was installed at the TDC location. Figure 8 on right shows an image of the photoelectric/inductive proximity pickup with a speed indicator marker and a metallic deflector.\r\n\r\n3.1.5Gas analyzer\r\nThe exhaust gas analyzer type EGMA (CG-450, Korea) was used to analyze the emissions of exhaust. The analyzer detects the CO-CO2-HC and NOx contents.\r\n\r\n3.2Data analysis\r\nThe following equations were used in calculating engine performance parameters:\r\n\r\nThe mathematical methodology, based from the first law of thermodynamics, has been used to calculate the rate of heat release at each crank angle.\r\n\r\n3.2.1Uncertainty analysis\r\nErrors and uncertainty in the investigations are caused by the apparatus choice, conditions, calibration, configuration, observations, measurement, and standardized testing. Errors can slip into any study, irrespective matter how precisely it is conducted. Estimation is required to confirm the accuracy of the tests. From the main measures, the result is determined in an experiment. The following is the general formula for calculating uncertainty:\r\n\r\nOverall uncertainty of the experiment=\r\n\r\n4.DEFINITION OF NORMALIZED CUMULATIVE HEAT RELEASE VERSUS CRANK ANGLE\r\nFigure 9 defines the ignition delay ID and normalized cumulative heat release versus crank angle. The determination of combustion phasing is essential while combustion is analyzed. As seen in Figure 9 , ID period shows the time interval between the start of injection (SOI) that original injection timing of the test engine and start of combustion (SOC). SOC is determined versus crank angle where the heat release reaches to the positive value. When cumulative heat release is normalized between 0 and 1, it gives information about the combustion stages. CA10, CA50 and CA90 refer the crank angle where 10%, 50% and 90% of charge mixture completed to burn. At this point, CA10, CA50 and CA90 can be determined using normalized cumulative heat release. Combustion duration was assumed the time interval between CA10 and CA90 in this study. Cumulative heat release is obtained with the sum of consecutive heat release rate values versus crank angle. Cumulative heat release shows the combustion stages of charge mixture.\r\n\r\n5.TAGUCHI METHOD OF OPTIMIZATION (DOE)\r\nThrough the use of the Taguchi technique of optimization, this study will determine the key factors which can impact BTE and the ideal fuel magnetizer settings in diesel engine. The Taguchi technique is a straightforward method for reducing the number of trials required to optimize model parameters. The number of tests necessary for the experiment is determined by the number of parameters included in the experiment. The number of parameters increased, resulting in more trials and a longer time to finish the experiment. This approach uses an orthogonal array to examine the full parameter space George et al. [16]. Table 4 shows the parameters of the L16 in a row (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) as demonstrated in compression ratio, injection pressure bar, magnetic intensity Gauss, engine load %, and injection timing degree bTDC. The Figure 10 explains the selected design parameters and the limitation of variance values.\r\n\r\n6.1Optimization of diesel fuel magnetizer\r\nThe brake thermal efficiency was analyzed and used as a response variable during experiments. S/N is a critical metric for evaluating product quality. Figure 11 demonstrates how the best signal-to-noise ratio was used in this research investigation. Table 5 shows the findings of the analysis of the engine's performance.\r\n\r\n6.2Model summary\r\nThe predicted mathematical models for the dependent variable BTE as a function of compression ratio, injection pressure, magnetic field, load, and injection timing were developed using linear regression analysis in the Minitab 18.0 software package. Eq. (3) for BTE shows the prediction equation derived from the regression analysis.\r\n\r\nThe R 2 coefficient of determination was used to test the capabilities of the created models. The value of the coefficient of determination ranges from zero to one. If it's near to one, it suggests that the dependent and independent variables are well-matched. All the constructed regression models for BTE in this investigation had excellent R 2 values, at 97.05%, and R 2 (adj) = 95.57% . The coefficients in the projected model were checked for significance using the graph. Whereas if the residual plot is a straight line, the model's residual errors are normally distributed as well as the coefficients remain significant. Figure 12 depicts the residual plots derived for BTE. It has been shown that the residuals BTE is close to the straight line, implying that the produced model coefficient approaches are significant. In statistics, an F-test, called after Fisher, is used to determine the significance of variation on the output characteristic Yang and Tarng [17]. With F>3.41, it typically indicates that changing a design parameter has a considerable impact on the output characteristic. The calculated F value was compared to the critical value, and it was discovered that magnetic field intensity had a considerable impact on BTE, F=8.37>>3.41. The optimum factors gained from the response diagram is recorded in Table 6 . The ignition timing of a diesel engine is primarily determined by the fuel type, the mixture quantity, as well as the related temperature and pressure conditions. The study found that prolonging the initiation of combustion and lengthening the ignition delay period with EGR application could be caused by heat and dilution effects associated with slower chemical reactions. As illustrated in Figure 13 the durations of the ID periods were longer, particularly at B40, with the effect of EGR application becoming more obvious as engine load increased. The compositions of EGR, primarily CO2 and H2O, were raised concurrently with the engine load, and thermal effects were detected in addition to the drop in O2 concentration. Additionally, the EGR was introduced, lowering the air-to-fuel ratio and oxygen concentration of mixes while increasing the inert gas level, potentially increasing the ignition delay. The ignition delay period for B10, B20, DF, B30, B40 percent BTDC was 13.85 o , 14.48 o , 14.5 o , 14.55 o , and 14.72 o for B10, B20, DF, B30, and B40 percent bTDC. The ignition delay period is shortest for B10+EGR10+8000 Gauss blended fuel, whereas the largest delay is seen for high viscosity, density, and low heating value fuel mixtures (i.e. B40+EGR10+8000Gauss). Mei et al. [18] obtained similar findings, indicating that even without EGR, mixture ignition would occur fairly late.\r\n\r\nFigure 13. Effect of biodiesel blends ratio EGR 10% with\r\n8000Gauss on ignition delay period\r\n\r\n7.2Mass fraction\r\nThe addition of biofuel to the blended fuels B10, and B20 indicates a shortening of the ignition delay and pushing combustion to an earlier stage. The dual effect of the EGR rate and polarization on the biofuel mixture leads to a higher burning rate. As can be seen in Figures 14 and 15 , the general combustion period increases from CA10 to CA90 for both B30, and B40 blended due to the higher droplets sizes that result in poorer combustion. Grech et al. [19] found that the Sauter mean diameter of sprays with biodiesel blended-fuel is rises. Values for volume mean diameter and arithmetic mean diameter increase as well with the blending ratio. As the biodiesel mix ratio rises, the kinematic viscosity and surface tension rise with it, the more difficult it is for a droplet to vaporize. On other hand, burning durations for fuel mass fractions of 0-10% and 0-50% are reduced when B10 and B20 due to rapid burning throughout the premixed phase of combustion until the crank angle of the 50% burn level is reached. The burn period of fuel mass fraction CA50 a TDC was 9.6° in the case of B10+EGR10+8000Gauss and 11.5° in the case of B40+EGR10+8000Gauss. In other words, at the very same angle, the engine consumed approximately 50% of fuel in the case of B10 and approximately 40% in the case of B40 at the same EGR rate and dipole condition density. Increased the WCO biofuel percentage, thus longer combustion period predicted due to lower evaporation related to higher viscosity biodiesel fuels, but also because of the reduced oxygen content in the cylinder and slowdown of combustion reactions caused by the EGR implementation. As previously stated, the rise in EGR rates results in a delay in the beginning of combustion of biodiesel fuel blends, a pattern observed by Horn et al. [20] Li et al. [21], and Ladommatos et al. [22].\r\n\r\n7.3Heat released rate (J/℃ A)\r\nThe net heat release rate data of 100 consecutive cycles are recorded and averaged for each intensity of magnetic fields under the combined impact of magnetization pattern and EGR plotted with comparison to the baseline diesel engine heat release data. The comparison of net heat release rate characteristics of combustion under biodiesel blends for an engine speed of 1500 rpm is shown in Figure 16 . It can be observed that the heat release rate initially decreases until the start of combustion from which it increases until the point where maximum combustion is achieved and then further decreases. As the biodiesel ratio is increased in stages, the heat release also decreases slightly under combined influenced of EGR and fuel opalization. The maximum magnitude of heat release is observed under B10+EGR10+8000 Gauss field where the fuel is under optimum polarized the maximum value of biodiesel heat release rate (44.9, 42.9, 42, 41.4 and 39.9 J/℃A).\r\n\r\nWhile the corresponding θHRR max 2.85 0 , 3.68 0 , 3.9 0 , 4.17 0 , and 5.01 0 a TDC for B10, B20, DF, B30, and B40 respectively.\r\n\r\n7.4Engine cylinder pressure P-θ diagram\r\nFigures 17 and 18 illustrate how the pressure inside the cylinders changes when the engine is running at maximum power with diesel and B10, B20, B30, and B40. Combustion characteristics can be precisely determined via in-cylinder pressure analysis. This data is estimated and shown as a relationship between crank angle positions in order to find the average value of the pressure data across 100 consecutive cycles. During the magnetic polarity combustion at 8000 Gauss magnetic flux, the average pressure is shown and compared to the base diesel engine measured data for a more meaningful estimation. The following graph compares the incylinder pressures at 1500 rpm, B10 and B20 are preferable since they have higher oxygen content and therefore have a higher cetane index if compared with diesel fuel. Thus, appropriate atomization, vaporization, and complete combustion are all achieved. The maximum Pmax value for diesel fuel is 58.224 bar and the angle corresponding to Pmax is 2.650 a TDC, while 63.232 and 61.0859 and 57.89 and 56.82 bar for B10 and B20 and B30 and B40, respectively. Can et al. [23] found that by using a soybean biodiesel fuel blend (B20) with an exhaust gas radiator EGR improved in-cylinder pressure. It was discovered by Uyumaz [24] that using a mustard oil biodiesel blend M20, M30with a modest engine load led to greater in-cylinder pressure and heat release. Panneerselvam et al. [25] found that Pine oil biodiesel increased peak pressure compared to diesel. Increasing the amount of bio diesel with acceptable range also boosts mechanical efficiency, according to Govindasamy and Dhandapani [26]. Mechanical efficiency increased by 13% when using EGR. Increasing the percentage of biodiesel to diesel at full load reduced in-cylinder pressure and the EGR rate because the density of the fuel was higher and there was more mass injected. As a result, vegetable oil typically contains components with higher boiling temperatures than diesel, Murayama et al. [27] and Ryan and Bagby [28] found that as molecular mass increases, so does the heating value of a fuel, becoming lower. When bio diesel fuel mixes are 30 and 40 and EGR is increased to 20%, the delay period of combustion is clearly shown in Figure 18 becomes longer, due to the flame temperature decreasing, and thus the temperature inside the combustion chamber decreasing. As a result of the high mix ratio, fuel burns at a slower rate. Decreased incylinder pressure results in decreased indicated power and engine thermal efficiency, in the case of the B30 and B40 Tziourtzioumis and Stamatelos [29]. 19 demonstrates the connection between cylinder pressure and biofuel content, the results collected while the engine was under dual impact EGR, and the optimum value of magnetic flux was 8000 Gauss full load condition. As the flame imitates and continues to grow and extend throughout the cylinder chamber, the cylinder pressure raises more in cases B10 than for diesel or other waste cooking oil biodiesel. The maximum cylinder pressure typically occurs a TDC, and after it begins to degrade as the cylinder volume continues to expand during the adiabatic expansion. For mixtures containing more than 10% EGR, the cylinder pressure changes as a result of the change in combustion velocity, which results in a deterioration in cylinder pressure. Figure 20 shows the effect of biodiesel blends ratio, 10% EGR rate with 8000Gauss on P-V diagram by looking at how biofuel impacts in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate in various operating modes, this study hopes to learn more about how it works. In addition, the values of different parameters optimum of magnetic field flux, EGR rate, and fuel type were evaluated and recorded to help explain the reported patterns. Also Figure 20 shows a comparison of the P-V graphs for B10, B20, B30, and 40% at an EGR rate of 10% and 8000Gauss. In comparison to B20, 30 and 40%, B10 has a higher pressure difference.\r\n\r\nThese discrepancies show that B10+EGR10+8000Gauss has sufficient thermal energy to generate high cylinder pressure. This is due to the fact that more fuel blends' energy is transported out of the system as work throughout top isentropic processes than other blended fuels. Yasin et al. [30] identified those criteria to describe the various fuel combustion characteristics during the combustion phase. As a result, it's safe to say that the various fuel qualities tested produce a wide range of diverse combustion outcomes Akasyah et al. [31]. The Figure 21 illustrates the influence of biofuel blend ratio on BTE, at constant EGR rate of 10% while; the magnetic flux is kept at 8000 Gauss. The results suggest that B10 and B20 percent blended have a higher BTE over fossil diesel, and that the maximum inhibition efficiency for blending and fuel base engines (i.e.) B10+EGR10 percent +8000 Gauss, B20+EGR10% +8000 Gauss, and DF are 23.63, 22.058, and 21.01, respectively. According to Özener et al. [32], bio diesel has a high cetane number if compared to diesel fuel, according to Özener et al. [32] Gürü et al. [33] and Gomaa et al. [34] reported the same results in a short delay period, which results in a good fuel-air mixture buildup, less immediate combustion and therefore a higher BTE. Additionally, the optimum magnetic treatment fractures the hydrocarbon chains, lowering their surface tension and density, fine fuel droplets are injected during the combustion chamber's injection period. The aforementioned features result in improved air-fuel mixing and oxidation in the engine combustion chamber. By incorporating these features, the ignition delay period is reduced, the fuel is entirely consumed, and the engine output is smoother. The engine is equipped with an EGR system, which aids in increasing the in-cylinder charge mass, resulting in complete combustion at greater loads. Additionally, EGR is at a slightly higher pressure than atmospheric, which may have resulted in lower pumping losses and an increase in BTE. Gomaa et al. [34] found that at 10-15% EGR, Jatropha 20 improved BTE by 4.6 percent when compared to diesel engines. Gumus [35] proved that the BTE of all test fuels improved with mild EGR. Ramadhas et al. [36] Jumaa and Mashkour et al. [37] and Bedar al. [38] all indicated that utilizing 20% waste cooking oil biodiesel increases the engine's braking thermal efficiency by 12.75 percent. When compared to the standard engine, BTE was increased by 12.5 percent in this work. When the EGR rate exceeded 20%, the BTE began to decline linearly. That phenomenon becomes conceivable because the incoming charge is diluted with engine exhaust elements, resulting in a reduced flame velocity and incomplete burning of the fuel. At 30% EGR, the BTE of B30 and B40 was reduced by 9% and 10%, correspondingly, when compared to the diesel fuel value. The reduction in BTE with increasing the EGR rate is summarized in Figure 22 .\r\n\r\n7.7Brake specific fuel consumption\r\nFigure 23 depicts a comparison of brake specific fuel consumption with variations in diesel engine brake power. Both diesel and biofuel were exposed to the same dipole strength of 8000 Gauss. The graph illustrates that when the combined impact of EGR rate and magnetic conditioning was used, the BSFC of blended fuel was lower than unconditioned diesel at various brake powers, as expected. When the EGR rate is set to 10%, the brake specific fuel consumption is reduced by approximately 12.9% when compared to the base engine. According to Jumaa and Mashkour [37] BSFC for DF+20 percent waste cooking oil is reduced by 8.1 percent, according to Gumus [35] According to Sunil Naik and Balakrishna [39], BSFC decreased with biofuel blending of B10 and B20 and an EGR rate of 10-20%. When compared to traditional diesel fuel, biofuel has a lower BSFC.\r\n\r\n7.8Volumetric efficiency\r\nFigure 23 . Effect of biodiesel blends ration BSFC Figure 24 shows the variation in volumetric efficiency with biodiesel percent at constant EGR rate of 10%, and 8000 Gauss on the left and engine load on the right. The volumetric efficiency declines as the biodiesel vol/vol) percentage and engine load rise. The amount of air replenished by cooled exhaust gas recirculation decreases the amount of air flowing into the inlet manifold, the diesel engine has a high volumetric efficiency when compared to all biofuels. As the ratio of biofuels increases, the amount of fuel injected into the combustion chamber increases, resulting in a lower air-fuel ratio for WCO Yu et al. [40]. Is similar to those reported by Hira et al. [9] when a 20% blend of Karanja biodiesel and diesel is used.\r\n\r\n8.CONCLUSIONS\r\nIt is determined that now the employment of EGR with biodiesel fuels as well as the magnetic fuel treatment system for diesel is more successful in producing enhanced engine characteristics. The following conclusions were made from the test findings:\r\n\r\nTaguchi method determined optimal BTE conditions for obtaining the highest diesel engine design parameters compression ratio, injection pressure, magnetic conditioner intensity, load, and timing injection, also fisher value proved that the BTE significantly affected by the magnetic field.\r\n\r\nThe engine's brake thermal efficiency is higher when using bio fuel than when using ordinary diesel fuel, when the percentage of bio diesel rises, until it reaches 20%. When EGR (10-20%) was used, BTE increased by 12.5%. A significant increase in the value of the peak pressure value when WCO operate under combined impact of EGR and optimal polarization intensity.\r\n\r\nThere had been a drop in BSFC when EGR was used, with various bio diesel (10-20%) mixes. A magnetic field could be used to boost the internal energy of the fuel, causing precise modifications at the molecular level. Increasing internal energy results in easier burning. The molecules fly apart more easily, connect to oxygen more easily, and burn more readily. The conditioned fuel that results is magnetic to burn more thoroughly, resulting in increased engine output, better gas mileage, more power, and, most crucially."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme réduit la consommation de diesel (5%) dans les moteurs de bateaux."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant (4000 Gauss) réduit la consommation de biodiesel de 5%."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "This study on an Otto engine analyzed the effect of the mounting distance of a 2500 Gauss magnet relative to the intake valve. The maximum torque (51.31 Nm) was obtained at an optimal distance of 30 cm, confirming that the magnetic field application point is a critical factor influencing the engine's volumetric efficiency and thermal performance.", "fr_vulgarise": "L'efficacité des aimants dépend fortement de leur position exacte sur le système d'alimentation en carburant (avant l'injection)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "This paper reports some tests conducted on a new magnetic device for the reduction of fuel consumption and pollutant emissions, installed onboard an Italian trawler since March 2013 and tested in laboratory in May 2014. The electromagnetic field generated by the device operates as a fuel treatment to the incoming fuel in order to increase the air/fuel mixing process. The consequence of treating fuel with a high magnetic field is supposed to improve combustion of fuel and consequently increasing engine power as well as reducing fuel consumption. The test has been carried out on board a fishing vessel where a fuel consumption measurement system conceived at CNR-ISMAR of Ancona has been installed in 2008 and it is still collecting energy use. The monitoring plan included also emissions measurements in order to evaluate the effects of the magnetic device on the pollutant emissions. Emissions measurements were carried out and results were compared with other trawlers with similar characteristics and same engine. Comparison of fuel consumption between 2012 and 2013 showed a fuel saving of about 4.6%. Also a reduction and modification in emissions has been observed. Nevertheless the small reduction could be influenced by other boundary conditions, thus further analysis are requested. Laboratory tests conducted in May/June 2014 further analyzed the fuel treatment effects of the device. The burning process has been evaluated by means of the Mahler bomb calorimeter."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Magnetic effects on a methane-air premixed flame are experimentally examined by PLIF of OH species. To confirm that the main cause of the magnetically induced spatial displacement of the high concentration zone is the paramagnetic O2 contained in the air surrounding the flame, the PLIF measurements are carried out for the flame in an atmosphere of diamagnetic nitrogen gas as well as in air. The difference in the resulting PLIF profiles are compared to discuss the magnetic effects in conjunction with magnetically induced flows. Consequently, it is found that at a higher equivalence ratio, the change in the OH profile is mostly caused by the outer flows of the ambient air and that at a lower equivalence ratio, inside flows due to the oxygen existing in the flame are also involved in the observed change in the OH profile. Introduction Magnetic effects on hydrogen and methane flames have been studied experimentally and with numerical simulations in our previous work [1,2]. It has been experimentally found using emission and planar laser induced fluorescence (PLIF) spectroscopy that the special distribution of OH radical is changed in the presence of magnetic field: the abundant OH region is shifted towards the central region under fuel-lean conditions. Such an effect can be applied to control the flame so that furnace wall damage caused by strongly oxidative OH radicals is alleviated. We also pointed out from the results of the numerical simulation that magnetically induced flows of paramagnetic oxygen molecules in the ambient air are the main causes of the change in the OH profile. However, the role of the paramagnetic oxygen has not been unraveled experimentally. In this study, therefore, we attempted to compare the changes in PLIF OH profile in a methane-air premixed flame in a surrounding gas, air or diamagnetic nitrogen. Thus, the effect of the magnetically induced flow of paramagnetic oxygen molecules is clearly certified. In addition, the presence of magnetic effects caused by oxygen molecules in the combustion field is expected to be clarified in detail. Experimental Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of the measurement system used in this work. The PLIF system is basically the same as that assembled for the previous studies [1,2]. In this study, the enclosure of 250 mm x250 mmx450 mm with the three quartz windows of 80 mm x 80 mm for the laser entrance and exit, and the LIF observation was newly constructed for purging the flame. OH radicals in the flame are excited with the Nd:YAG pumped tunable dye laser system (Comtinuum: Powerlite 8000, ND 6000 and UVT Generation) using the dye laser output from Rhodamine 590. Excitation scannings are performed to tune dye laser in the Q1 (10) rotational line of the AΣ ← XΠ (1,0) transition at the wavelength λ= 284.298 nm. The pulse energy is ca. 450 mJ with a pulse duration of 7 ns. The repetition rate of the pulse is set at 10 pps. The laser beam is formed in a thin sheet of ca. 5 cm in height through the cylindrical lenses. The resulting planar laser beam intersects the 1st International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference 17 21 August 2003, Portsmouth, Virginia AIAA 2003-5927 Copyright © 2003 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 flame vertically, the OH fluorescence profile including the flame-axis is measured by an intensified CCD (ICCD) camera (ORIEL: DH 520) with a UV lens, located in the normal direction to the laser plane. This measurement system is controlled with the pulse generator (Stanford Research Systems, Inc. DG 535). The flame was formed on the burner of 8.0 mm in inner diameter, located between the pole pieces of the Nd-Fe-B permanent magnet (NIROKU SEISAKUSYO Co. Ltd. NE 010 and NE 011) with a maximum magnetic flux density of 480 mT. The photograph of the permanent magnet and the burner is shown in Fig. 2. The head of the burner was set up at 10 mm height above the central axis of the permanent magnet. The difference in the OH LIF images are illustrated calculated by making subtraction of the two images obtained in the presence and absence of the magnetic field. In order to avoid errors caused by slight displacements of pixels, two-dimensional averaging with a Gaussian weight for the 9 pixels was applied to the raw images prior to the following subtraction. Thus, the magnetic effect on the OH distribution was evaluated. In order to confirm the magnetic effect induced by paramagnetic oxygen molecules in the surrounding air, diamagnetic nitrogen gas or synthetic air of 80 % N2 and 20 % O2 is forced to flow into the enclosure as a purge gas at a rate of 3.0 lmin(see Fig.1). The subtraction images of OH PLIF obtained under the nitrogen gas and the air were compared. In order to examine the effect of the flame condition, the experiments were made at the equivalence ratios of 1.2 and 1.7 while the total flow rate of methane and air was kept constant at 4.0 l/min (6.7 × 10 m/s). Results and discussion Figures 3 and 4 show the subtraction profiles of OH LIF intensity for the flames under the equivalence conditions of 1.2 and 1.7, respectively. Since the dependence of the LIF signal on the flame temperature is very small for the employed excitation line, the LIF profiles reflect those of concentration of OH species. Consequently, the subtraction profiles directly illustrate the magnetically induced increase or decrease in the spatial distribution of OH species. It is noted from the top profile in Fig. 3 that at the equivalence ratio of 1.2 under the air atmosphere, the concentration of OH species is increased and decreased in the inner and outer regions of the flame upstream, respectively. In the downstream, it is increased and decreased in the inner region and top of the flame, respectively. On the other hand, no significant change induced by magnetic force is encountered for the flame in the diamagnetic N2 atmosphere (the bottom left in Fig. 3). Thus, it is experimentally confirmed that the paramagnetic oxygen molecules in the surrounding air play the important roles by forming magnetically induced flows, as pointed out with the numerical simulation in our previous studies. However, the slight changes in OH concentration such as the increase in the upstream and the decease in downstream are also recognized from the profile illustrated on a small scale (the bottom right of Fig. 3). At the equivalence ratio of 1.7 in the air atmosphere, the magnetic field induces the similar spatial changes in the OH concentration. Compared with the changes found for the flame at the equivalence ratio of 1.2, however, the region of the OH increase is extended to the top of the flame (the top of Fig. 4). On the other hand, the magnetically induced change in OH concentration is almost negligibly small (the bottom left and right of Fig. 4). The slight change encountered for the flame at the equivalence ratio of 1.2 is not recognized. At this higher equivalence ratio, the oxygen supplied from the combustion air is quickly consumed though the combustion reactions in the flame and the paramagnetic O2 concentration is expected to be negligible small. The OH molecules are also paramagnetic with a spin momentum of 1/2. However, its concentration is very small. Therefore, the force magnetically induced by this species is again negligibly small. Consequently, the flow magnetically induced by the paramagnetic O2 molecules contained in the air surrounding the flame is thought as the main cause of the observed change. The paramagnetic O2 molecules with a larger spin momentum of unity (due to two parallel spin electrons on the anti-bonding pi-orbitals) are", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study combining a Gasoline Vapor Tube (GVT) with a magnetic field on an SI engine. A 4.00% fuel consumption gain was observed, with the magnetic effect hypothesized to enhance the homogeneity of the air-fuel mixture, leading to improved energy efficiency [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le dispositif combinant vaporisation et champ magnétique a permis d'économiser 4% d'essence en améliorant la combustion."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Applying magnetic fields to improve the arrangement of hydrocarbon molecules in fuel lines have been continuously studied in recent decades. However, scientific reports regarding the application of a magnetic field integrated with a gasoline vaporizer tube (GVT) on engine performance have not been widely discussed. Therefore, this article presents an investigation of the application of GVT with magnetic field on a single cylinder gasoline engine with three different fuel qualities, including RON88, RON92, and RON98. Torque, power, emissions and fuel consumption have been tested for scientific opinion. The results of our present investigation seem to confirm the claims of GVT inventors, where GVT increases engine torque and power, reduces CO and HC content in exhaust gases, and reduces fuel consumption. However, without considering the supply of gasoline and air from the GVT to the engine is an unfair analysis. In fact, although the established theories reveal the benefits of applying a magnetic field to the fuel line, in this case, only a small part of the fuel is induced by the magnetic field, outside the main line from the tank to the injectors. Finally, the results of this investigation provide new insights for potential users of GVT, which is currently commercially available.\r\n\r\n1.Introduction\r\nCombustion performance in internal combustion engines (ICE) can be improved by correcting the mixture of fuel and air molecules, one of which is using a magnetic field intervention in the fuel lines. Studies on magnetic field effects for gasoline and diesel engines were intensively discussed [1]- [10]. A Gasoline Vaporizer Tube (GVT) equipped with a magnetic field was also introduced to the market as a power booster. The inventor claims that GVT can decompose gasoline ions by intervening with powerful ferromagnetic neodymium to increase engine power and reduce emissions. However, scientific data is not yet openly available as a reference for academia, industry, and related communities. Therefore, this article presents evaluations and opinions as scientific references through an experimental study on a single-cylinder gasoline engine.\r\n\r\nThe GVT is inspired by performance enhancer technologies such as induction system technology, the hydrocarbon crack system (HCS) technology, octane booster, and the treatment of fuel with magnetic fields. The induction system was introduced by Hata et al. [11] and has been widely used since 1980 for two-stroke engines [12]. It is a simple modification of the intake system, eliminating the \"torque bend\" problem, and has been shown to improve engine performance and reduce fuel consumption [13]. Recent inventions such as double chambers in the intake system and each have a filter, wherein the induction system can be adjusted [14] and research related to induction systems is still popular today [15]- [17].\r\n\r\nApart from the induction system, HCS is another technology used to optimize combustion processes and reduce emissions. In HCS, regular grade gasoline is broken down by a hydrocarbon converter consisting mainly of propane, propylene, butane, and pentane. HCS technology eliminates chemical elements that can be a source of harmful fumes that form in conventional engines [18]. Abdillah & Sugondo [19] investigated the fuel consumption of a car engine when using HCS and claimed there were savings of up to 50% at 700 rpm and 61% at 2500 rpm. Meanwhile, Suryono et al. [20] analyzed the fuel temperature in the HCS reactor and its effect on emissions in a Toyota 4AFE engine. They claimed a significant reduction in HC and CO emissions when the HCS was operated at 80 °C and 100 °C, respectively.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, installing a magnetic field pack before the injector can increase combustion efficiency and reduce exhaust gas pollutants [21]. The magnetic field is usually generated from a permanent magnet or an electromagnet coil. Sahoo and Jains [22] used permanent magnets made of an alloy of neodymium, iron, and boron. They placed them in three different locations from the combustion chamber of a diesel engine. Placing a magnet near the combustion chamber reduces 4% of brake-specific fuel consumption. It increases 4% of brake thermal efficiency for clean diesel engines. Another study conducted by Govindasamy & Dhandapani [23] claims the strong magnetic field in the fuel line reduces carbon monoxide emissions by 13%. Meanwhile, Faris et al. [24] investigated CO and HC when the engine used four Gaussian permanent magnets and found that the properties of the fuel changed when exposed to a magnetic field, with CO and HC reductions of 30% and 40%, respectively. Abdel-Rehim and Attia [25] proved their curiosity regarding the strength of the magnetic field in the fuel system, and their research confirmed that there was a significant reduction in fuel consumption and major pollutants. Studies on magnetic field effects for gasoline and diesel engines are ongoing discussions to date, with research variables being developed [2]- [8], [26].\r\n\r\nThere are many devices related to the magnetic field to change the arrangement of the hydrocarbon molecules in the fuel line, both for spark ignition engines and compression ignition engines [3], [27]- [31]. From the available literature, a magnetic field device is installed in the main fuel system where all the fuel entering the engine passes through the magnetic field. In our present study, a magnetic field is implemented in the fuel booster device and only a small amount of vaporized gasoline is affected by the magnetic field. Until this article was written, scientific reports regarding applications of GVT with magnetic field treatment on engine performance were very limited. Therefore, this experiment was conducted to provide evidence on the application of GVT with magnetic field treatment on engine performance, fuel consumption, and exhaust emissions.\r\n\r\n2.1.Gasoline vaporizer tube (GVT) and tested engine\r\nThis research was conducted on a Yamaha 155 cc engine, with the specifications presented in Table 1 . Three tests were carried out: a performance, road, and exhaust emissions test. The GVT consists of three main parts: a 100 cc cylinder with a level indicator, a circulation tube for air and gasoline vapor, and two neodymium iron boron (NdFeB) permanent magnets which are placed at the bottom tube as shown in Figure 1 . The top of the GVT is equipped with three channels, where the first channel is to capture ambient air, the second channel is to put gasoline from the fuel tank into the vaporizer\r\n\r\n2.2.Setup experiment\r\nAs shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 , the GVT is an auxiliary device that is installed stand alone on the induction system and is not installed to cut the main fuel line. Four different fuel operations were tested. The first experiment was carried out without GVT. The other three experiments were equipped with GVT involving three Fuel types, including RON88, RON92, and RON98. The Fuel was carefully injected into the GVT tank at a certain volume. To ensure that the increase in engine performance is not affected by fuel quality, we used RON98 for testing without GVT.\r\n\r\nEngine performance testing was carried out on the chassis dynamometer which was integrated with the Dyno-Max, Land & Sea software to obtain engine speed, torque, and power. Engine torque and power were recorded from 4500 rpm to 9800 rpm, at 100 rpm intervals. A road test was conducted with drivers who weighed 55 kg to get data on fuel consumption. The motorcycle tank was filled with one liter of gasoline and driven at 40 -60 km/h until the Fuel was empty. The distance was recorded to get the actual fuel consumption.\r\n\r\nThe exhaust emissions were measured by a Tecnotest Type Stargas 898 OIML CLASS 0. It measured the concentration of HC, CO, CO2, and O2 in the exhaust gas and the air-fuel ratio (λ). The tests were performed at idle speed. The room temperature during the tests was in the range of 25-31 ᵒC. The test was executed four times for each variation to get accurate data. The data were validated, compared, and analyzed using paired t-test statically analysis with a 0.05 twotail level of confidentiality.\r\n\r\n3.1.Engine performance\r\nFigure 3a and Figure 3b present engine torque and power using four fuel variations. The black, red, blue, and green lines represent engine performance without GVT, GVT+RON88, GVT+RON92, and GVT+RON98, respectively. Maximum torque and power without GVT reach 11 Nm at 5000 rpm and 9.246 HP at 8100 rpm, respectively. The GVT+RON98 has the highest power and torque. Maximum torque reaches 11.6 Nm at 5000 rpm, and maximum power reaches 9.942 HP at 8400 rpm. It increases torque and engine power by 5.5% and 7.5% compared to without GVT, respectively, both of which use RON98. In the GVT+RON88 application, it produces a maximum torque of 10.9 Nm at 5200 rpm and a maximum power of 9.483 HP at 8100 rpm. Maximum power with GVT+RON88 increased by 2.6% compared to engine power without GVT, although it was lower\r\n\r\nGasoline Vaporizer\r\nTube (GVT)\r\n\r\nFigure 2 . GVT installation on tested motorcycle than GVT+RON92 and RON98. Engine power with GVT+RON88 was 4.8% lower than GVT+RON98 and 2.1% of GVT+RON92. On the other hand, engine torque with GVT+RON88 is 6.4% lower than GVT+RON98 and 5.8% more than GVT+RON92.\r\n\r\nThe increase in power on the use of GVT+RON98 against GVT+RON88, it is possible to be influenced by higher octane. Increasing the octane rating will generally improve combustion performance due to its resistance to knocking symptoms. However, it is also very dependent on the compression ratio and combustion chamber temperature. Research on the effect of octane number on engine performance has long been investigated in various combinations with related variables, and many researchers have proven that octane number has a positive effect on engine performance [33]- [36]. In certain cases, different results were found in the study of Saud et al. [37]. The results of this study seem to show the benefits of using GVT because the torque and power of the engine without GVT and RON98 is lower than that of GVT+RON88, the lowest quality fuel we used in this study.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, statistical tests were carried out to ensure that the engine performance test results showed significant differences before and after the GVT application. The two-tail paired ttest was used to validate and analyze each engine's torque and power. Before the paired t-test, the normality and outlier tests were conducted to prove that the data are normally distributed and that there is no significant outlier. Figure 4 and Figure 5 show the paired t-test results using Minitab for the engine without GVT and the engine equipped with GVT+RON98. The confidence level was 95% using 54 data. It shows a significantly higher engine power when using GVT+RON98 (8.991± 0.827 HP) compared to the engine without using GVT (8.262±0.732 HP) with a t-value = 20.53 and P-value ≤ 0.25. The results of this statistical test confirm a feasible difference in torque and power from a technical point of view.\r\n\r\n3.2.Fuel consumption\r\nFigure 6 presents the results of the fuel consumption test in this study. The fuel consumption of tested vehicles with GVT and without GVT was evaluated in actual operation at the same speed, and distance travelled. As is known, there are at least two methods to measure fuel consumption, by standard procedures in the chassis dynamometer and by real tests on the road. Tests on the chassis dynamometer with standardized test procedures were reported by many researchers [37]- [39], and one of the real test methods on the road was carried out by Nguyen Duc [40] on the LPG application for a motorcycle. We chose the real operation method to represent the actual result, although the uncertainty of this method is greater. The results of our current study show that the use of GVT+RON98 can reduce fuel consumption by up to 4.9%. Compared to another experiment performed by Arias et al. [1] in a compression ignition engine applying magnetic fields in the pipes that transport the diesel the fuel consumption was reduced by approximately 4.89%, which is practically equal to the result of this research. The variations in some physicalchemical properties of the diesel fuel (such as surface tension and rheological behavior) will result in more efficient atomization and smaller droplets. Thus, achieving a more homogeneous air-fuel mixture produces more complete combustion and fuel savings.\r\n\r\n3.3.Emissions\r\nThe exhaust emissions content represents a combustion process in the combustion chamber. Theoretically, complete combustion does not leave HC, CO, and O2 to be converted into CO2 and heat of combustion. However, because the combustion process occurs dynamically and in a swift time, HC and CO are still formed. Now, not only HC and CO must be reduced but also CO2 simultaneously to reduce greenhouse gas effects. Table 2 shows the content of CO, CO2, HC, and O2 in the exhaust gas for each condition of the tested engine. The gas measurements were performed at idle speed, approximately 1500-1600 rpm. It indicates that an engine with GVT filled with higher octane gasoline would improve exhaust gas emissions. As is known, complete combustion leaves a small amount of CO and HC. In this study, in addition to reducing CO and HC, CO2 reduction was also found but increased O2. In the current analysis, considering the GVT construction as presented in Figure 1 , the vaporized fuel and ambient air are added through the channel in the GVT cap, where ambient air enters the GVT tube. Theoretically, the decrease in the HC and CO emissions when the GVT with the magnetic field is used shows that with this technology, complete combustion is achieved because the process is more efficient. The reduction in CO2 emissions is due to the reduction in fuel consumption obtained with this technology, as demonstrated in the research developed by Arias et al. [1]. However, in reality, there is a reduction in fuel in the GVT which is converted into vapor (see Figure 2 ), which means there is additional fuel to the engine apart from the main fuel system, from the tank to the injectors. The final results as shown in Table 2 , cannot be used as a reference by normal analysis because the oxygen sensor provides information based on the remaining oxygen content in the exhaust gas to control the injection volume through the ECU, whereas in this experiment, the amount of vaporized gasoline from the GVT is not controlled by ECU.\r\n\r\n3.4.Establish theories\r\nHydrocarbons are well known for their long-branched geometric chains of carbon atoms. This tends to fold over on itself and adjoining molecules; this is due to the intermolecular electromagnetic attraction that exists between them. When exposed to an external magnetic field, fuel molecules are usually excited, causing more reorientation to accommodate the applied external magnetic field. This phenomenon is explained by the fact that at the molecular level, a spinning electron absorbs a specific amount of electromagnetic energy and spin-flips into an aligned state [41].\r\n\r\nThe interaction of the magnetic field with the hydrocarbon molecules and oxygen molecules of the Fuel makes the magnetic treatment effective. Their physical attraction forms a pseudo-solid compound that can be associated and form a stable structure. Without magnetic field interference, the quality of mixing of Fuel and air molecules occurs along the intake manifold, resulting in incomplete combustion and finally forming carbon and carbon monoxide particles as combustion residues. By interfering with the magnetic field on the fuel line, the originally naturally occurring polarization of the hydrocarbon fuel is made possible by applying external force by the magnetic field. The application of the magnetic fields causes the loss of fixed valence electrons which are responsible for the bonding process of hydrocarbon fuels. These conditions help create a free association of the fuel particles. They become aligned in a magnetic dipole that does not need to form new hydrocarbon chains but arranges the bonds in such a way that they repel each other and make room for the entry of oxygen molecules [42].\r\n\r\nThrough the threat of a magnetic field, the hydrocarbon fuel molecules are subjected to a declustering process, making the very small particles more rapidly penetrated by oxygen, which leads to better combustion [43]. Figure 7 shows the para and ortho-hydrocarbon states before and after magnetic treatment of the Fuel, where the hydrogen molecules have opposite spins; as a result, they stick together [42]. After passing through magnetic fields, the polarity changes, and they start to rotate in the same direction resulting in a repulsive force. When Fuel passes through a magnetic field formed by powerful permanent magnets, the hydrocarbon molecules shift orientation (para to ortho). At the same time, the intermolecular force is much reduced. This process aids in oil particles' dispersion and fine division [27]. It allows oxygen molecules to gain a place in the chain and therefore causes complete combustion [44]. As shown in Table 2 , the magnetic field interference in the GVT significantly reduced CO, HC, and CO2 emissions for all tested fuel qualities.\r\n\r\n4.Conclusion\r\nThe data from this investigation seems to provide benefits regarding the application of GVT on engine performance, emissions, and fuel consumption, as claimed by the inventor. Torque and engine power tested using the same fuel quality increased by 5.5% and 7.5%, respectively. Paired t test method on all test samples showed a significant difference using GVT with 95% confidence level. In addition, the application of GVT with a magnetic field reduces the CO and HC content in exhaust emissions. The results of the fuel consumption test using the actual driving method also show significant fuel savings of up to 4.9%. Although the established theories explain the benefits of applying magnetic fields to the fuel line, they are not representative in this case. Keep in mind that the GVT is an auxiliary device, not all gasoline that is fed into the engine passes through the magnetic field on the fuel line. That means, there is additional gasoline supplied to the engine, apart from the injectors. Therefore, the claims of improved performance, reduced emissions and fuel consumption by the inventors are unfair if gasoline supplies from GVT are not included in the analysis. Differences in results are possible if the mass flow rates of gasoline vapor and ambient air from the GVT are considered. The results of this investigation provide new insights for potential users of GVT, which is currently commercially available. For more valid results, it is necessary to carry out further testing with a standard driving cycle on the dynamometer by considering the total fuel consumption.\r\n\r\nAuthors' Declaration\r\nAuthors' contributions and responsibilities -The authors made substantial contributions to the conception and design of the study. The authors took responsibility for data analysis, interpretation, and discussion of results. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.\r\n\r\nFunding -No funding information from the authors.\r\n\r\nAvailability of data and materials -All data are available from the authors. Competing interests -The authors declare no competing interest.\r\n\r\nAdditional information -No additional information from the authors.\r\n\r\nAcknowledgements\r\nAcknowledgementsWe would like to thank the inventor of the GVT (initials P.T.) used in this study, for useful discussions during the research and writing of this manuscript.\nAuthors' Declaration \nAuthors' contributions and responsibilities - The authors made substantial contributions to the \nconception and design of the study. The authors took responsibility for data analysis, \ninterpretation, and discussion of results. The authors read and approved the final manuscript. \nFunding – No funding information from the authors. \nAvailability of data and materials - All data are available from the authors. \nFigure 7. \n Oxygen molecules clings \non to hydrocarbon \nmolecules after magnetic \ntreatment: (a) para-\nhydrogen and (b) ortho-\nhydrogen at time of \ncombustion [42] \nRani Anggrainy, et al. \nMechanical Engineering for Society and Industry, Vol.2 No.2 (2022) \n104 \n \nCompeting interests - The authors declare no competing interest. \nAdditional information – No additional information from the authors. \nReferences \n[1] R. A. Gilart, M. R. B. Ungaro, C. E. A. Rodríguez, J. F. F. Hernández, M. C. Sofía, and D. D. \nVerdecia, “Performance and exhaust gases of a diesel engine using different magnetic \ntreatments of the fuel,” Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Sciences, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. \n6285–6294, 2020. \n[2] L. P. Oommen and G. N. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Magnetic field manipulation of bioethanol-gasoline fuel blends reduces exhaust emissions and improves combustion efficiency in internal combustion engines.", "fr_vulgarise": "Cette étude a cherché à rendre les biocarburants (mélanges d'essence et d'éthanol, ou E30) plus performants en utilisant un aimant de 1420 Gauss. Le traitement magnétique a augmenté l'efficacité avec laquelle le moteur utilise ce carburant, avec des gains sur l'énergie de combustion de 11,32%. L'impact le plus marquant est la réduction des polluants comme le NOx (oxydes d'azote) de 70% et le SO2 (dioxyde de soufre) de 63%. Les aimants aident les molécules du mélange à se séparer et à s'orienter, ce qui permet à l'oxygène de mieux pénétrer le carburant. Cette meilleure combustion réduit le gaspillage et la pollution, prouvant que le magnétisme est une bonne solution pour intégrer les biocarburants dans les moteurs existants."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~176.08 Tesla ; CO -18.11 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 3600 Gauss sur un biocarburant réduit la pollution et permet une économie de 2,59% de carburant."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~249 Gauss ; magnetic field ~807.8 Tesla ; CO -6.79 % ; HC -7.41 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant faible sur un petit moteur à essence deux temps améliore la combustion, réduisant la consommation de Pertamax de 0,75 ml par minute. Le champ magnétique affaiblit les liaisons des molécules d'essence, assurant une combustion plus complète et moins de pollution."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~249 Gauss ; magnetic field ~807.8 Tesla ; CO -6.79 % ; HC -7.41 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant faible sur un petit moteur à essence deux temps améliore la combustion, réduisant la consommation de Pertamax de 0,75 ml par minute. Le champ magnétique affaiblit les liaisons des molécules d'essence, assurant une combustion plus complète et moins de pollution."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Vol. 1, No. 1, June 2022 https://attractivejournal.com/index.php/ajse The Effect of Strong Magnetic Field and Engine Rotation on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions for Gasoline Engines Adelansyah Nugraha1, Senat Orhani2 1Politekhnik Negeri Malang, Indonesia 2 University of Anbar, Iraq [email protected] Abstract An Iincreasing number of means of transportation in various cities causes air pollution. There have been many studies to reduce air pollution due to motorized vehicles. One of them relates to the fuel line. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the strength of the magnetic field in the fuel line on fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. ARTICLE INFO The research method uses a pure experimental method. The independent Article history: variables are magnetic field strength (51, 102, 152, 202, and 249 gauss) in Received the fuel line and engine speed (1500 rpm, 2500 rpm, 3500 rpm and 4500 May 14, 2022 rpm). The dependent variable is fuel consumption (ltr/hour) and exhaust Revised emissions. Test was carried Fourier transform infrared out to determine the June 23, 2022 chemical compound group of the fuel. The results showed that the highest Accepted concentration of transmittance at a wavelength of 2850 cm־¹ - 2970 cm־¹ June 29, 2022 was 77.75% with a magnetic field strength of 249 gauss, when compared to standard conditions it was 33.05%. At a strong magnetic field of 249 gauss with a rotation of 2500 rpm, it can save fuel consumption of 0.2 liters/hour. In addition, it can also reduce the level of exhaust gas O₂ by 4.16% (3500 rpm), CO gas by 1.29% (2500 rpm), CO₂ gas by 5.2% (1500 rpm) and HC gas by 215.66%. (4500 rpm). Keywords: Strong Magnetic, Fuel Consumtion, Exhaust Gas Emissions Published by CV. Creative Tugu Pena Website https://attractivejournal.com/index.php/ajse This is an open access article under the CC BY SA license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ INTRODUCTION In Indonesia, population growth is increasing, encouraging a large increase in the use of energy sources, especially in the automotive sector, as can be seen from the large number of fossil fuel motorized transportation equipment. This happens because the consumptive culture of the Indonesian people towards something practical and instant is quite high, so that in one of the conditions it causes air pollution in the resident's environment. According to the Central Statistics Agency (2019), the total number of domestic vehicles in 2010 was 76,907,127 units, then increased dramatically in 2017 with a total of 138,556,669 units. This is reinforced by the high number of motorcycles totaling 113,030,793 units which covers 81.57% of the total number of motorized vehicles in 2017. The increasing number of motorized vehicles, the higher the level of exhaust gases produced from the combustion of vehicle engines, so that cause air pollution. There are several kinds of pollutants produced by motor vehicle exhaust including hydrocarbon compounds (HC), carbon monoxide compounds (CO) nitrogen compounds (NOx), sulfur compounds (SOx), and lead (Pb) mixed with dust particles. Vehicle exhaust is one of the components that support the problem of air pollution in the world (Pulkrabek, 2004), besides that exhaust gas emissions are toxic and have a bad effect on human survival, CO and CO₂ are the main compounds resulting from burning gasoline through an incomplete combustion process. , while HC is an emission gas that arises due to the presence of unburned fuel and comes out together with the rest of the combustion gas. Some of the negative effects of vehicle exhaust gases such as HC and CO with a large percentage cause cancer and death effects. Therefore, another breakthrough was chosen, namely using an electromagnetic-based magnetization tool. As electromagnetic is a type of artificial magnet that can produce a magnetic field, when a conductor (iron) is wrapped around a copper wire electrified by an electric current. This tool is attached to the fuel line before entering the carburetor. With the strong influence of the magnetic field on the fuel, it causes vibrations so that there is instability in the hydrocarbon bond chain, as a result, hydrocarbon molecules can be more reactive to oxygen. The ideal mixture of fuel and oxygen can result in better and more efficient combustion. The magnitude of the magnetic field strength in a current coil (Solenoid) is formulated as follows: B= μ.?.? ? Where: B = Magnetic field strength (Tesla) = Vacuum permeability (4Wb x 10/Am) N = Number of turns I = Electric current (Amperes) L = Length of solenoid METHOD This research was conducted using an experimental method and as the object of the research was a motorcycle with a four stroke gasoline engine with a capacity of 125 cc. The test begins with testing the magnetic field strength and testing the fuel sample using Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) at the Faculty of Science and Technology, UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang. The independent 2 variables used is the variation of the magnetic field strength of 51, 102, 152, 202, and 249 gauss. Then proceed with the FTIR test to analyze the magnitude of the infrared absorption value of the molecules contained in gasoline before and after being magnetized. For testing fuel consumption and exhaust emissions, each data collection was repeated 3 times at engine speed variations of 1500, 2500, 3500, and 4500 rpm. Tools used: 1. 1 unit motorcycle 2. Digital tachometer 3. Gas analyzer 4. Teslameter 5. FTIR spectrophotometer 6. AC-DC voltage inverter 7. Measuring cup 8. Stopwatch Materials used: 1. Conductor pipe (iron) 2. Fuel hose 3. 0.25 mm copper wire 4. Pertalite fuel Electromagnet 5. Cover 6. Voltage stepdown module xl4015 The design of the tool used is as follows: F Figure 1 Design of Magnetization Tool 3 Figure 2 Testing Scheme Description: 1. Fuel tank Fuel 2. filter 3. Vacuum valve 4. AC-DC voltage inverter 5. Voltage stepdown XL4015 6. Electromagnet 7. Carburetor 8. Stopwatch feature Mobile phone 9. Tachometer 10. Motorcycle 11. exhaust 12. Gas analyzer 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION Figure 3 Graph of Test Results FTIR Pertalite From the graphic representation above, there is a change in the percentage of infrared radiation absorption prices for fuel compounds, this is indicated by the greater the magnetic field strength used, the greater the infrared radiation absorbed by the molecules. So that in Figure 2 shows a significant increase in CH absorption is the emergence of a strong band below 3000 cm־¹ with alkane compound groups at 2850 cm־¹ - 2970 cm־¹ waves. In Figure 3 in detail shows the percentage of absorption (transmittance) CH molecules pertalite fuel at a wavelength of 2850 cm־¹ - 2970 cm־¹, if On average, the percentage of the highest absorption price is given the variation of the magnetic field strength of 249 gauss, which is 77.75% than the standard condition (without magnetization) the absorption price is 33.05%. This proves that the addition of a larger magnetic field strength can more effectively weaken the energy of molecular bonds by loosening the bonds of hydrocarbon molecules that tend to cluster, so that fuels that experience stretching of bonds in their hydrocarbon molecules have more free space to carry out vibrations in their activities. Under these conditions, when infrared spectroscopy is given, the infrared radiation that is exposed will detect these vibrations and then convert them into a change in the percentage change in the absorption value (transmittance) which is increasing. 5 Results of Testing Fuel Consumption Figure 5 Graph of the Effect of Strong Magnetic Field and Engine Speed on Fuel Consumption In the graph above, it can be concluded that the higher the engine speed, the more fuel is used. Fuel consumption experienced the highest savings occurred at 2500 rpm rotation with a magnetic field strength of 249 gauss which was 0.2 liters/hour compared to standard conditions of 0.231 liters/hour. This is because at 2500 rpm the fuel flow rate is neither too slow nor too fast, with the addition of a greater magnetic field strength it can be more effective at loosening the bonds of hydrocarbon molecules that tend to cluster, so that the fuel molecules are magnetized effectively Graph of the Effect of Variations in Magnetic Field Strength and Engine Rotation on O Exhaust Gas There is a significant decrease in O₂ exhaust gas emissions. The higher the engine speed, the exhaust gas content of O₂ will experience a decrease in value, but the lowest level of exhaust gas O occurs at 3500 rpm with a variation of the magnetic field strength of 249 gauss where the O₂ level is 4.16% compared to the standard condition of 6.75%. and the highest level of exhaust gas O₂ was at 1500 rpm engine speed with a magnetic field strength variation of 249 gauss of 5.61%, much lower than the standard condition of 7.41 %. The occurrence of a decrease in exhaust gas O₂ at each engine speed is caused by the influence of a strong magnetic field which weakens the attractive energy between hydrocarbon molecules, so that when the oxidation process takes place the amount of oxygen 6 (O₂) captured in hydrocarbon molecules is more ideal. This is why a decrease in O₂ gas levels indicates a better engine combustion compared to standard conditions. Figure 6 Graph of the Effect of Variations in Magnetic Field Strength and Engine Rotation on CO Exhaust From the graphic above shows that the standard condition (without magnetization) of CO exhaust gas emissions has increased, namely at 4500 rpm engine speed with CO levels of 3.21% and the lowest levels CO occurs at 2500 rpm engine speed of 1.45%. With the treatment of the magnetic field strength in the fuel flow, the level of CO exhaust gas produced decreased significantly, but the lowest CO exhaust gas content occurred at 2500 rpm engine speed using a magnetic field strength of 249 gauss of 1.29% and exhaust gas levels. The highest CO is at 4500 rpm engine speed using a magnetic field strength of 249 gauss of 3.13%. This can be explained because the giving of the highest variation of the magnetic field strength to the fuel molecules has a greater chance of receiving magnetic field energy. So that resonance occurs which results in an attractive bond condition between unstable hydrocarbon molecules and undergoes bond stretching which allows fast binding of oxygen during oxidation, so that after combustion produces low CO gas levels due to an efficient air and fuel mixture. Lower CO exhaust gas levels indicate better combustion. So that the use of a strong magnetic field can improve the quality of combustion that occurs in the combustion chamber. 7 Figure 7 Graph of the Effect of Variations in Magnetic Field Strength and Engine Speed on CO₂ Exhaust In Figure 7 shows a graph of the relationship between engine speed and carbon dioxide (CO) exhaust gas emissions. At standard conditions at 1500 rpm engine speed has the lowest CO₂ gas content of 6.13% and the highest at 4500 rpm engine speed of 6.9%. The use of variations in field strength makes the level of CO₂ exhaust gas produced gradually decreases, with the lowest CO₂ gas content at the use of a magnetic field strength of 249 gauss at 1500 rpm engine speed of 5.2% and the highest CO₂ exhaust gas content occurring at 4500 rpm rotation of 5.9%, when the average field strength of 249 gauss gives a decrease in the percentage of CO₂ exhaust gas content of 14.84% from standard conditions (without magnetization). The presence of greater use of magnetic energy results in a decrease in the attractive force of attraction for hydrocarbon bonds so that when the fuel oxidation process will bind more oxygen (O₂) and the resulting combustion output is more perfect than the standard conditions. Figure 8 Graph of the Effect of Variations in Magnetic Field Strength and Engine Speed on HC Exhaust 8 The graphic above shows the relationship between engine speed and hydrocarbon exhaust gas emissions (HC). It can be explained that the higher the engine speed, the lower the HC exhaust gas content, but under standard conditions the highest HC exhaust gas was at 1500 rpm at 497.33 ppm and gradually decreased at 4500 rpm with HC levels at 312 ppm. If the concentration of HC in the flue gas is high, it indicates an incomplete combustion, where the homogeneity of the fuel with oxygen affects the flash point during combustion (burning). When given the influence of variations in the strength of the magnetic field there is a significant decrease in each engine speed. And the highest HC exhaust gas content is 287 ppm at 1500 rpm engine speed using a strong magnetic field of 249 gauss, continuing to 4500 rpm at 215.66 ppm. At 4500 rpm engine speed the influence of variations in the magnetic field strength on the fuel decreases, this is because the fuel flow rate is faster and the length of time for the fuel to be magnetized is relatively shorter. If the average decrease in the level of HC exhaust gas from standard conditions with variations in the magnetic field strength of 249 gauss is 38.14%, it indicates that the combustion process is getting better, more and more hydrocarbon molecules are capturing the energy of the magnetic field so that the attractiveness becomes weak and when The oxidation process has free space for oxygen elements to react with each other to bind. CONCLUSSION From the results of the research that has been carried out, the following conclusions can be drawn: From the FTIR test, it shows an increase in the percentage of the absorption price of the CH molecule pertalite fuel at a wavelength of 2850 cm־¹ - 2970 cm־¹, on average the highest percentage absorption price is in the variation magnetic field strength of 249 gauss which is 77.75% than the standard condition (without magnetization) the absorption price is 33.05 %. The variation of magnetic field strength in the fuel line to reduce fuel consumption has a significant effect. Fuel consumption experienced the highest savings occurred at 2500 rpm with a magnetic field strength of 249 gauss which was 0.2 liters/hour compared to standard conditions of 0.231 liters/hour. The higher the variation of the magnetic field strength used, the more efficient fuel consumption. By providing a variation of the magnetic field strength in the fuel line, there is a significant improvement in exhaust gas emission levels of O₂, CO, CO₂ and HC. The best improvement in exhaust gas levels is by using a variation of the magnetic field strength of 249 gauss. The lowest level of exhaust gas O₂ occurs at 3500 rpm engine rotation with a magnetic field strength variation of 249 gauss, O₂ content of 4.16% and the highest level of exhaust gas O is at 1500 rpm with a variation of magnetic field strength of 249 gauss at 5.61 % much decreased compared to the standard condition of 7.41%. For CO gas levels, 9 the lowest levels occur at 2500 rpm engine speed using a magnetic field strength variation of 249 gauss of 1.29% and the highest level of CO exhaust gas at 4500 rpm with a variation of 249 gauss magnetic field strength of 3.13%. Then the CO₂ exhaust gas content decreased with the lowest level at a magnetic field strength variation of 249 gauss at 1500 rpm engine speed of 5.2% and the highest CO₂ exhaust gas content occurred at 4500 rpm rotation of 5.9%. Then the highest HC exhaust gas content is 287 ppm at 1500 rpm engine speed using a magnetic field strength of 249 gauss, continuing to 4500 rpm rotation with a magnetic field strength variation of 249 gauss at 215.66 ppm. REFERENCES [1] Mulyono et al. Effect of Use and Calculation of Premium and Pertamax Fuel Efficiency on Performance of Gasoline Fuel Motors. Integrated Technology Journal. 1/2: 31 [2] Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS). 2016. Development of Number of Motorized Vehicles by Type 1987-2013. (online). (www.bps.go.id). Retrieved January 29, 2016 [3] Ali S. Faris (2012). Effect of Magnetic Field on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emission in Two-Stroke Engine. Energy Procedia. [4] Pramodkumar, G., Naidu, MK, Sandep, JV, Vasupalli, R., & Lade, P. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Analysis of the effect of a magnetic ring (Magic Ring) on the exhaust manifold of a motorcycle SI engine. The experiment measured a volumetric consumption reduction of up to 0.75 ml/min (with Pertamax), suggesting a field influence on combustion or gas dynamics [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'installation d'un anneau magnétique, même sur l'échappement, a réduit la consommation d'essence, avec un gain maximal pour le Pertamax (0,75 ml/min de réduction)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "NOZEL Volume 02 Nomor 01, Februari 2020, 57 – 61 \nDOI :` https://doi.org/10.20961/nozel.v1i3.50764 \n57 \n \nNOZEL \nJurnal Pendidikan Teknik Mesin \nJurnal Homepage: \nhttps://jurnal.uns.ac.id/nozel \n \n \nPENGARUH PEMASANGAN MAGIC RING PADA EXHAUST MANIFOLD \nTERHADAP KONSUMSI BAHAN BAKAR SEPEDA MOTOR YAMAHA \nVEGA RR TAHUN 2014 DENGAN MENGGUNAKAN \nVARIASI BAHAN BAKAR \n \nSetyo Sri Haryono1, Ranto2, Husin Bugis3 \n1Program Studi Pendidikan Teknik Mesin, FKIP, Universitas Sebelas Maret \nKampus V UNS Pabelan Jl. Ahmad Yani Nomor 200, Surakarta \nEmail: [email protected] \nAbstract \nVehicle technology is still not effective in saving fuel consumption. Various \nattempts have been made to reduce fuel consumption in motorized vehicles. \nThis is done to prevent the depletion of the availability of fossil energy, \nespecially petroleum. One of the emerging technological innovations is the \nMagic ring. Magic ring is a technology to reduce fuel consumption by \nreducing the diameter of the exhaust manifold channel with a special design. \nThis study aims to determine the effect of the use of the Magic ring on the \nfuel consumption of motorized vehicles (gasoline engines). This study used \nan experimental method on a single cylinder 110cc four-stroke gasoline \nmotorcycle engine. This study uses three types of fuel, RON 90, RON 92, and \nRON 98 for fuel consumption in ml / minute, and data analysis using \nquantitative descriptive. The results of this study are looking for the most \nefficient fuel consumption in each type of fuel at 1500 rpm. The results show \nthat there is an effect of installing a Magic ring in saving fuel consumption. \nThis is evidenced by the increase in the value of fuel consumption savings \nwith a percentage of 23.3% at RON 90, 21.5% at RON 92, 19.4% at RON \n98. The test results show that the installation of Magic rings is effective in \nreducing fuel consumption and can used in the future to save fuel. \nKeywords: Magic ring, Exhaust manifold, fuel saver tool, fuel consumption \n \nA. PENDAHULUAN \nPesatnya perkembangan alat transportasi \nmemiliki dampak pada peningkatan konsumsi \nbahan bakar. Hal ini dibuktikan dengan hasil \ncatatan Hilir Minyak dan Gas Bumi Badan \nPengatur (BPH Migas: 2018) pada tahun 2016 \nkonsumsi bahan bakar minyak bumi sebesar \n48 Kiloliter dan pada tahun 2017 terjadi \npeningkatan sebesar 7 Kiloliter menjadi 55 \nKiloliter dan diprediksi meningkat seiring \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \nNOZEL Volume 02 Nomor 01, Februari 2020, 57 – 61 \nDOI :` https://doi.org/10.20961/nozel.v1i3.50764 \n58 \ndengan \npeningkatan \njumlah \nkendaraan \nbermotor. Saat ini ketersediaan bahan bakar \nminyak \nmengalami \npenurunan, \njumlah \ncadangan minyak bumi, khususnya di \nIndonesia, juga menipis. \nDengan melihat konsumsi bahan bakar \nyang \ntinggi \ndan \ndampak \nyang \nakan \nmenyebabkan \ndi \nmasa \ndepan, \nperlu \nmelakukan \nupaya \nuntuk \nmengurangi \nkonsumsi bahan bakar. Magic ring adalah \nsebuah alat yang dapat di gunakan untuk \nmenghemat bahan bakar di mana berfungsi \nuntuk mengurangi gas buang yang keluar \nmelalui exhaust manifold. \nMagic ring di pasang pada exhaust \nmanifold yang di desain khusus untuk \nmenghambat dan mengembalikan gas sisa \npembakaran kembali keruang bakar. gas sisa \npembakaran yang di kembalikan ke ruang \nbakar akan membuat pembakaran menjadi \nlebih sempurna sehingga konsumsi bahan \nbakar menjadi lebih hemat. Hasil penelitian \ndapat di ketahui bahwa penggunaan Magic \nring mampu mengurangi konsumsi bahan \nbakar . \nB. METODE PENELITIAN \nPenelitian ini merupakan penelitian \ndeskriptif kuantitatif dengan menggunakan \nmetode eksperimen. Penelitian ini dilakukan \ndi Program Studi Laboratorium Otomotif \nPendidikan Teknik Mesin FKIP UNS. Subjek \n \npenelitian ini adalah mesin bensin satu \nsilinder 110cc. Perhitungan konsumsi bahan \nbakar dilakukan dalam keadaan diam dengan \nmenghitung waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk \nmenghabiskan 50 ml bahan bakar pada \nkondisi putaran mesin 1500 rpm. Berikut ini \nadalah subyek dari penelitian ini: \n \nGambar 1. Vega RR tahun 2014 \nBarang \nMengetik \nMerk \nYamaha \nJenis mesin \n4 \nStroke, \nSOHC \ndengan Air Cooled \nSistem \nbahan \nbakar \nKarburator \nBore x Stroke \n50mm x 49.5mm \nPemindahan \n97,1 cc \nKompresi \n9.0: 1 \nKekuatan \npenuh \n7.3 PS pada 8000 rpm \nMax Torque \n0,74 \nkgf.m \npada \n6.000 rpm \nTahap percobaan \n Dalam penelitian ini menggunakan dua \nlangkah eksperimental, yaitu persiapan dan \nlangkah-langkah pengujian. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \nNOZEL Volume 02 Nomor 01, Februari 2020, 57 – 61 \nDOI :` https://doi.org/10.20961/nozel.v1i3.50764 \n59 \nTahap Persiapan \nPemasangan Magic ring di lakukan \ndengan cara melepas exhaust manifold \nkemudian magic ring di pasng di antara \nexhaust manifold dengan silencer gas buang. \n \n \n \n \n \n \nGambar 2. Magic ring \nBahan bakar \nRON 90 minyak adalah jenis baru bahan \nbakar minyak (BBM) yang diproduksi oleh \nPertamina. RON 90 diproduksi dengan \nmenambahkan aditif untuk proses kilang \nminyak. Komposisi RON 90 adalah 10% \nheptana dan 90% oktan juga ditambahkan \ndengan EcoSAVE aditif. aditif EcoSAVE ini \nbukan untuk meningkatkan jumlah oktan tapi \nuntuk pembakaran lebih bersih, ramah \nlingkungan dan lebih ekonomis. [4,5] \nRON 92 minyak adalah jenis bahan bakar \nminyak \n(BBM) \nyang \ndiproduksi \noleh \nPertamina. RON 92 diproduksi dengan \nmenambahkan aditif selama proses kilang. \nMenurut data dari Pertamina RON 92 bahan \nbakar dan memiliki nilai tekanan uap antara \n45 kPa sampai 60 kPa. [5] \nRON 98 minyak adalah bahan bakar yang \nmemiliki kualitas yang lebih baik karena \nkandungan campuran di RON 98 memiliki \ntingkat tertentu. Menurut data dari Pertamina \nRON 98 bahan bakar dan memiliki tekanan \nuap antara 45 kPa sampai 60 kPa. [5] \nTahap Pengujian Tahap. \n Menyiapkan alat dan bahan \n Menyalakan mesin selama 5 menit untuk \nmencapai mesin suhu kerja \n Pengujian dengan mesin tanpa beban \n(transmisi netral) \n Memasukan 50 ml bahan bakar ke dalam \ngelas ukur \n Menghitung waktu dengan stopwatch \nuntuk mengetahui lamanya waktu bahan \nbakar habis \n Mematikan \nmesin \nsaat \ntes \nselesai, \nkemudian ulangi tes tiga kali dalam \nlangkah 3 dan 4. \n Mengulangi langkah 3 dan 4 untuk \npengujian RON 92 dan RON 98 bahan \nbakar \nData diperoleh dari setiap percobaan. Data \nyang dihasilkan dalam bentuk nilai konsumsi \nbahan bakar adalah volume per satuan waktu \n(ml / menit). Hasil yang disajikan dalam \nbentuk tabel dan grafik yang disertai dengan \npenjelasan tentang hasil tes konsumsi bahan \nbakar pada mesin sesudah pemasangan magic \nring. Data dari tes ini akan dibandingkan \ndengan tingkat konsumsi bahan bakar \nsebelum menggunakan magic ring. Hasil data \nakan dianalisis lebih lanjut untuk menjawab \npernyataan masalah. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \nNOZEL Volume 02 Nomor 01, Februari 2020, 57 – 61 \nDOI :` https://doi.org/10.20961/nozel.v1i3.50764 \n60 \nAnalisis \ndata \nberdasarkan \npengujian \nkonsumsi bahan bakar. Alat yang digunakan \nadalah magic ring yang di pasang pada \nexhaust manifold Analisis data dilakukan \ndengan menggambarkan pengaruh alat magic \nring pada konsumsi bahan bakar mesin \nC. PEMBAHASAAN \nKonsumsi bahan bakar \nDalam penelitian ini pengambilan data \ndilakukan dengan cara membandingkan data \nkonsumsi bahan bakar sesudah dan sebelum \ndipasang magic ring pada Exhaust manifold, \ndata tersebut antara lain.: \nTabel 1. Sebelum dan sesudah di pasang \nMagic ring \nRPM \nSebelum di pasang magic ring \nPertalite \npertamax \nPertamax \nturbo \n1500 \n3,5113009 3,590674 3,63019463 \n \n3,017226 \n3,323341 3,42365487 \n3,2799818 \n3,481159 3,43902439 \nRata-\nRata 3,27611497 3,465058 3,49762463 \nRPM \nSesudah di pasang magic ring \nPertalite \npertamax \nPertamax \nturbo \n1500 2,7261802 \n2,831227 2,70160017 \n \n2,4101230 \n2,635211 2,87368110 \n2,5779013 \n2,690073 2,82019349 \nRata-\nRata 2,5714015 \n2,718837 2,82019349 \nBerdasarkan hasil tes pada tabel 3, \nkonsumsi bahan bakar setelah pemasangan \nmagic ring mengalami penurunan . hal ini \nmembuktikan bahwa pemasangan Magic ring \npada Exhaust manifold dapat mengurangi \nkonsumsi bahan bakar, dan rata rata konsumsi \nbahan bakar sebagai berikut. \nTabel 2. Rata rata konsumsi bahan bakar \nml/menit \nPada tabel 2 dapat dilihat bahwa tingkat \npenurunan konsumsi bahan bakar tiap jenis \nbahan bakar memiliki perbedaan pada bahan \nbakar jenis pertalite mengalami penurunan \nsebesar 0,7 ml/menit, pertamax mengalami \npenurunan konsumsi bahan bakar sebesar 0,75 \nml/menit dan penurunan bahan bakar jenis \npertamax turbo sebesar 0,67 ml/menit, \nsehingga dapat di hasil kan presentase sebagai \nberikut. \n \n \nRP\nM \nSebelum di pasang magic ring \n \npertalite \nPertama\nx \nPertamax \nturbo \n1500 \n3,2761149\n7 \n3,46505\n8 \n3,4976246\n3 \n \n \n \n \nRP\nM \nsesudah di pasang magic ring \npertalite \nPertama\nx \nPertamax \nturbo \n1500 2,5714015 \n2,71883\n7 \n2,8201934\n9 \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \nNOZEL Volume 02 Nomor 01, Februari 2020, 57 – 61 \nDOI :` https://doi.org/10.20961/nozel.v1i3.50764 \n61 \nTabel 3. presentase penurunan konsumsi \nbahan bakar setelah pemasangan magic ring \nPERTALITE \n23,3% \nPERTAMAX \n21,5% \nPERTAMAX TURBO \n19,4% \n \n \nGambar 2. Perbandingan konsumsi bahan \nbakar sebelum dan sesudah pemsangan \nmagic ring \nD. KESIMPULAN \nBerdasarkan pembahasan hasil penelitian \nyang \ntelah \ndilakukan, \nada \npengaruh \npemasangan \nMagic ring \npada \nexhaust \nmanifold yamaha vega rr 2014. Hasil \npengujian menunjukan penurunan konsumsi \nbahan bakar setelah pemasangan alat magic \nring. setiap bahan bakar memiliki presentase \npenurunan konsumsi bahan bakar yang \nberbeda. Penurunan konsumsi bahan bakar \nterbesar terjadi pada bahan bakar jenis \npertalite RON 90 dengan penurunan konsumsi \nbahan bakar sebesar 23,3% kemudian di ikuti \noleh pertamax dengan RON 92 dengan \npenurunan konsumsi bahan bakar sebesar \n21,5% dan terakhir pertamax turbo RON 98 \ndengan penurunan konsumsi bahan bakar \nsebesar 19,4%. \nDAFTAR PUSTAKA \nArend, Bpm., Berenschot. 1980. Motor \nBensin. Jakarta : Airlangga. \nAris.M. 2002. Motor Bakar Torak. Bandung: \nITB. \nBugis.H. 2014. Motor Bakar. Surakarta: UNS \nPRESS \nC.Krishnara, S. Rajesh dan N.Subranami. \n2018. Analysis of Exhaust manifold to \nimprove the engine performance. \nKristanto.2015.Motor \nBakar \nTorak.Jakarta:Balai Pustaka \nWallace \nAlan.1982.The \n200mpg \nCarburator.Texas:Premier Publisher. \nBadan Pusat Statistik. 2019. Perkembangan \nJangka Waktu Kendaraan Bermotor * \nMenurut Beroperasi 1949 - 2017. \nhttps://www.bps.go.id/linkTableDina\nmis/view/id/1133 \nPalani \nS,Ganapaty \nSrinivasan \ndan \nShanmugan.2017.Flexsibleswivelflan\nge in exhaust manifold. \nS Yan, Y., Liu, Y., Wang, Y., Li, J., & Cai, W. \n2016. \nStudi \neksperimental \nkarakteristik penguapan bahan bakar. \nBahan \nbakar, \n169,33-40. \nhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.\n12.001"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Numerical study (CFD) analyzing the Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) effect on fuel flow hydrodynamics. The objective is to model the magnetic field's impact on fuel properties (viscosity, atomization) prior to injection [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Simulation informatique pour comprendre comment le champ magnétique modifie la façon dont le carburant circule dans l'injecteur, ce qui est crucial pour l'atomisation."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Experiment analyzing the combustion of biodiesel droplets (Avocado seed oil) under the influence of an N52 magnet (1124.7 Gauss). The study quantified flame temperature variation and combustion rate based on field orientation (N-S/S-N), demonstrating the magnetic field's influence on biofuel combustion kinetics [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "La combustion du biodiesel est influencée par l'orientation du champ magnétique, le champ modifiant la façon dont le carburant brûle pour l'optimisation énergétique."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "403 Forbidden Request forbidden by administrative rules."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Modeling the influence of magnetic fields on the combustion front during underground coal gasification, aiming to intensify the conversion process [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est utilisé pour intensifier le processus de gazéification souterraine du charbon."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study using a 3000 Gauss magnetic field to improve AFR. Magnetic treatment reduced CO and increased CO2, signaling more complete combustion [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 3000 Gauss améliore le mélange air-essence."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Experimental study of premixed combustion of Jatropha and cotton oil under different repulsive magnetic field orientations, analyzing flame geometrical changes and stability.", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est testé pour stabiliser la combustion de mélanges de biocarburants par modification des fluides."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on scale inhibition in thermal equipment by constant magnetic field. Treatment reduces fouling (salt deposits) up to 5.2 times by modifying the crystalline structure of salts [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est efficace pour prévenir le tartre dans les chaudières, prolongeant ainsi la durée de vie des équipements."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "The current research has investigated the effects of magnetic fields on molecular structures, especially on flame formation, flame behavior and emission gases. This study particularly examines the phenomenon of combustion instability and emission characteristics of CH4 and CH4/H2 fuels under lean combustion conditions and under external acoustic forcing. Conducted within a combustor utilizing premixing and swirl techniques, experiments strategically generated magnetic fields in specific regions: the burner input, pre-mixer, and fuel supply lines. Trials maintained a constant magnetic field intensity of 3500 gauss, with a thermal output of 3 kW, swirl number of 1, and equivalency ratio of 0.7. Evaluation of acoustic resonance was performed at 95 Hz and 175 Hz frequencies within the combustion chamber. Findings suggest that applying a magnetic field positively impacts the combustion process, reducing instabilities in fuels like CH4 and CH4/H2, especially at a 95 Hz frequency. During pure methane combustion, CO emissions initially measured 4785 ppm but decreased to 4143 ppm under the magnetic field's influence. Introducing the magnetic field to the pre-mixer increased CO emissions to 4233 ppm, while its application to the fuel line reduced emissions to 4104 ppm. For the CH4/H2 fuel mix, CO emissions decreased from 2638 ppm to 1961 ppm with the magnetic field, indicating improved combustion and reduced pollutant gases, including CO and NOx. This study highlights the potential of magnetic fields to improve combustion efficiency and address environmental concerns.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Characterization of the effect of magnetic field induction on a premixed flame fueled by ethanol. Measurements aim to evaluate the field's impact on flame characteristics and soot morphology, which is fundamental for optimizing burners using oxygenated fuels [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Recherche visant à comprendre comment le magnétisme influence la combustion de l'éthanol, pour l'optimisation des brûleurs ou des moteurs."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "ResearchGate - Temporarily Unavailable Connection issue We're experiencing a technical problem connecting to this page. Please try again later. Access denied You do not have access to www.researchgate.net. The site owner may have set restrictions that prevent you from accessing the site. Ray ID: 98e609d5afc1e232 Timestamp: 2025-10-14 09:27:00 UTC Your IP address: 79.93.83.165 Requested URL: www.researchgate.net/publication/371207534_Characterization_of_Premixed_Flames_with_Ethanol_Fuel_affected_Magnetic_Field_Induction Error reference number: 1020 Server ID: FL_950F39 User-Agent: python-requests/2.32.3 Ray ID: 98e609d5afc1e232 Client IP: 79.93.83.165 © ResearchGate GmbH. All rights reserved."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~8000 Gauss ; magnetic field ~15.5 Tesla ; thermal efficiency +10.0 % ; CO -8.33 % ; smoke/soot -27.8 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Des chercheurs ont utilisé un aimant (8000 Gauss) pour améliorer la combustion d'un mélange de diesel et d'huile fabriquée à partir de vieux pneus. Grâce à ce traitement, l'efficacité du moteur a augmenté de 10%. Les émissions de CO et de fumées noires ont diminué. L'objectif est de rendre ce type de biocarburant plus performant."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Analysis of the combustion characteristics of Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel droplets exposed to an intense magnetic field (up to 11,000 Gauss). The magnetic effect influences flame stability and increases combustion temperature [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant puissant (11000 Gauss) affecte la combustion des gouttelettes de biodiesel, augmentant l'efficacité."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Just a moment... Enable JavaScript and cookies to continue"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on the characteristics of premixed flames subjected to magnetic induction, analyzing the influence on temperature and soot formation [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est un outil de contrôle de la combustion des flammes prémélangées."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study of magnetic induction (470 Gauss) on a 2-cylinder SI engine. SFC reduction of 8.48%, BTE increase of 8.06%, and CO (8.89%) and HC (28.52%) reductions [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "En installant un aimant (470 Gauss) sur le tuyau d'essence d'un petit moteur (650 cc), le moteur a consommé moins d'essence. Les hydrocarbures non brûlés ont chuté de plus de 28,52%."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Experimental study on the combustion characteristics of Nyamplung biodiesel droplets under a magnetic field, analyzing the influence on temperature and soot formation [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est utilisé pour améliorer la combustion des gouttelettes de biocarburant."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study context (ID 1357) combining fuel vaporization (GVT) and magnetic application to optimize combustion in an SI engine, aiming for better energy efficiency [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le dispositif combine la vaporisation de l'essence et un champ magnétique pour optimiser l'efficacité du moteur."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Type of contribution: Editorial Mechanical Engineering Research Paper for Society and Industry Case Study Review Paper Vol. 2, No. 2 (2022) pp 98-106 Scientific Data https://doi.org/10.31603/mesi.7075 Report of Tech. Application Effect of gasoline vaporizer tube (GVT) with magnetic field on spark-ignition engine: Investigation, discussion, and opinion Rani Anggrainy1,2, Wegie Ruslan1, Dede L. Zariatin1*, Ramon A. Gilart3, Thaer Syam4,5 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Pancasila Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia 3 National Center for Applied Electromagnetism, Universidad de Oriente, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba 4 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, 3003 TAMU, United States 5 Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar [email protected] This article Highlights: contributes to: • The performance of a gasoline vaporizer tube (GVT) with a magnetic field on a single cylinder spark- ignition engine was studied. • Changes in the arrangement of the hydrocarbon molecules in the fuel due to the influence of the magnetic field have been discussed. • The results of this investigation provide new insights for potential users of GVT. • Further testing with a standard driving cycle by considering the total fuel consumption is needed. Abstract Applying magnetic fields to improve the arrangement of hydrocarbon molecules in fuel lines have been continuously studied in recent decades. However, scientific reports regarding the application of a magnetic field integrated with a gasoline vaporizer tube (GVT) on engine performance have not been widely discussed. Therefore, this article presents an investigation of the application of GVT with magnetic field on a single cylinder gasoline engine with three different fuel qualities, including RON88, RON92, and RON98. Torque, power, emissions and fuel consumption have been tested for scientific opinion. The results of our present investigation seem to confirm the claims of Article info GVT inventors, where GVT increases engine torque and power, reduces CO and HC content in Submitted: exhaust gases, and reduces fuel consumption. However, without considering the supply of gasoline 2022-05-21 and air from the GVT to the engine is an unfair analysis. In fact, although the established theories Revised: reveal the benefits of applying a magnetic field to the fuel line, in this case, only a small part of the 2022-07-23 fuel is induced by the magnetic field, outside the main line from the tank to the injectors. Finally, Accepted: the results of this investigation provide new insights for potential users of GVT, which is currently 2022-08-15 commercially available. Keywords: Magnetic field; Hydrocarbon molecules; Gasoline vaporizer; Engine performance 1. Introduction This work is licensed under Combustion performance in internal combustion engines (ICE) can be improved by correcting a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 the mixture of fuel and air molecules, one of which is using a magnetic field intervention in the fuel International License lines. Studies on magnetic field effects for gasoline and diesel engines were intensively discussed [1]–[10]. A Gasoline Vaporizer Tube (GVT) equipped with a magnetic field was also introduced to Publisher the market as a power booster. The inventor claims that GVT can decompose gasoline ions by Universitas Muhammadiyah intervening with powerful ferromagnetic neodymium to increase engine power and reduce Magelang emissions. However, scientific data is not yet openly available as a reference for academia, Mechanical Engineering for Society and Industry, Vol.2 No.2 (2022) 98 Rani Anggrainy, et al. industry, and related communities. Therefore, this article presents evaluations and opinions as scientific references through an experimental study on a single-cylinder gasoline engine. The GVT is inspired by performance enhancer technologies such as induction system technology, the hydrocarbon crack system (HCS) technology, octane booster, and the treatment of fuel with magnetic fields. The induction system was introduced by Hata et al. [11] and has been widely used since 1980 for two-stroke engines [12]. It is a simple modification of the intake system, eliminating the \"torque bend\" problem, and has been shown to improve engine performance and reduce fuel consumption [13]. Recent inventions such as double chambers in the intake system and each have a filter, wherein the induction system can be adjusted [14] and research related to induction systems is still popular today [15]–[17]. Apart from the induction system, HCS is another technology used to optimize combustion processes and reduce emissions. In HCS, regular grade gasoline is broken down by a hydrocarbon converter consisting mainly of propane, propylene, butane, and pentane. HCS technology eliminates chemical elements that can be a source of harmful fumes that form in conventional engines [18]. Abdillah & Sugondo [19] investigated the fuel consumption of a car engine when using HCS and claimed there were savings of up to 50% at 700 rpm and 61% at 2500 rpm. Meanwhile, Suryono et al. [20] analyzed the fuel temperature in the HCS reactor and its effect on emissions in a Toyota 4AFE engine. They claimed a significant reduction in HC and CO emissions when the HCS was operated at 80 °C and 100 °C, respectively. On the other hand, installing a magnetic field pack before the injector can increase combustion efficiency and reduce exhaust gas pollutants [21]. The magnetic field is usually generated from a permanent magnet or an electromagnet coil. Sahoo and Jains [22] used permanent magnets made of an alloy of neodymium, iron, and boron. They placed them in three different locations from the combustion chamber of a diesel engine. Placing a magnet near the combustion chamber reduces 4% of brake-specific fuel consumption. It increases 4% of brake thermal efficiency for clean diesel engines. Another study conducted by Govindasamy & Dhandapani [23] claims the strong magnetic field in the fuel line reduces carbon monoxide emissions by 13%. Meanwhile, Faris et al. [24] investigated CO and HC when the engine used four Gaussian permanent magnets and found that the properties of the fuel changed when exposed to a magnetic field, with CO and HC reductions of 30% and 40%, respectively. Abdel-Rehim and Attia [25] proved their curiosity regarding the strength of the magnetic field in the fuel system, and their research confirmed that there was a significant reduction in fuel consumption and major pollutants. Studies on magnetic field effects for gasoline and diesel engines are ongoing discussions to date, with research variables being developed [2]–[8], [26]. There are many devices related to the magnetic field to change the arrangement of the hydrocarbon molecules in the fuel line, both for spark ignition engines and compression ignition engines [3], [27]–[31]. From the available literature, a magnetic field device is installed in the main fuel system where all the fuel entering the engine passes through the magnetic field. In our present study, a magnetic field is implemented in the fuel booster device and only a small amount of vaporized gasoline is affected by the magnetic field. Until this article was written, scientific reports regarding applications of GVT with magnetic field treatment on engine performance were very limited. Therefore, this experiment was conducted to provide evidence on the application of GVT with magnetic field treatment on engine performance, fuel consumption, and exhaust emissions. 2. Methods 2.1. Gasoline vaporizer tube (GVT) and tested engine This research was conducted on a Yamaha 155 cc engine, with the specifications presented in Table 1. Three tests were carried out: a performance, road, and exhaust emissions test. The GVT consists of three main parts: a 100 cc cylinder with a level indicator, a circulation tube for air and gasoline vapor, and two neodymium iron Table 1. Parameter Specification boron (NdFeB) permanent magnets Yamaha NMax Engine type : Liquid cooled 4-stroke which are placed at the bottom tube as specification [32] Number of cylinders : Single cylinder shown in Figure 1. The top of the GVT is Diameter x Stroke : 58.00 mm x 58.7 mm equipped with three channels, where Compression ratio : 10.5: 1 the first channel is to capture ambient Maximum power : 11.1 kW/8000 rpm air, the second channel is to put gasoline Maximum torque : 14.4 Nm/6000 rpm from the fuel tank into the vaporizer Mechanical Engineering for Society and Industry, Vol.2 No.2 (2022) 99 Rani Anggrainy, et al. tube, and the third channel is to supply a mixture of gasoline and air to the induction system. The GVT was mounted on a tested motorcycle as shown in Figure 2. 2.2. Setup experiment As shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, the GVT is an auxiliary device that is installed stand alone on the induction system and is not installed to cut the main fuel line. Four different fuel operations were tested. The first experiment was carried out without GVT. The other three experiments were equipped with GVT involving three Fuel types, including RON88, RON92, and RON98. The Fuel was carefully injected into the GVT tank at a certain volume. To ensure that the increase in engine performance is not affected by fuel quality, we used RON98 for testing without GVT. Engine performance testing was carried out on the chassis dynamometer which was integrated with the Dyno-Max, Land & Sea software to obtain engine speed, torque, and power. Engine torque and power were recorded from 4500 rpm to 9800 rpm, at 100 rpm intervals. A road test was conducted with drivers who weighed 55 kg to get data on fuel consumption. The motorcycle tank was filled with one Figure 1. liter of gasoline and driven at 40 - 60 Gasoline Vaporizer km/h until the Fuel was empty. The Tube (GVT) distance was recorded to get the actual fuel consumption. The exhaust emissions were measured by a Tecnotest Type Stargas 898 OIML CLASS 0. It measured the concentration of HC, CO, CO , and O in the exhaust gas 2 2 and the air-fuel ratio (λ). The tests were performed at idle speed. The room temperature during the tests was in the range of 25-31 ᵒC. The test was executed four times for each variation to get accurate data. The data were validated, compared, Figure 2. and analyzed using paired t-test GVT installation on statically analysis with a 0.05 two- tested motorcycle tail level of confidentiality. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Engine performance Figure 3a and Figure 3b present engine torque and power using four fuel variations. The black, red, blue, and green lines represent engine performance without GVT, GVT+RON88, GVT+RON92, and GVT+RON98, respectively. Maximum torque and power without GVT reach 11 Nm at 5000 rpm and 9.246 HP at 8100 rpm, respectively. The GVT+RON98 has the highest power and torque. Maximum torque reaches 11.6 Nm at 5000 rpm, and maximum power reaches 9.942 HP at 8400 rpm. It increases torque and engine power by 5.5% and 7.5% compared to without GVT, respectively, both of which use RON98. In the GVT+RON88 application, it produces a maximum torque of 10.9 Nm at 5200 rpm and a maximum power of 9.483 HP at 8100 rpm. Maximum power with GVT+RON88 increased by 2.6% compared to engine power without GVT, although it was lower Mechanical Engineering for Society and Industry, Vol.2 No.2 (2022) 100 Rani Anggrainy, et al. than GVT+RON92 and RON98. Engine power with GVT+RON88 was 4.8% lower than GVT+RON98 and 2.1% of GVT+RON92. On the other hand, engine torque with GVT+RON88 is 6.4% lower than GVT+RON98 and 5.8% more than GVT+RON92. The increase in power on the use of GVT+RON98 against GVT+RON88, it is possible to be influenced by higher octane. Increasing the octane rating will generally improve combustion performance due to its resistance to knocking symptoms. However, it is also very dependent on the compression ratio and combustion chamber temperature. Research on the effect of octane number on engine performance has long been investigated in various combinations with related variables, and many researchers have proven that octane number has a positive effect on engine performance [33]–[36]. In certain cases, different results were found in the study of Saud et al. [37]. The results of this study seem to show the benefits of using GVT because the torque and power of the engine without GVT and RON98 is lower than that of GVT+RON88, the lowest quality fuel we used in this study. (a) (b) Figure 3. Effect of GVT on engine performance: (a) torque and (b) power Furthermore, statistical tests were carried out to ensure that the engine performance test results showed significant differences before and after the GVT application. The two-tail paired t- test was used to validate and analyze each engine's torque and power. Before the paired t-test, the normality and outlier tests were conducted to prove that the data are normally distributed and that there is no significant outlier. Figure 4 and Figure 5 show the paired t-test results using Minitab for the engine without GVT and the engine equipped with GVT+RON98. The Figure 4. confidence level was 95% using The result of paired t-test 54 data. It shows a significantly for engine torque higher engine power when using GVT+RON98 (8.991± 0.827 HP) compared to the engine without using GVT (8.262±0.732 HP) with a t-value = 20.53 and P-value ≤ 0.25. The results of this statistical test confirm a feasible difference in Figure 5. The result of paired t-test torque and power from a technical point of view. for engine power 3.2. Fuel consumption Figure 6 presents the results of the fuel consumption test in this study. The fuel consumption of tested vehicles with GVT and without GVT was evaluated in actual operation at the same speed, and distance travelled. As is known, there are at least two methods to measure fuel consumption, by standard procedures in the chassis dynamometer and by real tests on the road. Tests on the chassis dynamometer with standardized test procedures were reported by many researchers [37]– [39], and one of the real test methods on the road was carried out by Nguyen Duc [40] on the LPG Mechanical Engineering for Society and Industry, Vol.2 No.2 (2022) 101 Rani Anggrainy, et al. application for a motorcycle. We chose the real operation method to represent the actual result, although the uncertainty of this method is greater. The results of our current study show that the use of GVT+RON98 can reduce fuel consumption by up to 4.9%. Compared to another experiment performed by Arias et al. [1] in a compression ignition engine applying magnetic fields in the pipes that transport the diesel the fuel consumption was reduced by approximately 4.89%, which is practically equal to the result of this research. The variations in some physical- chemical properties of the diesel fuel (such as surface tension and rheological behavior) will result in more efficient atomization and smaller droplets. Thus, Figure 6. achieving a more homogeneous air-fuel Fuel consumption based mixture produces more complete on real operation mode combustion and fuel savings. 3.3. Emissions The exhaust emissions content represents a combustion process in the combustion chamber. Theoretically, complete combustion does not leave HC, CO, and O to be converted into CO and 2 2 heat of combustion. However, because the combustion process occurs dynamically and in a swift time, HC and CO are still formed. Now, not only HC and CO must be reduced but also CO 2 simultaneously to reduce greenhouse gas effects. Table 2 shows the content of CO, CO 2 , HC, and O 2 in the exhaust gas for each condition of the tested engine. The gas measurements were performed at idle speed, approximately 1500-1600 rpm. It indicates that an engine with GVT filled with higher octane gasoline would improve exhaust gas emissions. As is known, complete combustion leaves a small amount of CO and HC. In this study, in addition to reducing CO and HC, CO reduction was 2 also found but increased O . In the current analysis, considering the GVT construction as presented 2 in Figure 1, the vaporized fuel and ambient air are added through the channel in the GVT cap, where ambient air enters the GVT tube. Theoretically, the decrease in the HC and CO emissions when the GVT with the magnetic field is used shows that with this technology, complete combustion is achieved because the process is more efficient. The reduction in CO emissions is due to the 2 reduction in fuel consumption obtained with this technology, as demonstrated in the research developed by Arias et al. [1]. However, in reality, there is a reduction in fuel in the GVT which is converted into vapor (see Figure 2), which means there is additional fuel to the engine apart from the main fuel system, from the tank to the injectors. The final results as shown in Table 2, cannot be used as a reference by normal analysis because the oxygen sensor provides information based Table 2. Test Condition CO (%) CO (%) HC (ppm) O (%) on the remaining oxygen content in 2 2 the exhaust gas to control the Exhaust gas Without GVT 0.426 3.06 58 15.83 content injection volume through the ECU, GVT+RON88 0.209 2.98 68 16.02 whereas in this experiment, the GVT+RON92 0.171 0.76 15 17.96 amount of vaporized gasoline from GVT+RON98 0.211 0.59 30 18.24 the GVT is not controlled by ECU. 3.4. Establish theories Hydrocarbons are well known for their long-branched geometric chains of carbon atoms. This tends to fold over on itself and adjoining molecules; this is due to the intermolecular electromagnetic attraction that exists between them. When exposed to an external magnetic field, fuel molecules are usually excited, causing more reorientation to accommodate the applied external magnetic field. This phenomenon is explained by the fact that at the molecular level, a spinning electron absorbs a specific amount of electromagnetic energy and spin-flips into an aligned state [41]. The interaction of the magnetic field with the hydrocarbon molecules and oxygen molecules of the Fuel makes the magnetic treatment effective. Their physical attraction forms a pseudo-solid compound that can be associated and form a stable structure. Without magnetic field interference, the quality of mixing of Fuel and air molecules occurs along the intake manifold, resulting in Mechanical Engineering for Society and Industry, Vol.2 No.2 (2022) 102 Rani Anggrainy, et al. incomplete combustion and finally forming carbon and carbon monoxide particles as combustion residues. By interfering with the magnetic field on the fuel line, the originally naturally occurring polarization of the hydrocarbon fuel is made possible by applying external force by the magnetic field. The application of the magnetic fields causes the loss of fixed valence electrons which are responsible for the bonding process of hydrocarbon fuels. These conditions help create a free association of the fuel particles. They become aligned in a magnetic dipole that does not need to form new hydrocarbon chains but arranges the bonds in such a way that they repel each other and make room for the entry of oxygen molecules [42]. Through the threat of a magnetic field, the hydrocarbon fuel molecules are subjected to a declustering process, making the very small particles more rapidly penetrated by oxygen, which leads to better combustion [43]. Figure 7 shows the para and ortho-hydrocarbon states before and after magnetic treatment of the Fuel, where the hydrogen molecules have opposite spins; as a result, they stick together [42]. After passing through magnetic fields, the polarity changes, and they start to rotate in the same direction resulting in a repulsive force. When Fuel passes through a magnetic field formed by powerful permanent magnets, the hydrocarbon molecules shift orientation (para to ortho). At the same time, the intermolecular force is much reduced. This process aids in oil particles' dispersion and fine division [27]. It allows oxygen Figure 7. molecules to gain a place in the chain Oxygen molecules clings and therefore causes complete on to hydrocarbon combustion [44]. As shown in Table 2, molecules after magnetic the magnetic field interference in the treatment: (a) para- GVT significantly reduced CO, HC, and hydrogen and (b) ortho- CO emissions for all tested fuel hydrogen at time of 2 combustion [42] qualities. 4. Conclusion The data from this investigation seems to provide benefits regarding the application of GVT on engine performance, emissions, and fuel consumption, as claimed by the inventor. Torque and engine power tested using the same fuel quality increased by 5.5% and 7.5%, respectively. Paired t test method on all test samples showed a significant difference using GVT with 95% confidence level. In addition, the application of GVT with a magnetic field reduces the CO and HC content in exhaust emissions. The results of the fuel consumption test using the actual driving method also show significant fuel savings of up to 4.9%. Although the established theories explain the benefits of applying magnetic fields to the fuel line, they are not representative in this case. Keep in mind that the GVT is an auxiliary device, not all gasoline that is fed into the engine passes through the magnetic field on the fuel line. That means, there is additional gasoline supplied to the engine, apart from the injectors. Therefore, the claims of improved performance, reduced emissions and fuel consumption by the inventors are unfair if gasoline supplies from GVT are not included in the analysis. Differences in results are possible if the mass flow rates of gasoline vapor and ambient air from the GVT are considered. The results of this investigation provide new insights for potential users of GVT, which is currently commercially available. For more valid results, it is necessary to carry out further testing with a standard driving cycle on the dynamometer by considering the total fuel consumption. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the inventor of the GVT (initials P.T.) used in this study, for useful discussions during the research and writing of this manuscript. Authors' Declaration Authors' contributions and responsibilities - The authors made substantial contributions to the conception and design of the study. The authors took responsibility for data analysis, interpretation, and discussion of results. The authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding – No funding information from the authors. Availability of data and materials - All data are available from the authors. Mechanical Engineering for Society and Industry, Vol.2 No.2 (2022) 103 Rani Anggrainy, et al. Competing interests - The authors declare no competing interest. Additional information – No additional information from the authors. References [1] R. A. Gilart, M. R. B. Ungaro, C. E. A. Rodríguez, J. F. F. Hernández, M. C. Sofía, and D. D. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "The Strength of permanent magnets was used to improving the combustion of gasoline fuel results better performance of IC Engine by reducing exhaust emission up to certain level. The strong magnetic field was applied on fuel inlet pipe and manifold of four stroke gasoline engine and fuel flow through the pipes is under the influence of permanent magnetic effect. These experiments were frequently conducted at the different RPM and loads on engine. It has been observed that very fine droplets of fuel gives more atomization and decreases viscosity of fuel before entering into combustion chamber. Incomplete combustion of fuel occurs because of rich air–fuel mixture supplied to the combustion chamber. Because of strong and stable structure of fuel proper amount of oxygen was not provided during combustion of fuels results in excess emission of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides through exhaust causes more pollution for the atmosphere. Strong permanent magnetic flux around the fuel pipe will changes the steady fuel structure to improve air–fuel mixture and completely combines with oxygen. Ortho state divided gasoline fuel into finely particle having less intermolecular forces results to enhance in atomization for maximum burning of fuel. By applying permanent magnetic field and non-magnetic field around the gasoline fuel pipe it has been observed and comparing the results of combustion shows SI Engine generates more energy per specific volume of gasoline fuel and minimizes the atmospheric pollution under the influence of magnetic effect on fuel. The overall observations gives magnetic effect treatment on gasoline fuel improved fuel burning efficiency, decreases fuel consumption (Habbo ARA, Khalil RA, Hammoodi HS (2011) Effect of magnetizing the fuel on the performance of s.i. engine, Al-Rafidain Engineering, 19(6):84–90) [6] and reduction in exhaust pollutants.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on emission reduction and combustion efficiency improvement in an SI engine via magnetic application [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "La magnétisation vise à améliorer l'efficacité de la combustion."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at the ESRL (NOAA, Mauna Loa, HI) have risen to 413 ppm in the past 60 years as a result of addition of about 14.7 Gigatons of net CO2 to the atmosphere per year.1, 2 A fraction of the excess CO2 emissions can be utilized to synthesize carbon-based value-added chemicals (e.g.: CO, ethylene, ethanol) via the electroreduction of CO2 (ECR).3 Prior research efforts have resulted in active and selective catalysts for ECR, however, significant improvements in full cell energy requirement are still needed for ECR to be economically viable at industrial scales.4, 5 Some prior efforts have used magnetic fields as a process intensification tool to improve the electrochemical performance of water electrolysis.6\r\n\r\nThis talk will cover the use of magnetic fields in CO2 electrolysis to significantly reduce the full cell energy requirement in a gas diffusion electrode-based flow electrolyzer. We demonstrate that the application of a magnetic field leads to a reduction in cell potentials and/or increase in current densities, translating to an improvement in full cell energy efficiencies and reduction in full cell energy requirements. In a 2 M KOH solution, CO partial current densities of 468 mA/cm2 and 345 mA/cm2 were obtained at -3 V cell potential in the presence and absence of a magnetic field, respectively, corresponding to full cell energy savings exceeding 35% due to the application of a magnetic field. A combination of polarization plots and Tafel slope analysis reveals that the reduction in cell potentials and/or increase in current densities is caused by an improvement in the mass transfer of the electroactive species in the electrolyte due to the magnetohydrodynamic effect.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "The increase in the need for fuel oil is something that cannot be avoided and will continue to occur due to the large population and the increasing number of vehicles, while the supply of fuel oil is increasingly depleting. LPG is one of the right solutions to overcome this problem. With the abundance of LPG gas in Indonesia, LPG fuel becomes one of the alternative fuels from oil fuel. This is because LPG is easily available at an affordable price and is free of air pollution. The purpose of this study was to analyze the use of Pertamax and LPG fuels with the addition of a magnetic field to fuel consumption in injection motorcycle engines. This type of research uses experimental research. The object of this research is the consumption of fuel used in a certain time. The results of the research obtained by the researcher are that the converter kits are installed in free air. The result of the consumption rate of Pertamax fuel and LPG which is the fastest to run out occurs in LPG fuel. The results of the testing of the level of fuel consumption with the addition of a magnetic field decreased in both fuels, with Pertamax increasing economically by 0.08 ml / s at 2000 RPM and LPG by 0.09 ml / s at 2000 RPM, it was due to the molecular content the smaller the fuel that passes through the magnetic field so that the fuel will burn more easily.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Theoretical study on the use of an MHD insert in a combined cycle gas turbine. The objective is to improve efficiency and reduce emissions (NOx, O2) through gas ionization [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le dispositif MHD pourrait améliorer l'efficacité et réduire les émissions dans les centrales électriques à turbine à gaz."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~343333 Gauss ; magnetic field ~12.22 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Le traitement électromagnétique des hydrocarbures permet d'économiser de l'énergie en facilitant la rupture des liaisons moléculaires."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Abstract\r\nThe device described activator of motor fuels by the patent RF No. 2411074, which is facilitated by the fractional composition of gasoline, aviation and diesels fuel, rapeseed oil, as well as modification of them hydrocarbon molecules-family in the fuel. The prospects of application of the activator.\r\n\r\nActivator tested three bench motor in Russia, environmental testing of exhaust emissions of engines in Rochester Institute (USA), control hematological indicators of eight grades of gasoline and three grades of diesel fuel, tens of chromatogram fuels before and after activation, control freezing point and smoke of diesel engines. Activator generates a unique water-fuel emulsion. Chromatograms of activated diesel and gasoline fuels showed a decrease in the proportion of heavy hydrocarbons and the formation of light molecules: hexane, heptane, 3 metal-pentane to 37 %, reducing the sulphur content from 0.032 to 0.015 %, resins from 7.4 to 0.8 mg/100 ml. In gasoline, the content of octane-determining toluene increased to 16 %, in jet fuel nonane and decan to 21 %. Successful activation of biofuels.\r\n\r\nChromatographs research, bench and operational tests confirmed the irreversibility of the modification and the continuation of it after the release of fuels from the activator. Activation helps reduce the consumption of fuels by 20-27 % without reduction capacity of engine, decreasing the opacity of exhaust gases of diesel engines, toxic-ness of petrol engines, the reduced freezing point of diesel fuel, it should be cleaned of tars and sulphur compounds.\r\n\r\nStable, effective and versatile action on fuel was introduced in the activator according to the patent of Russian Federation No. 2411074. Its non-reversibility of fuels suitable for automotive, transport, aviation and liquid-propellant engines. Achieved activation is useful in the production of fuels that meet the requirements of EURO-3 and EURO-4. Activation of different petroleum products are brought to close indicators, with the selection of sulphur, with the destruction of resinous compounds, with decreasing temperature of freezing.\r\n\r\nKeywords: Activator; Mechanochemistry fuel consumption; Freezing point; Sulphur; Smoke diesels; Activation mechanism; The opposite effect of electrons\r\n\r\nIntroduction\r\nImprovement of engines in the motor industry and improve their service is very important, increases their reliability, resource, reduces fuel consumption, the harm of exhaust gases. It is solved mainly by high-tech and expensive modernization of their fuel systems.\r\n\r\nHowever, the improvement of fuel efficiency and environmental friendliness of engines can be solved more easily - the modification of fuels. For this purpose, test magnetic and electromagnetic [1], cavitation Vorobyov Yu, et al. [1,2-5], tribiotechnical processing, homogenization of fuels [1], the introduction of additives. But outside the magnetic field changes reversibly fuels, limiting such activation.\r\n\r\nAt the same time, in 1887, Mechanochemistry was revealed as a class of changes in substances under the influence of mechanical forces [1,6,7]. By 1960, the Mechanochemistry of motor oils was generalized [6]. In General, it is shown that even where there are strong bonds, their rupture by mechanical stresses above the strength limit of atomic bonds is possible [6].\r\n\r\nA consequence of Mechanochemistry, for example, in heptane is the rupture of chains with energy yield of ~419 kJ/mol Akhmatov AS [6], the appearance of free valences, radicals, for example, R-CH2 - with high reactivity, although the changes can be reversible.y\r\n\r\nMechanical activation is characterized by simplicity, low power consumption [8]. Production of motor fuels and oils from oil requires high energy costs in large-scale installations, and mechanical activation increases the depth of processing in simple equipment. Research in Mechanochemistry continues [1,6-10].\r\n\r\nMechanochemistry destroys oil fractions with the formation of low-molecular homologues, forms stable products, such as methane, hydrogen, C, destruction of resins, sulfur compounds and sulfur deposition.\r\n\r\nThe mechanism of destruction of saturated hydrocarbons is the rupture of chains, and unsaturated ones are destroyed through the formation of saturated bonds. It is possible to hydrogenate their products of destruction of the initial substance [8]. A distinctive feature of the Mechanochemistry of hydrocarbons continues outside the equipment.\r\n\r\nA significant breakthrough in the activation of fuels was the creation of an activator (RF patent No. 2411074), thanks to which the engines achieved savings of up to 31.9% of gasoline [2,3]. This is confirmed in [1], where step by step, the electro-magnetic activation of gasoline increased its calorific value by 28 %! But the implementation of the breakthrough was hampered by the lack of a clear activation mechanism.\r\n\r\nObject of Research\r\nThe object of research - the mixer-activator according to the patent of Russian Federation No. 2411074 [2,3]. The activator (Figure 1) in a cylinder 150 mm long, 30-50 mm in diameter has three chambers, is integrated into any fuel system of engines, does not require a drive, chemicals, does not reduce the life of engines.\r\n\r\nirispublishers-openaccess-engineering-sciences\r\n\r\nIn the first chamber of the activator takes place a counter-helical stirring, abrasion jets, the fragmentation of the clusters. Through the capillaries, the jets are injected into the second chamber and their cavitation is crushed. In the third chamber, the fragments of molecules are pressed through the micro foils, which continues their rupture. This ensures the irreversibility of fuel conversion - a special advantage of the activator, its uniqueness.\r\n\r\nMethods and Results of Tests of the Activator\r\nThe activator has been repeatedly checked by chromatography of various fuels, control of their consumption Vorobyov Yu V, et al. [2,3], emission of harmful gases of automotive engines, lowtemperature properties. Chromatograms of activated diesel fuel and gasoline showed a decrease in heavy hydrocarbons and the formation of lungs: hexane, geptan, 3-methyl pentane to 37 %, a decrease in sulfur content from 0.032 to 0.015 %, resins from 7.4 to 0.8 mg/100 ml. In gasoline, the content of octane-determining toluene in-creased to 16 %, in aviation kerosene nonan and decan - to 21 % [2]. Successful activation of biofuels.\r\n\r\nSuch studies with the activator were carried out\r\n• Bench tests of the KamAZ-740 and ZMZ-406 engine in July 2011 at the Military Aviation Engineering University.\r\n\r\n• At the research Institute VNIITiN in 2013 for the complex of methods of accelerated testing of petroleum products, as well as on engines, single-cylinder installations, using the methods of dam monitoring specified in the reference document on petrochemicals. The activated avtobenzines Normal-80, Regular-92, Premium-95, Super-98 according to GOST R 51106-97, gasoline AI-92 according to TU 38.001165-97, AI- 98 according to TU 38.401-58-127-95. Were tested gasoline «Superlux» and «Premium» company «Beyond Retroleum», as well as diesel fuel grades B and C, type II, fuel class 1 type I according to GOST R 52368-2005 (EN 590:2009, diesel fuel Euro).\r\n\r\n• The improved activator was tested on diesel YaMZ-236 with three different fuels for installations in the line to the injection pump and on the discharge from it [3].\r\n\r\n• The activator was tested in Rochester Institute of Technology (USA), where the decrease in sulfur content in fuels up to 50 %, resins 7-9 times, emissions in the exhaust gases: NO - up to 17 %, NO2 - up to 14 %, and CO - up to 49 %.\r\n\r\n•In 2009-2016, a dozen activators were tested on gasoline and diesel cars with a reduction in gasoline consumption to 31.9 %!\r\n\r\nResearch and Test Results\r\nStudies and tests have shown\r\na. reduction of diesel fuel consumption with the first activator samples by 26.5 and 28.6 %, and gasoline by 21.3, 27.7 and 31.9 %,\r\n\r\nb. decreases the hydrocarbon content with the number of carbon atoms more than 10, with the synthesis of light hydrocarbons (hexane, heptane, 3 n-pentane) to 20-30 %,\r\n\r\nc. sulfur content in fuels is reduced by 1.5-2 times, and resins by 9 times, the content of toxic gases is reduced by CO to 79 %, by NO, NO2 to 14 %.\r\n\r\nThe results of tests of the improved idling activator of the diesel engine YaMZ-236 (Table 1) showed a decrease in fuel consumption by 26.3 %.\r\n\r\nTable 1:Test results of the improved activator.\r\n\r\nirispublishers-openaccess-engineering-sciences\r\n\r\nFigure 2 shows an extraordinary modification of LUK Oil diesel fuel. The graphs show the red lines of the initial fraction of the number of carbon atoms, and the blue lines -the fraction after the activation of fuels.\r\n\r\nAnalysis of research results\r\nWhat are the reasons for the significant [3] increase of fuel calorific value by the activator? Note, that for burning the fuel must be dispersed to molecules, which seems to be facilitated in the activator. Further, when warming up, molecules must undergo fragmentation, the separation of hydrogen atoms, a complete gap between the carbon atoms. In parallel, the dissociation of oxygen molecules should go. Only after that the atoms of the fuel combine with atoms of oxygen. And if the dissociation of molecules of fuel and oxygen is carried out in advance, the heat of combustion will not be spent on the preparation of fuel and its calorific value will be greater than in the calorimetric bomb. This may be one of the reasons for the increase in calorific value (Table 2), which is confirmed by the increased, in comparison with liquid oil products, calorific value of oil gases, as if dispersed hydrocarbons, where there is no need to break the bonds between the carbon atoms.\r\n\r\nirispublishers-openaccess-engineering-sciences\r\n\r\nTable 2:Conversion of hydrocarbon molecules under the influence of electro-magnetic and tribochemical effects according [12].\r\n\r\nirispublishers-openaccess-engineering-sciences\r\n\r\n(Table 2) Conversion of hydrocarbon molecules under the influence of electro-magnetic and tribochemical effects according [1].\r\n\r\nThus, it can be assumed that the rupture of bonds in hydrocarbons with the formation of short - and long-lived radicals [11] reduces the cost of combustion heat for splitting molecules into atoms. And the longer the hydrocarbon chain is, the more significant the release of the energy of bonds in the chains can be (Table 3). And prof. Kanarev FM [15] emphasized that the more acts of mechano-chemistry influence on the substance, the deeper its modification. Table 3 shows that with the elongation of the molecules, the energy costs for the bonds of carbon atoms grow significantly, and by mechano-chemistry it can be isolated.\r\n\r\nTable 3:Energy bonds between the carbon atoms in hydrocarbon molecules.\r\n\r\nirispublishers-openaccess-engineering-sciences\r\n\r\nDescribes the features of the Mechanochemistry confirmed that modification of fuel continues beyond the activator according to the patent of Russian Federation No. 2411074. So, I have activated fuel source significantly increases in the mixture the proportion of activated:\r\n\r\na. in the in commercial fuel introduced 20% activated fuel (4.6% of the light fractions) and after 15 min the mixture was formed 12% of light fractions,\r\n\r\nb. similarly, if you enter 30 % activated (6,9% of light fractions) was created 39% of light fractions,\r\n\r\nc. only 27% of light fractions were detected during the introduction of 40% activated (9.2% of light fractions),\r\n\r\nd. and after entering 50 % of the activated light fractions revealed even less.\r\n\r\nThe modification of the fuels behind the activator can also be explained by the action of free radicals [11]. But are all the mechanisms of increasing the heat of combustion of activated fuels identified? Here you can rely on the modern, the greatest physicist of all time, physical-chemistry Professor Kanarev FM [12]. It is shown that for the destruction of bonds between valence electrons of atoms it is enough to spend 2,56 eV of mechanical energy, and for the thermal break it is required twice as much - 5,13 eV. Since each isolated electron for its stability must obtain a thermal photon with an energy of 2,56 eV. But after mechanical separation of the valence electrons, instead of heat, absorb the ether photon total energy of 5.13 eV. Absorbing them, the valence electrons become active, join the pieces of broken molecules, emit photons of unnecessary essential and saturate the substance with energy of 5.13 eV!\r\n\r\nSo, having spent the activator of 2.56 eV of mechanical and chemicals that saturate the substance with energy of two thermal photons of 5.13 eV or 248 kJ/mol what can be the main reason for the increase of the calorific value of fuels (Table 2 & 3) and reduction of their consumption.\r\n\r\nAnd if the connections are destroyed by resonant methods Popova NI, et al. [12], it will be possible to corner the modification of fuels, further increasing their calorific value. Confirmation of this is made in water electrolytic cells prof. Kanarev F.M. the heat transfers co-efficient value 29 000 %!!! [12].\r\n\r\nHowever, on fuel combustion prof. Kanarev F. M. expressed another: «All effects associated with an increase in the combustion pressure of fuels in closed cavities are formed not by gases, but by photons» [12]. From here it is possible to propose a dual mechanism for increasing the calorific value of purchased fuel.\r\n\r\nActivated diesel fuel also reduces the smoke of diesel engines. So, on bus NefAZ-5299-30-33 the smoke content was 3.5 m-1 (77.8 %), and with the activator – 2.7 m-1 (68.7 %). Low-temperature properties of diesel fuel L-0,05-62 GOST 305-82 tested in a climatic chamber KTV-0,08. It was revealed that commodity heating at a temperature of -30 °C completely lost its fluidity, and the activated retained its at -45 °C.\r\n\r\nConclusion\r\nFor the first time achieved a stable, efficient and versatile effect on motor fuels. Its irreversibility significantly reduces fuel consumption and can be used in their pro-duction according to EURO-4 standards.\r\n\r\nAcknowledgement\r\nNone.\r\n\r\nConflict of Interests\r\nNo Conflict of Interest.\r\n\r\nReferences\r\n(2012-2013) Development of scientific bases of technology for alternative fuels for means of rail transport: report of the Railways reg No. 01201276764. M: mechanics and technolo-gy RAS scientific Centre.\r\nVorobyov Yu V (2013) Bases of the theory of mechanical activation of liquid media. Bulletin of Tambov state technical University. Tambov 19(3): 608-613.\r\nVorobyov Yu, Dunaev AV (2016) Improving the calorific value of the motor vehicle use fuels. Tractors and farm machinery, pp. 48-50.\r\nGaniev RF (2009) Development of scientific bases for the preparation of stable water-fuel emulsions and their efficient combustion in the boiler furnaces on the principles of nonlinear wave mechanics. Research report No. 02.516.11.6072 from 25.06.2007 (Ministry of education and science of the Russian Federation). Reports of the Academy of Sciences 427(2): 15-218.\r\nGrumondz VT (2011) Treatment of hydrocarbon liquids in physical and chemical the physico-chemical phenomena in terms of bubble cavitation. Nizhny Novgorod, Bulletin University Lobachevsky’s name 4(5): 2120-2122.\r\nAkhmatov AS (1963) Molecular physics of boundary friction. Pp. 472.\r\nButyagin P Yu (1971) The Kinetics and nature of mechanochemical reactions. Advances in chemistry 40: 1935-1937.\r\nDneprovsky KS (2003) Mechanochemical transformations of petroleum hydrocarbons: Abstract of dissertation. candidate of chemical Sciences: 02.00.13. Tomsk: Institute of chemical neftesintez, pp. 24.\r\nDubinsky AM (1999) The Transformation of organic substances under the action of the mechacal stresses. Uspekhi khimii 68(8): 708-724.\r\nLyakhov NZ, Boldyrev VV (1982) The Kinetics of mechanochemical reactions. - News of the Siberian branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Ser. chem. sciences 5: 3-9.\r\nKanarev FM (2007) The Beginning of the physical chemistry of the microcosm. Eighth edition. Krasnodar: KubSAU, 753 p.\r\nPopova NI, Skubnevskaya GI, Molin Yu N, Kotlyarevsky IL (1969) Synthesis and some properties of free radicals with triple bonds. Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Ser chem 11: 2424- 2430."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "The combustion efficiency in most marine internal combustion diesel engines do not exceed (90%) so that part of the fuel does not burn and comes out with the exhaust gases, leading to increase fuel consumption and increasing emissions in the atmosphere. Therefore, several works have been made to increase the combustion efficiency engine and reduce emissions through engine exhaust. In this era of increasing fuel prices, here a device called Magnetic Fuel Energizer help us to Reduce fuel consumption in IC engines and reduces exhaust emission gases. When fuel flow through powerful magnetic field created by Magnetic Fuel Energizer, the hydrocarbons change their orientation and molecules change their configuration. Due to which molecules get realigned, and actively interlocked with oxygen during combustion to produce a mean complete burning of fuel in combustion chamber. As a result, it gives more complete burning of fuel in the combustion chamber of the engine and reduces amount of hydrocarbon, CO & NO emissions.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Measurement of the effect of a static magnetic field (3600 Gauss) on diesel fuel, showing a surface tension reduction of approximately 11.00%. This modification improves fuel atomization [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Un aimant de 3600 Gauss réduit la \"tension de surface\" du diesel de 11%, améliorant la pulvérisation en fines gouttelettes."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study of the effects of a magnetic field on a CI engine running on a Jatropha-Diesel blend, to improve the biofuel's performance [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est utilisé pour améliorer le rendement des biocarburants."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Magnetic Fuel Saver is a unique device which is an initiative toward increasing the efficiency of the traditional engines which work on petrol and diesel. This device also reduces the fuel consumption of an automobile and reduces emissions of a vehicle to a great extent. This initiative was taken by analyzing the current scenario of primary source of energy i.e. petroleum products (Petrol and Diesel specifically). Neodymium Boron magnets are just limited to refrigerators and other electronic instruments but the magnetic field produced by them is tremendously strong. If a group of Neodymium Boron magnets are clubbed together they can produce very strong magnetic field which is a necessary and sufficient condition to polarize the Petrol or Diesel which is used to propel vehicles. The magnetic field can be transferred from the magnets to the brass tubes in which the fuel is passing. This device also replaces the traditional plastic fuel lines which is also a step towards a clean and green environment. Moreover this device is maintenance free and needs to be installed in an automobile only once.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "A 5000 Gauss magnet application was tested on a single-cylinder 4-stroke SI engine. The study reports a decrease in Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC), along with reduced CO and HC emissions. However, an increase in NOx and CO2 emissions was noted, which is characteristic of hotter, more complete combustion (higher efficiency) [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'utilisation d'aimants sur la conduite de carburant a permis de diminuer la consommation, le CO et le HC, tandis que l'augmentation du CO2 et du NOx suggère une combustion plus complète et plus chaude."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "The study measured the impact of an 8000 Gauss magnetic field on the emissions of a 4-stroke single-cylinder SI engine. Experimental results demonstrated a significant reduction in Carbon Monoxide (CO) by 30.57% and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) reaching 97.00%. The simultaneous reduction in Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) by 36.08% suggests optimized combustion kinetics, possibly due to molecular ionization and realignment [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'utilisation d'un champ magnétique a permis de réduire drastiquement la pollution (HC réduit de 97%). Le champ magnétique réaligne les molécules d'hydrocarbures, permettant à presque tout le carburant de brûler."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "In this paper, the magnetic field is found to be a potential candidate to enhance the combustion behavior of hydrocarbons, when fuel flow through powerful magnetic field created by Magnetizer Fuel Energizer, the molecules realigned and actively in to locked with oxygen while combustion to produce a near complete burning of fuel combustion chamber.\r\nAbstract: Today Automobiles area in India grows fast. Use of all type of vehicles in automobiles produces pollution. It releases HC,CO,CO2 etc. toxics and produces fuels shortage, for this it is necessary to conserve it. Magnetic field is found to be a potential candidate to enhance the combustion behaviour of hydrocarbons. When fuel flow through powerful magnetic field created by Magnetizer Fuel Energizer, The hydrocarbons changes their orientation and molecules in them change their configuration. The molecules realigned, and actively in to locked with oxygen while combustion to produce a near complete burning of fuel combustion chamber. This seminar focuses on the idea of newly evolved term ‘Magnetizer Fuel Energizer’. The consequence of treating fuel with a high magnetic field is supposed to improve combustion of fuel and consequently increasing engine power as well as reducing fuel consumption.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Analysis of the effect of a magnetic field on the power and consumption of a Diesel engine running on a Jatropha-Diesel blend [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est utilisé pour améliorer le rendement d'un moteur Diesel fonctionnant avec un mélange de Jatropha."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Experimentation using an electromagnet (max 0.0286 Tesla ≈ 2860 Gauss) on a motorcycle SI engine. The strong magnetic field achieved a 10.15% SFC reduction and 47.5% maximum efficiency, attributed to magnetic resonance perfectly breaking down fuel particles.", "fr_vulgarise": "Le champ magnétique appliqué à l'essence d'une moto (Suzuki Smash) a amélioré le rendement thermique (jusqu'à 66,877% d'efficacité) et diminué la consommation. Les utilisateurs sont encouragés à adapter leur moteur pour qu'il réagisse au champ magnétique."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on the influence of magnetized biodiesel (from used cooking oil) on CI engine performance [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est appliqué pour améliorer la combustion de biocarburants issus de déchets."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~24.71 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant (920 Gauss) contrôle les flammes en manipulant l'oxygène (paramagnétique), augmentant la stabilité et l'efficacité de la combustion."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "In 21st century, to cope up with exponential technological development, use of eco-friendly conventional energy system is a critical issue. Saving of energy is nothing but production of energy. Conventional fuel used in stationary power plant an IC engine is bulk in quantity, which will not be last longer and will exhaust very soon. Stationary power plants and Automobile propelled by I.C. engines have a problem of pollutant emission in environment which mainly depends on combustion process occurs in power plant and I.C. engines. Incomplete combustion of hydro-carbon fuel/s produce very large amount of harmful emission gases resulting into smog in cities & reduces performance of the system. These systems, equipped with Internal Combustion or External combustion produces large amount of exhaust gases CO, HC and NOx like monoxides etc. Since hazardous emissions which are harmful to human life and ecosystem resulting in many types of diseases of human especially in urban areas where automobile vehicle equipped with IC engine density is very high. These emissions have effect on result in environmental cycles also. In today’s globalised world, many attempts are made to reduce intensity of hazardous emissions of an IC engine through pre processing of fuels and post processing combustion exhaust gases in IC engine by many means like MPFI, PCV, EGR, catalytic converter, supercharger, turbocharger, etc. In order to handle, these issues, additional attempt is made. This attempt uses Air conditioner/Energizer for Pre-processing air and unit developed called as Magnetic air Conditioner (MAC).A permanent magnet, magnetic air conditioner (MAC) is mounted in path of air lines. Mounting MAC in air line enhances quality of air and air molecules properties like it aligns and orientations, especially in an oxygen molecule. Better atomization of an oxygen molecule which further enters into combustion chambers of SI engine along with air. In a conventional four stroke spark Ignited engine, oxygen molecules reacts with hydro -carbon, which assist for complete combustion of hydro-carbon. Use of such Magnetic air conditioners improves performance of SI engine. The specific fuel consumption also decreases, resulting in to decrease in BSFC with increase in load. Use of MAC in engine also reduces emissions like CO, HC, ultimately resulting into reduction in smog in urban areas. The present article describes the mechanism of MAC, objectives and its effect on SI engine, such as enhanced performance parameter, various efficiencies like mechanical, brake thermal, volumetric saving in fuel, and reduced emission. One case study is presented in which ferrite magnets are used as MAC which improves performance and reduces emissions.Copyright © 2016 by ASME", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Magnetic field treatment of fuel in internal combustion engines can reduce fuel consumption, but the quantitative impact is not specified.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "This review explores the use of electromagnetic fields to influence the performance and emissions of Internal Combustion Engines (ICE). The mechanism relies on the realignment and ionization of hydrocarbon chains, increasing the surface area for oxygen contact, thus improving combustion. The paper emphasizes the need for better characterization of the magnetic interaction and combustion kinetics.", "fr_vulgarise": "La recherche confirme que l'énergie électromagnétique, appliquée au carburant, peut améliorer l'efficacité du moteur et réduire les polluants."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study context on CI engine testing using diesel and biofuels, relevant to Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'étude est un contexte sur les tests de moteur utilisant des biocarburants."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~27.41 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Idée d'utiliser des aimants pour traiter les gaz d'échappement ionisés afin de réduire la pollution."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "This experimental study analyzed the effect of a static magnetic field (up to 8000 Gauss) on the rheological properties of hydrocarbons (Diesel/Gasoline). The field application induced a decrease in kinematic viscosity, favoring molecular cluster de-clustering and improving fuel atomization. This physical mechanism is essential for optimizing the air-fuel mixture, contributing to increased thermal efficiency [123, Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Des aimants puissants (jusqu'à 8000 Gauss) ont été testés pour rendre le diesel et l'essence moins visqueux. Cette fluidité améliorée est un mécanisme clé pour obtenir une pulvérisation ultra-fine dans le moteur."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Applications, Vol 1, Issue 7,\nDecember 2013, ISSN 2320-6349\nwww.ijmca.org\nPage 94\nEffect of Magnetic Field Strength on Hydrocarbon Fuel Viscosity and\nEngine Performance\nAjaj R. Attar, Pralhad Tipole, Dr.Virendra Bhojwani, Dr.Suhas Deshmukh\nDept. of mechanical Engg. JSCOE, Dept. of mechanical Engg.SIT,\nDept. of mechanical Engg.JSCOE, Dept. of mechanical Engg.SAE, Pune university\[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]\nAbstract-\nThis paper tries to analyse experimentally effect of\nmagnetic field on hydrocarbon fuel flow. It has been\nreported that the viscosity of the flowing hydrocarbon\nfluids decreases on application of magnetic field.\nDeclustering of the Hydrocarbon fuel molecules has been\nobserved resulting in better atomization of the fuel, better\nmixing of the fuel-air mixture lowering the amount of\nun-burnt fuel and thus enhancing the thermal efficiency\nof the I. C. Engine. This improves the fuel economy of I.\nC. Engines and automobiles. The work in particular is\nvery significant on account of its impact on the global\nautomobile market resulting in lower fuel consumptions\nand hence ensuring non-renewable fuel conservation, the\ncomplete combustion of the fuel also reduces the CO\npercentages in the exhaust gases. The experiments in\ncurrent research comprise the using of permanent\nmagnets with different field intensity (2000, 4000, 6000,\n8000 Gauss), which is installed on the fuel line of the\npetrol/diesel engine in order to study its impact on\ngasoline consumption.\nIndex terms- Diamagnetism, susceptibility, IC Engine.\n1.\nINTRODUCTION\nMagnets have their own unique magnetic fields viz.\nthe invisible lines of forces which can be detected\nby a magnetic compass and measured using a\ngauss-meter.A magnetic field is set up when some\nbody, for example an iron bar magnet or the\nEarth’s core, has a lot of unpaired electrons,\nspinning in the same direction. The energy\ninfluence of these unpaired electrons is transmitted\nthrough space to affect other electrons in other\nbodies. A magnetic field extends into a finite space\n[2]. The electrons in the atoms of matter coming\ninto this magnetic field might be affected by the\nenergy of the magnetic field in a remote transfer of\nenergy.\n2.\nDIAMAGNETISM\nDiamagnetism \nis \ncharacterized \nby \nnegative\nsusceptibility. This can be understood on the basis\nof Faraday Induction acting on the orbital motions\nin atoms or ions whereby the electron is in a\ncircular motion around the nucleus. If a field is\nintroduced perpendicular to that circuit, according\nto Faraday`s law, there will be an electro-motive-\nforce acting on the electron. The EMF has the\neffect of changing the nature of the circulating\nmotion of atomic orbits.\nAs a result of this field the electron will be\naccelerated according to Newton`s Law. With an\naccelerated electron spin the behaviour is altered.\nRegardless of the radius of the electrons orbit it`s\nstability is reduced and thus the ion`s affinity for\nother stable electrons is increased. It can therefore\nbe stated that a diamagnetic ion, subsequent to\nmagnetism, displays a net positive charge or\npositive ionization. Nuclear alignment allows\nhydrocarbons (fuel) to flow more evenly and\ntherefore burn more efficiently. Positive ionization\nallows hydrocarbons (fuel) to attract and bond with\nnegatively charged oxygen. This encourages more\ncomplete carbon/oxygen bonding and therefore a\nmore complete and efficient combustion.\n3. IMPACT OF MAGNETIC FIELD ON\nHYDROCARBON FUELS (PETROL/DIESEL)\nA hydrocarbon fuel consists of molecules made\nfrom atoms of carbon and hydrogen, which are\ncollected by covalent bonds.\nNormally the two electrons in each covalent bond\nhave balanced opposite spins.Non-polar molecules\nsuch as the hydrocarbons in gasoline, diesel fuel\nand related materials presuppose such electron\nspin-balanced chemical bonds.\nConsider Diesel\nfuel with number of large\nmolecules, which are associated as incipient solids\nin the liquid mixture, being placed into a strong\nmagnetic field. The energy of the magnetic field\nwill cause opposite spinning electrons to have\nparallel spins. The molecules with the parallel spin\ncomponents will seem strange to the molecules\nnext to them and they will not as easily nestle next\neach other. Thus the solidification process will be\ninterrupted.\nSame fuel when\npumped into a combustion\nchamber already somewhat activated molecules\nwith some parallel spinning electrons, inclined to\noxidize more rapidly than the same kind of\nmolecule with all the paired electrons spinning\nopposite directions. Hence test equipment shows\nlower consumption of fuel to achieve a given\nhorsepower production.\nInternational Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Applications, Vol 1, Issue 7,\nDecember 2013, ISSN 2320-6349\nwww.ijmca.org\nPage 95\nFigure 1 Declustering of hydrocarbon molecules\n4.\nEXPERIMENTAL\nRESULTS OF\nEFFECT \nOF \nMAGNETIC \nFIELD \nON\nVISCOSITY OF FUEL (PETROL)\nCrude oil and refinery petroleum oils are all\nmixtures of many different molecules [1]. Among\nthem, some molecules are much larger than\nothers.The small ones are the majority, forming the\nbase liquid and the large ones, suspended in the\nbase liquid, are called “particles”. The viscosity of\npetroleum oil is thus clearly related to the viscosity\nof liquid suspensions.The assembled clusters are\nthus of limited size, viz. micro meters. While the\nparticle volume fraction remains the same, the\naverage size of new “particles” is increased. This\nleads to the reduction of apparent viscosity.\n4.1 Experimental Setup\n1. While performing an experiment on effect of\nmagnetic field on the viscosity on the gasoline fuel\n(petrol), 1 lit. Of the petrol is taken in the container\nbottle.\n2. The bottle is hung to certain height; the pipe\ncarrying fuel leads the fuel to the bottom where it is\ncollected in measuring flask.\n3. On opening the valve fuel flows to the flask\nthrough an orifice, time required to collect 20 ml of\nfuel in the flask is measured.\n4. An experiment is repeated 3 times for each\nreading to ensure repeatability.\n5. First reading is taken without applying any\nmagnetic field around the pipe carrying fuel and\nnext reading are taken by applying increasing\nmagnetic field strength (2000,4000,6000 gauss).\n6. The setup during all the experiments kept as it is.\nSet up is made of non-metal to ensure no residual\nmagnetic field stays from the previous experiment.\nFigure 2 Experimental setup for analysis of effect\nof magnetic field on the viscosity of petrol\n4.2 Results\nTable 1.Time required to collect 20 ml petrol in a\nflask for different magnetic fields.\nGraph 1. Magnetic field strength vs. fuel flow time\nAbove graph clearly shows that the time taken by\n20ml of fuel to collect in the flask with magnetic\nfield is less as compare to time taken without\nmagnetic field and time goes on reducing as the\nfield strength applied to fuel flow increases.\nFor the magnetic field of 2000 gauss the %\ndecrease in the requiredtime is 2.47%, for the\nmagnetic field of 4000 gauss it is 4.12% and for\n6000 gauss it is 10.30%\nSince \nthe \nflow \nrate \nincreases \nwhich\nindicatesdecrease in the fuel viscosity with increase\nin the magnetic field.\nInternational Journal of \nwww.ijmca.org\n5. EFFECT OF MAGNETIC\nONTHEPERFORMANCE OF \nENGINE.\nThe present work reports experim\napplication of magnetic field to fue\nDiesel and a Petrol engine\nconsumption rate has been measure\nreduce for the same load on app\nmagnetic field on account of better\n& air ensuring increased combustion\namount of un burnt fuel.\n5.1 Engine Specificatio\n\nType- 1 Cylinder , 4-\nEngine\n\nCooling- Water cooled\n\nPower- 5.2Kw\n\nSpeed -1500RPM\n\nDynamometerType- Eddy\nWater Cooled\n5.2 Experimental Pr\n1.Tests have been carried out \ncondition i.e. only the frictional po\nof mechanical friction offered by \ncomponents. For the fixed load tim\nthe engine to completely consume\nmeasured.\n2. Three reading were measured\ncondition to ensure repeatability \nerror in observation.\n3. After first set of reading (i.e. w\nfield applied to fuel line), engine \nmagnetic pair of 2000 gauss is co\nfuel line.\n4. Same procedure is repeated fo\nfield of 4000, 6000 and 8000 g\nrequired for consumption of 10 ml \neach case.\nFigure 3. A line diagram for the\ntesting setup\nMechanical Engineering and Computer Applicati\nDecember 2013\nC FIELD\nA DIESEL\nmental results of\nel flow line of a\n[3]. The fuel\ned and found to\nplication of the\nr mixing of fuel\nn and decreased\nons\nStroke Diesel\ny Current Type\nrocedure\nat fixed load\nower on account\nvarious moving\nme required by\n10 ml of fuel is\nd for the same\nand avoid any\nwithout magnetic\n is stopped. 1st\nonnected on the\nor the magnetic\ngauss and time\nis measured for\ne diesel engine\nFigure 4.Diesel engine testin\n5.3 Resu\nTable 2.Effect of magnetic \nfor consumption of 10 ml of\nfor fixed engine load.\nGraph 2. Magnetic field\nconsumption time\nons, Vol 1, Issue 7,\n3, ISSN 2320-6349\nPage 96\nng setup\nults\nfield on time required\nf diesel in diesel engine\nd strength vs. Fuel\nInternational Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Applications, Vol 1, Issue 7,\nDecember 2013, ISSN 2320-6349\nwww.ijmca.org\nPage 97\nGraph \n3.Magnetic \nfield \nstrength\nvs. \nfuel\nconsumption in kg/hr.\nGraph no 2 shows that the time required for 10 ml\nfuel consumption increases as the amount of\nmagnetic field strength increases. This means that\nthe fuel consumption rate decreases and it leads to\nincreased fuel economy.\nMaximum amount of change is observed at 4000\ngauss.\nIn graph no 3 shows the fuel consumption rate in\nkg/hr and it is decreases as the magnetic field\nstrength increases. It has been observed that as the\nmagnetic field increases time required for diesel\nconsumption also increases for fixed load (Up to\n4000 gauss). Beyond 4000 gauss the effect gets flat\ni.e. no further improvement is observed which\nindicates saturation of the magnetic field effect on\nperformance.\nThe diesel consumption decreases till 4000 gauss\nand deteriorates beyond 4000 gauss. Magnetic field\n4000 gauss degrades the engine performance. This\ncould be due to other effects coming in picture post\n4000 gauss field viz. viscous heating of the fuel on\naccount of very high magnetic field strength.\n6. EFFECT OF MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE\nPERFORMANCE OF THE PETROL ENGINE\nIn this experiment the performance of a petrol\nengine under the influence of magnetic field is\nshown. The performance is studied in the form of\ndistance travelled by the petrol bike for a specified\namount of the fuel when provided with and without\nmagnetic field on the fuel line.\n6.1Engine Specifications\n\nType- 1 Cylinder , 4- Stroke petrol Engine\n\nCooling- air cooled\n\nPower- 15.4 PS\n\nEngine Displacement (CC) -159.7\n\nTorque-13.1 Nm\n6.2 Experimental Procedure\n1. A motor bike is attached with an external fuel\ntank where exact 100 ml of fuel (petrol) is filled\ninto it.\n2. A fuel line taken from new fuel tank is attached\nto the engine.\n3. The bike is rode on an even consistent track for\nall the readings at constant speed and same gear\nengaged until all the fuel is consumed, initial and\nfinal readings on the speedometer are noted down\nto determine the total driven distance by the vehicle\nwith and without application of magnetic field.\n4. A magnetic field of ascending field strength is\napplied to the fuel line and the procedure is\nrepeated\n5. Distance travelled by the bike with and without\nmagnetic field is compared to analyse the effect of\nthe magnetic field.\nFigure 5.Separate fuel supply system attached to\nbike\nFigure 6.location of permanent magnet and fuel\nline\n6.3 Results\nInternational Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Applications, Vol 1, Issue 7,\nDecember 2013, ISSN 2320-6349\nwww.ijmca.org\nPage 98\nTable 3 effect of magnetic field on km run of bike\nfor 100 ml\nGraph 4. Magnetic field strength vs. km runs of\nbike\nAbove graph shows as the magnetic field strength\nincreases the mileage of a petrol bike increases.\nFor the magnetic field of 6000 gauss bike drove for\n7 km more compared to the without magnetic field\ndrive. Graph 1 also confirms the same i.e. viscosity\ndecreases till 6000 gauss, the performance\nimproves till 6000 gauss. This proves the effect of\nthe drop in viscosity on engine performance.\n7. CONCLUSIONS\nThe paper has experimentally measured effect of\nmagnetic field on hydrocarbon fuel. The viscosity\nof the hydrocarbon decreases i. e. the fuel gets\nthinner on application of magnetic field.\nThis improves the atomization of the fuel, better\nmixing ensuring complete combustion or no loss of\nenergy. This is the main reason for improving the I.\nC. Engine performance. Tests were carried out on a\nDiesel engine as well as on Petrol engine which\nconfirmed the above effect.\nAcknowledgement; The authors would like to thank\nthe students who have contributed in the reported\nwork viz. A. R. Sable, G. G. Sevekari, C. D. Raskar,\nA. B. Devi, B. R. Sagar, T. S. Kulkarni, S. A.\nPatole, S. M. Shewale, K. R. Gandhi, K. B. Ahire,\nV. Suryavanshi, H. Kale\nREFERENCES\n1. Kolandavel MANI and VelappanSelladurai,Energy\nsavings with the effect of magnetic field using r290/600a\nmixture as substitute for cfc12 and hfc134a,thermal\nscience: Vol. 12 (2008), No. 3, pp. 111-120.\n2.\nHejunGuo,\nZbizhongLiu, Yunchao Chen, Rujie\nYao,Astudy of magnetic effects on tee physicochemical\nproperties \nof \nindividual \nhydrocarbons,\nLogistical\nEngineering College, Chongqing 400042, P.RChina.\n3. Rongjia Tao, Investigate Effects of Magnetic Fields on\nFuels, Department Of Physics, Temple University,\nPhiladelphia, PA 19122,March 15, 2004."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "General study on the use of magnetic devices to reduce fuel consumption in Diesel engines [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est proposé comme solution pour l'économie de carburant diesel."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~78.1 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Un gradient magnétique a stabilisé une flamme de méthane, réduisant sa hauteur de décrochage de 53 mm à 38 mm. L'aimant manipule l'oxygène, prolongeant le temps de réaction et favorisant la stabilité de la flamme."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~1515 Gauss ; magnetic field ~100.86 Tesla ; CO -70.0 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Un gradient magnétique a stabilisé une flamme de méthane, réduisant sa hauteur de décrochage de 53 mm à 38 mm. L'aimant manipule l'oxygène, prolongeant le temps de réaction et favorisant la stabilité de la flamme."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Radware Bot Manager Captcha We apologize for the inconvenience... To ensure we keep this website safe, please can you confirm you are a human by ticking the box below. If you are unable to complete the above request please contact us using the below link, providing a screenshot of your experience. https://ioppublishing.org/contacts/ Incident ID: 332570a8-cnvj-441e-9111-55b8a5d33637"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Aggregation experiments were conducted on two kinds of fly ash particles in the size range of 0.023-9.314 μm in a gradient magnetic field produced by permanent magnetic rings. The two types of fly ash particles were obtained from Dongsheng and Datong coal combustion. The effect of particle size, total particle mass concentration, particle residence time in the magnetic field and gas velocity were examined. Experimental results showed that the removal efficiencies in a gradient magnetic field are much higher than those in a uniform magnetic field. The total and single-sized particle removal efficiencies can be improved by increasing the total particle mass concentrations and the particle residence time in the magnetic field or reducing the gas velocity. Mid-sized particle removal efficiencies are higher than those of the larger and smaller ones. With the increase in total particle removal efficiencies, the particle size corresponding to the maximum values of single-sized particle removal efficiencies and the particle number median diameters both decrease. Both the single-sized and total removal efficiencies for the particles from the Dongsheng coal combustion are higher than those from the Datong coal combustion.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "A magnetized small oil gun burning test system has been established.A great number of experiments have been conducted on the boiler's combustion efficiency,the exhaust smoke temperature,and the harmful gas emission when the fuel oil,burning-assisting wind and atomizing air were magnetized.The effect of differ- ent magnetism intensities and its regularity was discussed.The result shows that a magnetic field installed on the fuel oil pipe and burning-assisting wind pipe can improve the fuel oil's burning effect,saving energy, forming low-oxygen working condition,and lessen the environmental pollution effectively.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Numerical simulation of the effect of a magnetic gradient (30 T²/m) on an H2-O2/Air flame. LIF analysis showed that the field acts on paramagnetic O2, modifying air convection in the reaction zone and flame geometry.", "fr_vulgarise": "Le champ magnétique affecte la combustion des flammes en manipulant le mouvement de l'oxygène (qui est naturellement magnétique)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~15060 Gauss ; magnetic field ~6680020026742.0 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est testé pour améliorer l'économie de carburant diesel."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~111 Gauss ; magnetic field ~57.82 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Théorie selon laquelle les aimants affectent la combustion en agissant sur l'oxygène, modifiant la cinétique de réaction."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~687 Gauss ; magnetic field ~0.4 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "La magnétisation augmente la température de combustion."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimantation modifie la quantité d'air nécessaire à la combustion pour une meilleure efficacité."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme modifie les molécules d'hydrocarbures pour une meilleure combustion."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study analyzing the impact of magnetic flux on the diesel fuel line to improve engine performance and emission characteristics [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le champ magnétique sur le diesel vise à améliorer l'efficacité et à réduire la pollution."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Iraqi Journal of Agricultural Sciences –2024:55(5):1774-1780 Mohammed & et al. STUDYING THE EFFECT OF MAGNETIC FLUX ON DIESEL FUEL LINE ON SOME PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION OF DIESEL ENGINE M. J. Mohammed1 N. S. Kadhim2 N. J. Imran3 Researcher Assistant Prof. scientific researcher 1,2 Dept. of Agri. Mach and Equip., Baghdad. Coll. Agric. Engin. Sci., , Universit of Baghdad, 3Ministry of Science and Technology-Directorate of Environment and Water, Baghdad, E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT This study aimed to investigation was carried out to evaluate the performance and product emission of four cylinder 4- stroke water cooled direct injection (DI) diesel engine fueled by permanent magnet exposed diesel fuel compared with diesel fuel (DF). Three levels of magnet field intensity were used including Diesel fuel exposer to 3000 Gauss (DG3), Diesel fuel exposer to 5000 Gauss (DG5) and Diesel fuel exposer to 9000 Gauss (DG9) fuel respectively. Permanent magnetic device was employed and installed on fuel line before interring high pressure fuel injection pump . The engine run at constant speed 1500rpm(revolution per minute) and loaded by two levels 4.5 kW and 9 kW represented as L1and L2 respectively. Results obtained showed that fuel DG5 registered an increased in thermal efficiency(TE) about 20.09% at load L1 compared with DF. Maximum reduction in brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) about 12.12%, when using DG5 fuel at load 1 compared to DF fuel. All exhaust emission Unburned Hydrocarbon (UHC), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide (CO )Particular 2 , Maters (PM), and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) are decreased when diesel fuel treated with different magnetic intensities 3000,5000 and 9000 Gauss. Compared with conventional diesel fuel. Maximum reduction in PM,HC,NO ,CO ,and CO about 16.56-27.08%, 3.89–64.26%, 4.79–7.91%, 4.05-5.71and x 2 11.46-53.48% respectively. CO emission was increased by 1.65-4.28 at DG5 with L1 and L2 2 respectively due to the operating conditions. Key words: Internal combustion engine, Brake thermal efficiency, specific fuel consumption, Nitrogen Oxides, Greenhouse gases, energy responsible consumption نورخَاو دمحم 1780-1774:)5)55:2024 -ةيقارعلا ةيعارزلا مولعلا ةلجم لزيدلا كرحمل مداعلا تزااغو ءادلأا تراشؤم ضعب يف لزيدلا دوقو طخ ىلع يسيطانغملا قفدتلا ريثأت ةسراد نرامع لامج ريذن مظاك ناملس ريصن دمحم مساج دمحم مدقأ يملع ثحاب دعاسم ذاتسأ ثحاب ايجولنكتلاو مولعلا ةرزاو ةيعرازلا ةسدنهلا مولع ةيلك ةيعرازلا ةسدنهلا مولع ةيلك هايملاو ةئيبلا ةرئاد دادغب ةعماج دادغب ةعماج صلختسملا ضرعم لزيد دوقوب هتيذغت متي (DI) رشابملا نقحلاب لمعي ءاملاب دربم طاوشلأا يعابر لزيد كرحم تاثاعبناو ءادأ مييقتل يقيبطت ثحب ءراجإ مت سواج 3000 يهو يسيطانغملا لاجملا ةدش نم تايوتسم ةثلاث مادختسا مت .)طنغمملا ريغ( يدايتعلاا (DF)لزيدلا دوقوب هتنراقمو مئادلا سيطانغملل ىلا هلوخد لبق دوقولا طخ ىلع هبيكرتو مئاد يسيطانغم زاهج مادختسا مت .يلاوتلا ىلع (DG9) سواج 9000 و (DG5) سواج 5000 و(DG3) نلاثمي طاو وليك 9 و طاو وليك 4.5 نييوتسمب هليمحت متيو ةقيقدلا يف ةرود 1500 ةتباث ةعرسب كرحملا لمعي .يلاعلا طغضلا تاذ دوقولا نقح ةخضم L1 لمحلا دنع ٪20.09 يلاوحب (TE) ةيرراحلا ةءافكلا يف ةدايز لجس DG5 دوقولا نأ اهيلع لصحتملا جئاتنلا ترهظأ .يلاوتلا ىلع L2 وL1 ةنراقم L1 لمحلا دنع DG5 دوقو مادختسا دنع ٪12.12 رادقمب لجس(bsfc) يحبكملا يعونلا كلاهتسلاا يف ضافخنا ىصقأ . DF عم ةنراقم ديسكأ يناث ، (CO) نوبركلا ديسكأ لوأ ، (UHC) ةقرتحملا ريغ تانوبركورديهلا لثم كرحملل مداعلا تاثاعبنا تايوتسم عيمج تلجس . DF عم ، 3000 ةفلتخم ةيسيطانغم ةفاثكب لزيدلا دوقو ةجلاعم دنع اضافخنا (NOx) نيجورتينلا ديساكأو ،(PM) ةقيقدلا تاميسجلا، (CO 2 ) نوبركلا -16.56 دودحب ناك CO و CO و NOx و HC و PM يف ضافخنلال ىصقلأا دحلا .يديلقتلا لزيدلا دوقوب ةنراقم .سواج 9000 و 5000 2 ديسكأ يناث تاثاعبنا يف ةدايز تلجس نيح يف.يلاوتلا ىلع ٪53.48-11.46و 5.71-4.05 ، ٪7.91–4.79 ، ٪64.26–3.89 ، ٪27.08 ُ .ليغشتلا فورظ ببسب يلاوتلا ىلع L2 و L1 عم DG5 دنع 4.28-1.65 ةبسنب نوبركلا مادختسلاا ،ةئيفدلا تزااغلا ،نيجورتنلا ديساكا ،يحبكملا يعونلا كلاهتسلاا ،ةيحبكملا ةيرراحلا ةءافكلا ،يلخادلا قراتحلاا كرحم :ةيحاتتفلاا تاملكلا .ةقاطلل لوؤسملا Received:22/5/2022, Accepted:7/8/2022 1774 Iraqi Journal of Agricultural Sciences –2024:55(5):1774-1780 Mohammed & et al. INTRODUCTION carbon monoxide in the composition of The main functions in fuel use, including for exhaust gases decreases by 4–30% and diesel fuel, are to reduce its consumption and unburned hydrocarbons by 27–30%. The data reduce emissions of harmful substances into on the amount of nitrogen oxides differ the environment. Exhaust gases contain fundamentally. Thus, the results of study (16) unburned hydrocarbons (including polycyclic prove that the content of nitrogen oxides in the aromatic hydrocarbons that have a composition of exhaust gases increased around carcinogenic effect), soot particles, carbon 20% and there is 15%-20%reduction in fuel monoxide, etc. Fuel also may contain consumption with increasing load due to mechanical impurities that contaminate it increasing combustion chamber temperature during storage, transportation, loading and and faster air movements. Subsequently, an unloading, etc., as well as capable of causing increase in brake thermal efficiency is noted erosion, abrasive wear and engine varying between 5%-7%. There is also a malfunction. High fuel consumption worsens decrease in brake specific fuel consumption economic performance engine, increases ranging between 15%-20%., the authors of transportation costs and, consequently, (10) reported on their researches a reduction in increases the cost of all work related to the NO by up to 7.40%. The authors of (9) found x operation of transport (1, 2, 5). The portion of the CO emissions produced by the generator fuel price in the cost structure of agricultural are reduced by approximately21.3%. Authors products is about 10.4% (12 ,17), so the (1) reported that the application of magnetic improvement of fuel-saving technologies has a field registered a reduction in fuel significant economic and social effect. Many consumption is about 8% at higher load, the theoretical and applied researches have been percentage reduction in UHC and NO is about x conducted to improve the performance 30% and 27.7 % respectively. The CO indicators of internal combustion engines and emission gets reduced with the application of enhancement the combustion of fuel to reduce magnetic field at higher load. The percentage fuel consumption and harmful emissions (7). reduction in CO emissions is reduced about 2 numerous researchers have concluded that 9.72% at average of all loads with the effect of exposing fuel to a magnetic field changes its magnetic field. (7) mounted a solenoid configuration, as a result, the bonding force electromagnet on the fuel line of a single between fuel molecules and their surface cylinder diesel engine. Brake thermal tension in fuel clusters decreases, i.e., it efficiency was found to increase by at least 5% increases the internal energy of the fuel and and NOx emissions reduced by almost 44% in evenly distributes them in the flow so that fuel the process. Similar experimental set up and combustion in the internal combustion engine procedure was employed by. (7,8) and found occurs more efficient. utilizing a constant an improvement in thermal efficiency of the magnetic field for diesel fuel mentioned by engine up to 14% while reducing UBHC by many investigators. For example, in studies (3, 34%, CO and CO2 by 9% each. The scatter in 18), reported a reduction in fuel consumption the indicators of the effect of magnetic by 2–20%. An increase in the thermal treatment is explained by the fact that efficiency of the engine by 2-11% was found approaches, terminology, methods and in (8 , 16). The results obtained by authors of evaluation criteria often differ greatly, and (1) note that the effect of magnetic treatment some studies are duplicated due to insufficient revealed a reduction in fuel consumption about awareness of the authors. A rigorous 12%. Interesting results were obtained in (8) comparison of the results is difficult, since when studying the magnetic treatment of fragmentary information is given on the mixed biodiesel fuel: other things being equal, conditions of the experiments properties of as the proportion of biodiesel in the mixture hydrocarbon fuels at the moment of increased from 0 to 20%, the effect of intersection of magnetic field lines during its treatment increased several times. The density pumping, the structure and properties of the of exhaust gases is reduced by 12-30% (14). In fuel change: surface tension forces, the numerous sources (18) note that the content of solubility of oxygen increases, nuclear 1775 Iraqi Journal of Agricultural Sciences –2024:55(5):1774-1780 Mohammed & et al. polarization (especially hydrogen) increases, The experimental work was carried out by two the rate constants of the chemical reaction of engine loads variation from 4.5 kW to 9kW at combustion change (burning rate increases). constant speed of 1500 rpm. Under the influence of strong magnetic fields, complex fuel molecules change their structure Table 1. Specification of engine test. and properties, in particular, they are partially Detail of specification crushed and ionized, moving in the opposite Model J2 2701 direction of the external magnetic field (10). Make KIA On fig. 1 shows the passage of fuel through Type 4- stroke,DI,Water lines of magnetic fields intersecting between cooled Diesel Engine No. of cylinders 4 magnets. The magnetic field passing through Bore 95 mm the fuel has a density of about 6700 lines per Rated speed 1800 rpm square inch. Path length through magnetic Stroke length 95 mm fields (residence time and energy transfer) and Combustion Specification travel speed depend on the model and the fuel Nominal output 80 HP@ 4000 rpm Max,Torque 16.8 N.m@2400rpm flow rate in the system. Fig.1. Fuel flow through magnetic flux lines. The target of this study is to evaluate the effect Fig.2. Schematic Diagram of a diesel test of permanent magnetic field on fuels used in bench. diesel engine and by testing the effect of Fuel Four types of fuel were examined in this magnetized fuel on performance indicators and experiment included, PD fuel considered as a exhaust gas emissions and comparing it with control and three types of magnetized fuel the use of conventional diesel fuel. DG3, DG5 and DG9. Fuel were magnetized by MATERIALS AND METHODS a permanent magnetic device putting on the Experimental Setup and instrumentation line of fuel before entering injection pump. Experimental tests were carried out on a 4- fig3. (CRD) statistical experiment was used, cylinder 4-stroke DI diesel engine. Table 1 and choosing the least significant difference shows the technical specifications of test L.S.D with a probability of 0.05 and the results engine. Figure 2 is shown schematic diagram were analyzed in Gen-Stat Release 12.1 of experimental engine test bench. The engine programs. is coupled directly to AC generator type STC- 24 kW for engine output brake power measurement. A sharp edged orifice mounted in one side of the air box to measure the air flow rate. Temperature measurements in exhaust gas were done using thermocouple probes of type K. Fuel flow measurements. was made using one burette with stopcock and two way valves. Exhaust gas analyzer type (AIRREX, HG-540) and (OPABOK Fig.3. Permeant magnetic device AUTOPOWER) smoke meter were used for smoke and exhaust emissions measurements. 1776 Iraqi Journal of Agricultural Sciences –2024:55(5):1774-1780 Mohammed & et al. Results obtained from the experiment were Effect of magnate fuel on bsfc. recorded under the chosen experimental The experimental results show that the fuel conditions, such as fuel consumption, brake consumption of engine was less when the power and exhaust gases for each type of fuel, engine with magnet than that without fuel and they were repeated three times to obtain magnet at higher load. Always less amount of the required accuracy. The equations were fuel was consumed with the fuel with used to calculate the performance of engine magnetic field. The fuel type vs bsfc shown in indicators suggested by (3, 9, 10) . fig.5 , the maximum reduction in bsfc is about RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 12.12 % pointed by magnetic fuel DG5 Effect of magnate fuel on BTE . compared to DP fuel. Results gained by(13,14) The experimental results show that there was produced similar result for both bsfc and fuel an improvement on engine performance and a consumption at 50% loading condition in their reduction in exhaust gas emission when work. bsfc is decreased significantly by 11%, exposed fuel line on magnetic fields. fig. 4 while put variation in engine load from 25% to shows that there was an increase in values of 50%..This results underlies the method of BTE for all magnetic fuel for different loads processing the fuel coming through the hose. compared with conventional diesel fuel that Here, the magnets destroy the clumps of not magnetized. One can observe from this molecules in the fuel, which move from a state figure that DG5 tend to produce higher value of rest to a state of excitation, a magnetic of BTE at high load (load2) while DP fuel resonance occurs, this attracts additional registered the lowest. This results was also oxygen, the fuel is ionized, and as a result observed in a similar study by the authors (10). reduced the consumption of fuel per unite To explain the effect of a constant magnetic power. field on diesel fuel, is that there is practically a Load 1 Load 2 single point of view on fuel magnetic 0.5 treatment reduces the density, viscosity, surface tension and increases the degree of h .W 0.45 dispersion of diesel fuel. For example, the k /g 0.4 k authors of (5) observed a decrease in fuel C F S0.35 density after magnetic treatment from 826.44 B to 824.67 kg/m3, and the heat of combustion 0.3 increased from 42,223.52 to 42,408.55 kJ/kg 0.25 which contribute to enhance the combustion 0.2 efficiency and consequently increase the brake DP DG3 DG5 DG9 thermal efficiency. Fuel type Load 1 Load 2 Fig. 5. BSFC variation with fuels under different loads 28.5 Effect of magnate fuel on exhaust gas 26.5 % 24.5 emissions. E T 22.5 The comparison between exhaust gas B 20.5 18.5 emissions prediction have done at two levels 16.5 14.5 of load and constant engine speed conditions 12.5 for conventional diesel fuel and diesel fuel 10.5 DP DG3 DG5 DG9 treated by three levels of magnetic intensities are tabulated in Table 2.and table 3. Fuel type Fig. 4. BTE variation with fuels under different loads 1777 Iraqi Journal of Agricultural Sciences –2024:55(5):1774-1780 Mohammed & et al. Table 2. Emission levels at load L1 with consumed by the engine and it is increased different magnetic field. under all operating conditions (4). At load (2) Magnetic CO UHC CO PM NOx and magnetic flux 5000 Gauss condition it was 2 field % ppm (%) m-1 ppm reached maximum 16.6%. The mechanism of (Gaus) NOx formation demands higher cylinder 0 0.053 56.8 10.84 0.026 579.8 temperature, at no load and part loads 3000 0.030 50.7 10.22 0.02 552 condition, the NOx emission was less due to 5000 0.030 20.7 11.30 0.02 545.3 low consumption of fuel and slightly reduced 9000 0,029 20.3 10.40 0.02 548 in cylinder temperature [10-17]. From tables Thus it is clear (from the Table 2) that the (1) and (2) it is getting a reduction in NO x results obtained from the experiment effect of when magnetic field increased. At load L2 magnetic field in the fuel line is used to reduce due to higher combustion temperature, the emission, especially CO is more in engine amount of NOx emissions are 814.5 ppm for exhaust due to incomplete combustion. The diesel without magnetic field and 750 ppm magnetic strength is taking care of significant with magnetic field 9000 Gauss with a decrease in the pollutant formation, diesel was reduction about 7.9%, while a reduction in treated with 9000 Gauss magnetic intensity NOx emission is about 5.9% registered in DG5 condition gives a better result in CO emission compared with normal diesel fuel with load L1 is 0.029% which is reduced by 45.2 % at load conditions. Particulate matters (PM) are 1, and the when diesel fuel treated with 3000 formed due to incomplete combustion of fuel Gauss registered a maximum reduction about in combustion chamber and presents of 53.3% at load 2 condition when compared impurities in fuel, as results that shows in table with conventional diesel fuel. (1) a constant reduction 2.3% noted in DG3, Table 2. Emission levels at load L2 with DG5, and DG9 respectively compared with different magnetic field. PD fuel, while at load (2) a reduction in NO x Magneti CO UHC CO 2 PM NOx pointed about 2.7% and1.6% for DG3 and c field (%) ppm (%) m -1 ppm DG5 respectively compared with diesel fuel (Gauss) that not treated with magnetic field. CONCLUSIONS 0 0.060 59 16.34 0.096 814.5 In the present study, the effect of magnetic 3000 0.028 56.7 15.60 0.07 757.3 diesel fuel on engine performance and 5000 0.053 59.3 16.61 0.08 759.7 emission was investigated and compared with 9000 0.050 51.0 15.61 0.1 750 diesel fuel not treated with magnet the tested Results showed in tables (1) and (2) for UHC engine was run at constant speed (1500rpm) emission at load L1 and L2 condition is noted and loaded with two levels 4.5 kW and 9kW for diesel engine with and without magnetic at. the results obtained from the study showed field.UHC was emitted due to incomplete that combustion of fuel and causes of line fault or - Rising in brake thermal efficiency when storage tank ,so minor escape through leak and diesel fuel exposure to magnetic field about evaporation. A maximum reduction in UHC 9.57%,18.23% and 14.58% respectively when concentration was about 64.2% when fuel line using DG3,DG5and DG9 at load L2 .the treated magnet flux 9000 Gauss at load (1) maximum increasing about 20.09% with using condition compared with diesel fuel. The DG5 fuel at load L1 compared with normal amount of HC emissions is found to be from diesel. 56.8 ppm to 59 ppm for diesel under normal - Reducing in bsfc when using different conditions with load (1) and (2) respectively, magnetic levels DG3,DG5and DG9 about when magnetic field is introduced in fuel line 3.57%,10.81% and 7.94% respectively at load corresponding UHC values are approximately L2 .The maximum reduction 12.12% with decreased. The variation of CO 2 emission with DG5 at load L1 compared with diesel fuel. respect to different engine loads is critical and - Maximum reduction in PM affected by magnetic field. The CO 2 emissions ,UHC,NO x ,CO 2 ,and CO about 16.56-27.08%, are directly proportional to the quantity of fuel 3.89–64.26%, 4.79–7.91%, 4.05-5.71and 1778 Iraqi Journal of Agricultural Sciences –2024:55(5):1774-1780 Mohammed & et al. 11.46-53.48% respectively. CO2 emission is under two different farming systems and increased by 1.65-4.28 at DG5 with load 1and tractor practical speeds. Iraqi Journal of load L2 respectively due to the operating Agricultural Sciences, 54(4): 1155– conditions. Finding ways to reduce costs in 1162. https://doi.org/10.36103/ijas.v54i4.1809 agricultural production is the cornerstone of 6. Dumra, N., K. Rolania, L. K., Khalaf, S. S. sustainable development goals (2,4,6,11,15) Yadav, S. Mandhania, Y. K. Sharma, U. Recommendations Kumar, A. M. Ahmed, S. M. Popescu, and A. According to the results experiment, we can Choudhary 2024. Comparative evaluation of say that all of the above will lead to a decrease sublethal doses of different insecticides on the Reducing carbon deposits and soot will reduce ovipositional behavior of whitefly (Bemisia the time required during maintenance to clean tabaci) in Brinjal. Journal of King Saud the piston rings, piston head, cover and University-Science, 36(2), p.103070. cylinder liner from soot,. Reduced fuel doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2023.103070 consumption will result in reduce the cost of 7. Federico M., P. Lucio, 2020. Internal fuels and lubricants and to reducing the cost of Combustion Engines Improving Performance, transportation. In the future, an impact study Fuel Economy and Emissions. Journal magnetic field on the properties of different Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). types of hydrocarbon fuel engine with magnets https://doi.org/10.3390/books978-3-03936- of different powers, as well as checking the 169-4 possibility of replacing permanent magnets 8. Gad M. S. 2018. 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Swapnil Sureshchandra Bhurat, Himanshu Sharma, Amit Kumar Jha, Krishna Kant, 2018. 1780"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Review on the impact of magnetic fields and nano-additives on the CI engine. Magnetic treatment is correlated with increased thermal efficiency and reduced CO emissions [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Synthèse des recherches montrant que les aimants ou les nano-additifs peuvent améliorer le rendement thermique des moteurs Diesel."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Energy, Environment and Storage (2024) 04-03:102-108 Research Article Energy, Environment and Storage Journal Homepage: www.enenstrg.com Effects of Magnetic Fields and Nanoparticle Additives on Diesel Engine Emissions and Performance: A Comprehensive Experimental Analysis Mehmet Sarıtaş1*, Volkan Sabri Kül2 1*Erciyes University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kayseri, Türkiye, email: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0001-6576-689X 2 Erciyes University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kayseri, Türkiye, email: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-6412-6062 ABSTRACT. In the present study, performance and emission changes in a compression ignition engine were investigated by combining two methods. The first method involves adding nanoparticle additives to diesel fuel. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) with a particle size of 21 nm was used as nanoparticle. TiO was added to diesel fuel at doses of 50 mg and 100 mg per 1 kg 2 (50 and 100 ppm). After adding the nanoparticle to the diesel fuel, each mixture was stirred with a mechanical stirrer for one hour. In the second method, a magnetic field of 1 tesla was created around the fuel. Neodymium magnets were placed circularly around the diesel fuel line to create the magnetic field. The experiments were carried out at 660 RPM engine speed and 100% torque. During the experiments, data on engine performance, in-cylinder pressure and emissions were recorded. This study aims to contribute to the development of alternative fuel applications to improve performance and emissions in compression ignition engines. Keywords: Nanoparticle, Magnetic Field, Diesel, Emissions, Performance Article History: Received: 24.09.2024; Accepted: 29.09.2024; Available Online: 30.09.2024 Doi: https://doi.org/10.52924/ZYRI4684 1. INTRODUCTION biodiesel performance, revealing the positive impacts of titanium dioxide and aluminum nanoparticles on engine The energy consumption of modern societies is power and emissions [4]. These nanoparticles were found vital for economic growth and social development. to enhance atomization during the combustion process, However, increasing energy demand poses a threat to allowing for more homogeneous combustion and thereby environmental sustainability and presents significant facilitating more efficient energy conversion [3][4]. challenges in combating climate change [1]. In this context, accelerating the transition to renewable energy sources and The effects of magnetic field applications on enhancing energy efficiency has become a critical necessity engine emissions and performance have also become an [2]. Sustainable energy management has emerged as an important area of research in recent years. Experimental important issue, not only for reducing environmental studies conducted by Niaki et al. (2020) demonstrated that impacts but also for ensuring a secure energy supply for magnetic field applications positively influence future generations. Research focusing on alternative fuel performance, combustion dynamics, and emission sources, such as biodiesel, demonstrates the potential to characteristics in internal combustion engines [5]. It has replace fossil fuels [3]. been shown that magnetic fields improve fuel atomization, thereby increasing combustion efficiency and reducing In recent years, the effects of nanoparticles on emissions [6]. For example, experiments indicated that biodiesel performance have attracted considerable research magnetic fuel conditioning resulted in a 19% reduction in interest. In applications using nanoparticle-enhanced NOx emissions and a 13% decrease in CO2 emissions, biodiesel, a notable reduction in motor emissions and a while mechanical efficiency increased by 7%. These results significant improvement in fuel efficiency have been suggest that magnetic fields affect molecular structure, observed [3]. Kumar et al. (2019) comprehensively facilitating better atomization of the fuel and creating a investigated the effects of various nanoparticle types on Copyright © and. Published by Erciyes Energy Association 102 Corresponding author: [email protected] Saritas and Kül. Energy, Environment and Storage, (2024) 04-03:102-108 more homogeneous fuel-air mixture. Additionally, the use In the present study, the workflow schematically shown in of CuO nanofuel contributes to emission reductions and Fig. 1 was followed. A six-cylinder compression ignition enhances engine performance, making a significant engine was used in the experiments. 50 mg and 100 mg contribution to sustainable energy solutions. The TiO2 were added for every 1000 g of diesel fuel. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) with a particle size of 21 nm was used as integration of nanoparticle additives and magnetic field nanoparticle. The mixtures were mixed with a mechanical applications plays a critical role in enhancing stirrer at 1000 RPM for one hour. The fuels were coded as environmental sustainability and improving the D for diesel, D_50ppm + 50 ppm TiO2 for diesel, and performance of internal combustion engines. This D_100ppm + 100 ppm TiO2 for diesel. Neodymium integration aims to increase the operational efficiency of magnets were placed around the diesel fuel line to create a engines while minimizing environmental impacts, thereby magnetic field of 1 tesla. In the experiments conducted with targeting reductions in emissions and improvements in a magnetic field, the label \"Magnetic\" was added to the fuel engine efficiency [7]. codes to indicate the type of experiment. These three fuel types were tested in a compression ignition engine with and In this study, six experiments were conducted to without a magnetic field. The experimental results are evaluate the performance and emission characteristics of discussed in Section 3. A balance with a sensitivity of 0.5 g diesel fuel. In the first phase, pure diesel fuel was used as a was used for fuel consumption measurement. Exhaust reference to investigate combustion performance. In the emissions were measured using a Bosch BEA 60 analyzer. second phase, four neodymium magnets were employed to Recording of engine performance data was facilitated by create a magnetic field of 1 Tesla around the fuel line. Pure the PCS engine performance measurement system. diesel was subjected to this magnetic field during 2.2 Fuel and nanoparticles properties combustion, and the combustion characteristics were recorded. In the third phase, pure diesel fuel with 50 ppm Table 1 represents the properties of fuel and nanoparticles TiO2 was burned in the same magnetic field, and the effects used in the study. of TiO2 on the combustion process were examined in detail. Table 1. Diesel and TiO specifications The obtained data were compared with those of pure diesel. 2 Finally, a similar procedure was performed with 100 ppm Properties TiO 2 Diesel TiO2, and the combustion efficiency and emission Boiling point 1600 °C - characteristics of this mixture were compared with previous (1013 hPa) experiments. This process represents an important step in Particle size 21 nanometer - understanding the effects of TiO2 concentration on Density 4,500 kg/cm3 820-845 kg/m3 combustion, providing significant findings regarding the (25 °C) roles of magnetic fields and TiO2 additives in the Stoichiometric - 14,92 (app.) ratio combustion process of diesel fuel. The obtained data aim to Molar mass 233.38 g/mol - contribute to the development of alternative fuel mixtures and applications to enhance the performance of diesel Flash point - 55 °C engines and reduce emissions. ignition - Auto-186–230 Temperature °C 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Higher Heating - 45.6 MJ/kg Value 2.1 Experimental Setup Low heat - 42.7 MJ/kg Value Melting Point 1560 °C - Cetane - 51 Number Viscosity - 2.0- 4.5 mm2 /s 2.3 Uncertainty analysis Uncertainty analysis is presented in Table 2. To calculate uncertainty analysis use Eq.1 and to calculate total uncertainty use Eq. 2 [17, 18]. ?? 2 ?? 2 ?? 2 ?? 21⁄2 ??=[( ?? ∗?1) +( ?? ∗?2) +( ?? ∗?3) +⋯+( ?? ∗??)] 1 2 3 ? (1) Fig. 1 The Experimental Workflow ??=√???2+???2+???2+??? 2 2+????2+?????2 (2) 103 Saritas and Kül Energy, Environment and Storage (2024) 04-03:102-108 Table 2. Uncertainty analysis [16] The baseline BTE value for pure diesel (D) under Item Uncertainty ratio 300 Nm load was recorded at 0.3287, serving as the reference point for further comparisons. When a magnetic NO 0.71% x field was applied to the pure diesel (D_Magnetic), the BTE CO 1.73% increased significantly to 0.3357. This result demonstrates HC 1.26% the positive influence of the magnetic field on the CO 0.54% combustion efficiency of pure diesel. The increase in BTE 2 suggests that the magnetic field may enhance fuel Bte 1.68% atomization and promote better combustion, leading to a Bsfc 1.47% more efficient energy conversion process.[5] Total Uncertainty %3.22 The addition of 50 ppm of an additive to the diesel fuel (D_50ppm) resulted in a slight increase in BTE, with a value of 0.3305. This suggests that the additive improves 3. RESULTS, FIGURES AND TABLES the combustion characteristics of diesel, leading to better thermal efficiency than pure diesel without additives. The 3.1 Engine Performance improved efficiency could be attributed to the catalytic In this section, three key parameters related to effects of the additive, which likely enhances the engine performance will be discussed. The first is Brake combustion process, reducing unburnt hydrocarbons and Thermal Efficiency (BTE), which is calculated as shown in improving fuel-air mixing.[9] Equation 3 and serves as a crucial factor in evaluating In contrast, when 100 ppm of the additive was engine performance. The second is Brake Specific Fuel introduced into the diesel fuel (D_100ppm), the BTE Consumption (BSFC), as presented in Equation 4. It is dropped to 0.3234. This result indicates that while the expected that the BTE and BSFC values will exhibit an additive has a positive impact at lower concentrations (50 inverse relationship. The graphs obtained from this ppm), increasing its concentration to 100 ppm does not experiment align with this expectation. [8] yield further improvements and, in fact, slightly reduces the P combustion efficiency compared to both pure diesel and the η = b (3) th ṁ ×LHV 50-ppm mixture. This could be due to potential over- f saturation of the fuel with the additive, leading to ? :??????? ?????, ? incomplete combustion or unfavorable reactions in the ?̇ :???? ???? ???? ????, ? combustion chamber.[10] ???:?ℎ? ????? ℎ?????? ????? ?? ?ℎ? ???? When 50 ppm and 100 ppm boron additions were bsfc = ṁ f (4) compared in a prior study, the 50 ppm additive showed the P b maximum efficiency. Additionally, 50 ppm is more ? :??????? ?????, efficient than 100 ppm, according to this study. It was ? shown once more that lower ppm concentrations have a ?̇ :???? ???? ???? ????, ? more favorable effect on efficiency, notwithstanding the element's difference. In order to ensure the comparability of the results, the 50 and 100 ppm additive levels were also chosen to enable comparison with the boron additive ratios used in the study by Kül and Akansu (2022).[10] The application of a magnetic field with 50 ppm of the additive (D_50ppm_Magnetic) resulted in a BTE of 0.3198, lower than both pure diesel and the 50 ppm additive without the magnetic field. This indicates that the combination may interfere with optimal combustion conditions. For the 100 ppm mixture (D_100ppm_Magnetic), the BTE slightly increased to 0.3224, but remained below that of pure diesel and the 50 ppm additive, suggesting limited enhancement at higher Fig.2 BTE under 300Nm Load concentrations. The effects of different fuel mixtures and magnetic The magnetic field showed the most notable field applications on the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) positive impact when applied to pure diesel, significantly under a constant load of 300 Nm were analyzed. The BTE improving BTE. While lower concentrations of additives values for each configuration, including pure diesel (D), (50 ppm) can enhance efficiency, their combination with a magnetic field applied diesel (D_Magnetic), diesel with 50 magnetic field may lead to performance reduction. At ppm and 100 ppm TiO2 additives (D_50ppm and higher concentrations (100 ppm), the benefits diminish, D_100ppm), and these fuel mixtures subjected to magnetic with the magnetic field providing only marginal field conditions, are summarized in Fig.2. improvements. These findings highlight the importance of carefully optimizing both additive concentrations and Copyright © and. Published by Erciyes Energy Association 104 Saritas and Kül. Energy, Environment and Storage, (2024) 04-03:102-108 magnetic field applications for optimal combustion TiO₂ can reduce ignition delay by promoting a more efficiency. homogeneous and efficient combustion process, leading to earlier fuel ignition and positively impacting engine performance. [13] Phase 2: Combustion Initiation and Fuel Vaporization During this phase, TiO₂ nanoparticles enhance the fuel's surface area, thereby improving evaporation and combustion efficiency. The magnetic effect polarizes the fuel molecules, improving the air-fuel mixture. Both additives contribute to a more homogeneous combustion, optimizing the pressure curve. [13,14] Phase 3: Complete Combustion of the Fuel This phase represents the stage where the fuel is fully combusted, resulting in a complete explosion. Fig. 3 BSFC under 300Nm Load Efficient fuels have been observed to exhibit a steeper slope during this phase. The higher combustion curves of the Magnetic field applied to pure diesel D_Magnetic and D_50ppm fuels enable these fuels to (D_Magnetic) reduced BSFC to 249.5192, indicating that accelerate complete combustion, generating higher the fuel molecules were organized for more efficient pressure. This phase, characterized by high efficiency, combustion (Fig. 3). The literature also supports that reflects the fuel's maximum energy output. magnetic fields enhance atomization of hydrocarbon fuels, leading to increased combustion speed [11]. Phase 4: Work Production and Peak Point The BSFC of diesel fuel with 50 ppm additive In this stage, where work is produced and the (D_50ppm) was recorded as 253.3981. Additives, graph reaches its peak, it is preferable for this section of the especially nanoparticle-based ones, are known to enhance graph to be as flat as possible for diesel engines. The flatter combustion efficiency. For example, TiO2 nanoparticles peak points of the D_Magnetic and D_50ppm fuels help can catalyze the combustion process, leading to better optimize engine performance. A flat peak indicates a energy conversion, thereby reducing BSFC.[12] smooth explosion and prevents sudden pressure changes, which allows for more efficient engine operation. [15] The BSFC of diesel fuel with a 50 ppm additive under a magnetic field was recorded at 261.9512, Phases 5 and 6: Pressure Decline representing the highest value observed. This indicates that Following the completion of combustion, these the simultaneous use of the additive and magnetic field may phases begin with a rapid and then gradual decrease in interfere with optimal combustion conditions, potentially pressure. The rate of pressure decline is similar across leading to increased fuel consumption. different fuels during this phase. The process continues as The BSFC of diesel with a 100 ppm additive was the cylinder pressure returns to atmospheric pressure. [15] measured at 259.0244, indicating higher fuel consumption compared to pure diesel and 50 ppm additive. This suggests that the 100 ppm additive may disrupt combustion conditions and reduce fuel efficiency. The BSFC of diesel with a 100 ppm additive under a magnetic field is 259.8039, which is higher than pure magnetic diesel and similar to 100 ppm without magnetic treatment. This indicates no significant improvement in fuel consumption. In Terms of in Cylinder Pressure Fig. 4 shows the change in In-Cylinder Pressure (ICP) representing the combustion processes of diesel fuels. The graph reveals the relationship between crank angle and in-cylinder pressure for an engine under a load of 300 Nm. Fig. 4 ICP Graph under 300Nm Load The combustion processes of different fuels are divided into 3.2 Exhaust Emissions six main phases: HC Emission Phase 1: Ignition Delay Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions are harmful gases In the fuels D_50ppm_Magnetic, released into the atmosphere because of incomplete D_100ppm_Magnetic, the ignition delay occurs combustion. approximately 1 degree earlier compared to other fuels. This early ignition can be attributed to the nanoparticle Pure diesel (D) fuel produced the highest HC additive TiO₂ , which accelerates the combustion reaction. emissions. This result is closely related to the high carbon 105 Saritas and Kül Energy, Environment and Storage (2024) 04-03:102-108 content and combustion characteristics of diesel fuel, which catalytic and physical improvements. 100 ppm TiO2 with a contribute to incomplete combustion and, subsequently, the magnetic field proved the most effective in reducing CO release of a higher quantity of hydrocarbons into the emissions and improving diesel efficiency (Fig. 6). atmosphere. The magnetic field application (D_Magnetic) significantly reduced HC emissions. The application of a magnetic field improved fuel combustion efficiency, reducing incomplete combustion. The magnetic field aids in better atomization of the fuel and promotes a more homogeneous combustion process, thus effectively lowering HC emissions. Fig. 5 shows HC values under the 300 Nm. TiO2 additive (D_50ppm and D_100ppm) demonstrated a considerable reduction in HC emissions, primarily due to Fig.6 CO Emission under 300Nm Load its catalytic properties. The 100 ppm level of TiO2 was NO Emission more effective than the 50 ppm, further reducing incomplete combustion. TiO2 enhances oxidative reactions Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions arise from high- during combustion, promoting a cleaner and more complete temperature combustion in diesel engines. This situation burn of the fuel. increases with in-cylinder conditions as well as fuel and air homogeneity [20]. This analysis shows that pure diesel (D) Combination of TiO2 and Magnetic Field generates moderate NO emissions, while the application of (D_50ppm_Magnetic and D_100ppm_Magnetic) achieved a magnetic field (D_Magnetic) slightly increases them due the lowest HC emissions. The combined catalytic effect of to enhanced combustion efficiency and higher TiO2 and the efficiency boost from the magnetic field temperatures. TiO2 additives (D_50ppm and D_100ppm) resulted in an optimized combustion process, both also modestly raise NO emissions by improving chemically and physically. This combination effectively combustion and increasing temperatures, with little minimized hydrocarbon emissions to their lowest levels. difference between the two concentrations. The highest NO The application of 100 ppm TiO2 combined with emissions occur with the combination of TiO2 and a magnetic field emerged as the most effective solution for magnetic fields (D_50ppm_Magnetic and reducing hydrocarbon emissions. This combination has the D_100ppm_Magnetic), which boosts combustion potential to significantly mitigate the environmental impact efficiency but leads to significant temperature increases. of diesel fuel, offering a viable strategy for minimizing HC Overall, while these enhancements improve combustion emissions in diesel engines. performance, they also result in higher NO emissions, underscoring the need for balanced emission control strategies (Fig. 7). Fig. 5 HC Emission under 300Nm Load Fig. 7 NO Emission under 300Nm Load CO Emission Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions result from 4.CONCLUSION incomplete combustion, where carbon in the fuel does not This study examined the performance and fully convert to CO2 [19]. Pure diesel (D) produced the emission characteristics of a compression ignition engine highest CO emissions, while the application of a magnetic supplied with titanium dioxide (TiO₂ ) nanoparticle field (D_Magnetic) significantly reduced emissions by additives and subjected to magnetic field application. The enhancing combustion efficiency. TiO2 additives experiments were conducted under a constant load of 300 (D_50ppm and D_100ppm) further lowered CO emissions, Nm, analyzing key performance metrics such as brake with 50 ppm being slightly more effective. The thermal efficiency (BTE), brake specific fuel consumption combination of TiO2 and a magnetic field (BSFC), in-cylinder pressure (ICP), and exhaust emissions. (D_50ppm_Magnetic and D_100ppm_Magnetic) achieved the lowest emissions, optimizing combustion through both Copyright © and. Published by Erciyes Energy Association 106 Saritas and Kül. Energy, Environment and Storage, (2024) 04-03:102-108 The findings indicated that the application of a [2] Demirbas, A. (2009). Biofuels securing the planet’s magnetic field slightly increased the BTE of pure diesel future energy needs. Energy conversion and management, fuel, rising from 0.3287 to 0.3357. The addition of 50 ppm 50(9), 2239-2249. of TiO₂ resulted in a slight increase in BTE to 0.3305, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2009.05.010 while increasing the concentration to 100 ppm decreased [3] Soudagar, M. E. M., Nik-Ghazali, N. N., Kalam, M. A., the BTE to 0.3234; this suggests that excessive TiO₂ may Badruddin, I. A., Banapurmath, N. R., & Akram, N. (2018). hinder combustion efficiency. It was observed that the The effect of nano-additives in diesel-biodiesel fuel blends: interaction between TiO₂ and the magnetic field A comprehensive review on stability, engine performance negatively affected performance, especially at lower and emission characteristics. Energy conversion and additive concentrations; this combination resulted in lower management, 178, 146-177.Alamu, O. J., et al. (2020). BTE values compared to pure diesel. However, due to the \"Effects of different nanoparticles on biodiesel lack of significant differences between the percentage performance: A review.\" Energy Reports, 6, 526-540. values, the magnetic field application and nanoparticle https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.10.019 addition did not provide a meaningful change in overall engine efficiency. [4] Kumar, S., Dinesha, P., & Bran, I. (2019). Experimental investigation of the effects of nanoparticles as an additive The results of the study demonstrate that smaller in diesel and biodiesel fuelled engines: a review. Biofuels, concentrations (ppm) of additives have a more favorable 10(5), 615-622. effect on efficiency, notwithstanding variations in the type https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2017.1332294 of element utilized. Furthermore, enhanced efficiency was not a result of raising the dosage amount. In order to [5] Niaki, S. R. A., Zadeh, F. G., Niaki, S. B. A., Mouallem, compare the findings with those of the study by Kül and J., & Mahdavi, S. (2020). Experimental investigation of Akansu (2022), 50 and 100 ppm additive concentrations effects of magnetic field on performance, combustion, and were chosen. These kinds of comparisons show that further emission characteristics of a spark ignition engine. research is required in the future to determine whether low- Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy, 39(2), dose applications have an efficiency-enhancing effect. e13317. https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.13317 The in-cylinder pressure analysis revealed six [6] Öztürk, O., & Taştan, M. (2024). A review of magnetic combustion phases and demonstrated that TiO₂ field assisted combustion. International Journal of Energy nanoparticles reduced ignition delay and improved Studies, 9(1), 175-198. combustion initiation. Notably, the addition of 50 ppm https://doi.org/10.58559/ijes.1412125 TiO₂ achieved the best performance in the combustion processes, while combining TiO₂ with the magnetic field [7] Sahoo, R. R., & Jain, A. (2019). Experimental analysis disrupted combustion dynamics and resulted in less of nanofuel additives with magnetic fuel conditioning for favorable conditions; in this context, the observed diesel engine performance and emissions. Fuel, 236, 365- differences were insufficient for significant interpretation. 372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.09.027 In terms of exhaust emissions, pure diesel [8] Coskun, A. D., Kul, V. S., & Akansu, S. O. (2023). exhibited the highest HC and CO emissions, which were Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Acetone significantly reduced by the magnetic field and TiO₂ Additive to Diesel Fuel on Engine Performance and additives, particularly at 100 ppm. The combination of 100 Exhaust Emissions at Partial Loads. Energy, Environment ppm TiO₂ and a magnetic field provided the lowest HC and Storage, 3(01), 12-18 and CO emissions, proving to be an effective strategy for https://doi.org/10.52924/WQJR9374 mitigating environmental impact. However, it was also [9] D'Silva, R., Binu, K. G., & Bhat, T. (2015). observed that the improvements in combustion efficiency Performance and emission characteristics of a CI engine due to TiO₂ and magnetic fields led to higher NO fuelled with diesel and TiO2 nanoparticles as fuel additive. emissions due to increased combustion temperatures. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2(4-5), 3728-3735. Overall, this study highlights the complexity of https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2015.07.162 optimizing fuel formulations and combustion conditions in [10] Kül, V. S., & Akansu, S. O. (2022). Experimental compression ignition engines. The findings suggest that Investigation of the impact of boron nanoparticles and CNG TiO₂ nanoparticles and magnetic field applications can on performance and emissions of Heavy-Duty diesel enhance combustion efficiency and reduce certain engines. Fuel, 324, 124470. emissions, but careful evaluation of additive concentrations https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.124470 and interactions is necessary to balance performance and emission outcomes. Future research should focus on further [11] Patel, P. M., Rathod, G. P., & Patel, T. M. (2014). improving these parameters to enhance the environmental Effect of magnetic field on performance and emission of sustainability of diesel engines. single cylinder four stroke diesel engine. 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Effect of Excess Air Ratio on Emissions, Performance and Efficiency of Gasoline Fueled Engines: A Review, Energy, Environment and Storage, Vol(4), 32-45. https://doi.org/10.52924/PUPX2065 Copyright © and. Published by Erciyes Energy Association 108"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Theoretical study on Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) and Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) interactions applied to fluids, crucial for fuel ionization modeling [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Analyse théorique de l'effet du magnétisme sur les fluides en mouvement."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "SSRG International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Volume 11 Issue 4, 18-29, April 2024 ISSN: 2348-8360/ https://doi.org/10.14445/23488360/IJME-V11I4P103 © 2024 Seventh Sense Research Group® Review Article Magnetic Field Effects on Refrigeration Systems: A Comprehensive Review Rahul G. Deshmukh1, Dinesh R. Zanwar2, Sandeep S. Joshi3 1,2,3Department of Mechanical Engineering, Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and Management, Nagpur, India. 1Corresponding Author : [email protected] Received: 03 February 2024 Revised: 22 March 2024 Accepted: 11 April 2024 Published: 30 April 2024 Abstract - In the midst of the sustainable energy revolution, minimizing energy consumption in refrigeration systems has emerged as a prominent and vital focus area. A substantial quantity of research studies has been conducted on these types of systems in the last few decades. The present research work gives a comprehensive classification and review of available research studies on magnetized refrigeration systems, specifically Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems (VCRS) and Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems (VARS). The influence of magnetic fields on fluid flow interactions is discussed, categorizing studies into Electro-Hydrodynamics (EHD) and Magneto-Hydrodynamics (MHD). The unique effects of magnetization on the thermophysical properties of electrically conducting fluids are highlighted. Furthermore, an important discussion is provided, exploring the fundamental reasons underlying the impacts of magnetic treatment on the thermophysical properties of electrically conducting fluids. The research article typically covers the experimental work conducted on the impact of magnetization on VCRS and VARS in the last two decades. Keywords - MHD, VCRS, VARS, Classification of fluid flow interactions, Energy. 1. Introduction Magnetization is well-known for influencing the characteristics of various materials, particularly causing changes in temperature. This phenomenon, known as the Magnetocaloric Effect (MCE), involves an increase in temperature when a magnetic exposure is provided and a subsequent reduction when the exposure is removed, impacting the entropy and heat content of the material. Figure 1 shows stages of the magnetic refrigeration cycle based on MCE. While the effects of magnetization on fluids are not fully understood, it is widely acknowledged that subjecting these fluids to a magnetic field leads to significant alterations. A plethora of research in the literature supports the idea that magnetic fields can affect thermodynamic properties. Numerous studies have explored the use of magnetization to enhance performance in various applications, such as water treatment, fuel lines, diesel engines, oil, refrigeration, and natural gas furnaces. The influence of magnetic fields on Fig. 1 Stages of magnetic refrigeration cycle based on MCE VCRS was initially observed by researcher Samuel Sami in Discussing recent advancements in MHD technology is 2003 during an investigational work on the impact of magnetic essential to comprehend its progress and laying the treatment of refrigerant blends [1]. groundwork for future developments. Several review papers Over the past two decades, there has been increasing in the literature detail the influence of different magnetizations attention to advancing Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) on fluid heat transfer characteristics and overall system technology, with both practical and theoretical developments. performance. Table 1 summarizes several of these review Despite this attention, commercialization of the technique has studies, highlighting the impacts of various magnetic been limited. exposures on fluid interactions in the last decade. Notably, This is an open-access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Rahul G. Deshmukh et al. / IJME, 11(4), 18-29, 2024 there is a gap in the literature concerning review papers Table 1. Overview of review papers on fluid interactions with various specifically focused on the effects of MHD on refrigerants and magnetic fields the consequent improvements in the performance of S. No. Description Year Reference refrigeration systems. The magnetic treatment of conducting EHD phenomenon, fluids and its potential for enhancing system performance have Flow and heat attracted considerable attention among researchers in the field transfer Fylladitakis of MHD, warranting a comprehensive discussion. Figure 2 1 enhancement, EHD 2014 et al. provides the year-by-year breakdown of research article fluid pumps, Drying quantities reviewed, while Figure 3 illustrates the statistics and evaporation regarding the number of papers reviewed concerning Impacts on flow performance enhancement methods. field and heat transfer behaviour, Kabeel et 15 14 2 Industrial and 2015 al. s n medical o ita 10 8 applications c 5 5 ilb 5 3 3 EHD drying 2016 Martynenk u o et al. P f o 0 The impact of r electric fields on the e b Shahriari et m 4 boiling behavior of 2016 u N both insulating and al. conducting liquids. Year Simulation studies on the treatment of Sheikholesl Fig. 2 Year-by-year breakdown of research article quantities reviewed 5 nanofluid in the 2017 on electrically conducting fluids (In this article) presence of ami et al. 11 magnetization 12 10 s Utilizations of n10 o ita 8 6 Electrohydrodynam c ics (EHD) in ilb 6 6 boiling, 2017 Rashidi et u P 4 condensation, al. f 2 o r e 0 evaporating, solar b energy systems m VCRS with VARS with VCRS and u magnetic field magnetic field VARS with Influences of N other techniques magnetization on pool and flow Zonouzi et 7 2019 Performance Enhancement Techniques boiling, impact of al. electric field on pool Fig. 3 Statistics of the number of papers reviewed concerning the performance improvement techniques (In this article) and flow boiling The main objective of this work is to give a thorough 2. Classification of Performance Enhancement categorization of fluid interactions with diverse magnetic Techniques for Thermal Energy Systems fields, offering a comprehensive examination of both The performance improvement techniques for thermal experimental and theoretical investigations into the effects of energy systems (TES) are broadly classified as active and Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) on electrically conducting passive techniques. Further, the application of magnetic fields fluids in recent years. Additionally, the paper encompasses a on thermal energy systems can also be categorized based on detailed review of the application of MHD in refrigeration the electrical conductivity of fluids. systems. A comprehensive examination of MHD’s impact on weakly electrically conducting fluids is conducted, A broad classification of performance enhancement highlighting their primary advantages and potential avenues techniques for TES is shown in Figure 4. The noticeable for future research. This study serves as a valuable resource, research study carried out on the performance enhancement offering profound insights for researchers engaged in this field techniques for refrigeration in the recent past is explained in and presenting a useful foundation for future endeavors. the following text. 19 Rahul G. Deshmukh et al. / IJME, 11(4), 18-29, 2024 Fig. 4 Classification of performance improvement methods for thermal energy systems 3. Effects of Magnetization on the Behavior of When an electrically conducting fluid flows through a static external perpendicular magnetic field, it induces electrical Electrically Conducting Fluids currents within the fluid. These induced currents interact with This section delves into research findings regarding the the applied external magnetic field, giving rise to a magnetic effect of magnetization on electrically conductive fluids like force that consequently modifies the heat transport water, hydrocarbon fuels, and refrigerants and explores their phenomenon. implications for various end applications. 3.1. Categorization of the Interaction between Fluid Flow and Magnetic Fields The exploration of magnetic field influences on fluids Fluid flow interactions with with electrical conductivity is not exhaustive, yet it is well- magnetic field established that significant transformations occur when these fluids traverse magnetic fields. This study categorizes fluid interactions with magnetic fields into two primary domains: Electro-Hydrodynamics (EHD), focusing on the impact of electric forces, and Magneto-Hydrodynamics (MHD), MHD EMHD addressing the effects of magnetization on electrically conducting fluids. Additionally, the investigation into the EHD impacts of both electric field and magnetization on fluid conductors of electricity, or magnetic fluids, falls under Electro-Magneto-Hydro-Dynamics (EMHD) . Classification Weak of fluid flow interaction of electrically conducting fluid with Strong various magnetic exposures is depicted in Figure 5. Electrical 3.2. Exploring Magneto-Hydrodynamics (MHD) and its conductivity of Influence on the Thermophysical Characteristics of fluid Electrically Conducting Fluids The examination of fluid interactions between electrically Fig. 5 Classification of fluid flow interaction of electrically conducting conducting fluids and a magnetic field generated by fluid with different magnetization permanent magnets is termed Magneto-Hydrodynamics. 20 Rahul G. Deshmukh et al. / IJME, 11(4), 18-29, 2024 The introduction of magnetization disrupts the clusters of molecules, leading to alterations in the thermophysical characteristics of fluids, including changes in surface tension, boiling point, specific heat, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and more. Table 2 shows the influence of magnetization on the thermo-physical characteristics of some electrically conducting fluids. Figure 6 illustrates the de-clustering of conducting fluids with magnetization, resulting in the generation of smaller particles. Niaki et al. delved into the physical phenomenon behind the loosening of hydrocarbon bonds in robust magnetization, studying the absorption spectrum of ultraviolet light [2]. Magnetization of crude oil and paraffin sample solutions induced changes in the rheological behavior, as demonstrated in Figure 7. Figure 8 Fig. 8 Significance of covalent bond in electrically conducting fluids shows the significance of covalent bonds in electrically conducting fluids. Figure 9 to Figure 11 illustrates the root cause of variations in thermophysical characteristics of electrically conducting fluids under magnetization. De-cluster of molecules Cluster of molecules N Fluid In Fluid Out S Fig. 9 Impact of magnetization on a spray of fuel from the injector Fig. 6 Breaking of molecular cluster using permanent magnets (a) In the absence, and (b) In the presence of magnetization [2]. Fig. 10 Schematic representation of magnetized solar still [4] 4. Effect of Magnetic Treatment on Refrigeration System Performance This section is divided into two parts; the first deals with the impact of magnetization on the performance of VCRS, and the latter deals with magnetic field effects on VARS. Numerous investigational and numerical works have been shown for VCRS and VARS, which are reported in the literature. A summary of several studies on VCRS is presented in the corresponding section. The summary is derived from numerical and experimental outputs, highlighting the important outcomes of various authors. Moreover, a summary of the review paper available on magnetic field impact on Fig. 7 Graphical representation of rheological properties for crude oil [3] VCRS and VARS is provided in Table 3. 21 Rahul G. Deshmukh et al. / IJME, 11(4), 18-29, 2024 Fig. 11 Root cause of variations in thermophysical characteristics of electrically conducting fluids under magnetization Table 3. Overview of review papers on magnetized refrigeration Significantly, the reported low principal cost associated with systems (VCRS and VARS) implementing magnetic treatment and its environmentally S.N. Description Year Reference benign impact make it a noteworthy consideration. Impact of Magnetic 1 2018 Dangle et al. Sami and Aucoin [1] explored the impact of Treatment on VCRS magnetization on several refrigerant mixtures flowing via Performance Deshmukh et enhanced surface tubes in air-cooled heat exchangers. 2 enhancement 2018 al. Employing three magnetizers, each producing a magnetic methods for VCRS exposure of strength 0.4 T, they investigated blends such as Influence of R507, R404A, R410A, and R407C. magnetization on 3 2019 Jadhav et al. diffusion absorption A diagram illustrating the experimental test-rig setup can refrigeration cycle be found in Figure 12. The experimental results revealed that 4.1. Impact of Magnetization on the Performance of VCRS applying a magnetic exposure at the condenser outlet led to The energy consumption of households is profoundly efficiency enhancements in both the condenser and impacted by refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. Even evaporator, consequently boosting the performance of VCRS. a marginal enhancement in their efficiency, quantified by the COP, can lead to considerable energy conservation. Sami and Kita [6] explored the influences of Therefore, it is essential to investigate solutions that reduce magnetization on substitute refrigerant blends, specifically R- compressor power utilization, thereby enhancing the overall 410A, R-507, R-407C, and R-404A, in the context of an air- efficiency of the thermal energy system. An encouraging source heat pump. The refrigerant mixtures underwent approach in this regard is the implementation of a magnetic exposure to a 4000 Gauss magnetic field applied through three field, renowned for its cost-effectiveness, low maintenance, magnetic elements in the liquid line of the condenser. and the advantage of not requiring additional modifications to the conventional system’s existing components. A summary The study’s findings indicated that the reply of refrigerant of magnetization impacts on VCRS is provided in Table 4. mixtures to magnetization is contingent on the composition, boiling point, and thermophysical properties of the blend. Multiple investigations, including works by Sami and Refrigerant mixtures with higher viscosity demonstrated a Aucoin [1], Mani and Selladurai [11], Sami and Kita [6], and greater likelihood of responding to magnetic treatment, while Tipole et al. [12], have underscored the effectiveness of those with higher specific heat and thermal conductivity utilizing magnetization to improve VCRS. The use of exhibited lower responsiveness. Notably, the application of magnetic treatment in refrigeration can be accomplished magnetization had a considerable impression on the overall through superconducting magnets or electrical energy. efficiency of the system. 22 Rahul G. Deshmukh et al. / IJME, 11(4), 18-29, 2024 Table 2. Influence of magnetization on thermophysical characteristics of different fluids with weak electrical conductivity S. No. Researchers Fluid Magnetization Main Properties Outcomes NdFeB magnets (8500 1. Decrement in the flow 01 Tung et al. [5] Crude Oil 1. Viscosity. G) resistance of oil. 1. Refrigerants with higher thermal properties exhibit a 1. Specific heat diminished reaction to magnetic R507, R404A, R Sami and Kita NdFeB magnets (400 2. Thermal exposure. 02 410A, and [6] mT) conductivity 2. Refrigerants with higher difluoromethylene 3. Viscosity viscosity tend to exhibit a more pronounced response to magnetic exposure. NdFeB magnets (300 1. Breaking molecular clusters 03 Tipole et al. [7] Diesel fuel 1. Viscosity mT). reduces the viscosity of the fuel. 1. Decrement in the flow Electromagnet 1. Viscosity Niu, Kai, and resistance, on the other hand 04 NHOH solution (1326.4 to 2613.5 2. Heat Xiao [8] 4 increment in the heat Gauss) conductivity conductivity. NdFeB magnets (100 Wang, Wei, and 1. Specific heat 1. Reduction in the specific heat 05 Tap water mT, 200 mT, 300 mT, Zhuangwen [9] 2. Boiling point and boiling point of tap water & 400 mT). Neo-delta magnets Oommen and N 1. Decrement in the flow 08 Gasoline fuel (320 mT, 480 mT, and 1. Viscosity. [10] resistance of oil. 640 mT) NdFeB magnets 1. Magnetization decreases the 09 Previous Study Tetrafluroethane 1. Viscosity (300mT-720mT) viscosity of refrigerant. replacement of VCRS. The results showed that the COP of VCRS demonstrated a positive correlation with the application of a magnetic exposure, showing growth with the quantity of magnetizers, up to 3 magnetizers. However, beyond 3 magnetic pairs, a decline in COP occurred due to entropy generation. Notably, R600a exhibited a significant response to the magnetization compared to R134a, attributed to its higher electrical conductivity. The Fig. 12 Schematic representation of experimental test-rig [1] COP improvement ranged from 6.55% to 13.13% for R134a and 6.57% to 21.87% for R600a. For the critical magnetic Mani and Selladurai [11] conducted an experimental pairs (3 pairs), the COP of the system with R600a was 66.56% investigation on the feasibility of using the R290/R600a higher than that of R134a. refrigerant fusion as a replacement for R12 and R134a, both with and without magnetization, without altering the In Previous study, an experimental analysis to examine components of VCRS. The tests utilized a reciprocating-type the impact of magnetic exposure on the efficiency of VCRS. compressor originally designed for R12 operation, and a The magnetic configurations employed were a magnetic pair detailed schematic diagram is provided in the figure. The and a Halbach array, generating magnetic field stretch of 0.3 results indicated that using a magnetic exposure at the and 0.72 Tesla, respectively. The investigational outcomes condenser liquid line led to a drop in energy utilization by the specify that the magnetization strength and magnetic compressor across all operating conditions, compared to treatment time impact the VCRS performance. scenarios without a magnetization. Consequently, there was an enhancement in the efficiency of the system. The study In the same operating conditions, the COP of VCRS was further concluded that the R290/R600a mixture could be enhanced by up to 8.38% for magnetic pair using 2 pairs and deemed an excellent alternative refrigerant for R12 and R134a 9.94% for Halbach array using 1 array. Furthermore, the Total systems. Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI) analysis for the magnetic pair and Halbach array was found to be lower than the Tipole et al. [12] performed an investigational conventional system, ranging from 0.72% to 2.11% and examination to find the impact of magnetization on a drop-in 1.83% to 3.39%, respectively. 23 Rahul G. Deshmukh et al. / IJME, 11(4), 18-29, 2024 Previously conducted experimental work on the influence 4.2. Impact of Magnetic Exposure on the Performance of of magnetization on convective heat transport as R134a VARS condenses in a pipe with a radius of 0.419 cm. Four Absorption refrigeration technology stands out as a magnetizers with a 3000 Gauss intensity each were employed promising alternative to conventional VCRS, garnering in the tests, maintaining a mean dryness fraction between 0.4 increased attention from scientists and engineers in recent and 0.5 for saturation temperatures ranging from 40 to 45. The years. This thermally powered refrigeration technique utilizes results revealed a significant impact of the magnetization, heat energy, sourced from low-grade energy reservoirs or saturation temperature, and mean dryness fraction on the solar energy, to deliver cooling, making it versatile, such as by coefficient of heat transfer. utilizing the exhaust of an Internal Combustion (IC) engine [15]. The components comprising VARS include the Regardless of the number of magnetizers, the heat transfer generator, pump, absorber, solution heat exchanger, coefficient generally decreased with rising saturation condenser, expansion valves, and evaporator, as depicted in temperature. The magnetic field exhibited a more pronounced Figure 13. impact at lower saturation temperatures and higher mean dryness fraction. The investigation identified two magnetizers Various investigations, including works by Niu et al. [16], as the limiting factor for heat transfer coefficient Niu et al. [17], Niu et al. [18] and Jadhav et al. [19], have improvement, showing an increase of 15.2% for the critical highlighted the usefulness of employing magnetic fields to number of magnetic elements at a saturation temperature and enhance the performance of VARS. A summary of mean vapor quality of 40 and 0.5 and an 8.65% increase at a magnetization impacts on VARS is provided in Table 5. saturation temperature and mean dryness fraction of 45 and 0.5. Heat Out 7 Condenser Generator Heat In 3 4 8 Generator Expansion 2 5 valve Expansion valve 9 Pump 1 6 Evaporator Generator 10 Heat In Heat Out Fig. 13 Schematic of VARS 24 Rahul G. Deshmukh et al. / IJME, 11(4), 18-29, 2024 Table 4. Impact of magnetic treatment on performance of VCRS S. Author Refrigerant Source of Magnetic Field Parameters Magnetic Field Effects No. 1. The existence of magnetization accelerated the enhancement of both the condenser and evaporator 1. Condenser COP COP compared to results without a 2. Evaporator COP magnetic field. 3. Compressor 2. Power consumption of the Capacity compressor was decreased slightly Samin and R-410A, R-507, R- NdFeB permanent magnets 4. Condenser capacity under the external magnetic field. 1 Aucoin [1] 407C, and R-404A (400 mT) 5. Evaporator 3. A marginal enhancement in capacity condenser capacity was noted. 6. Pressure ratio 4. The rise in the quantity of 7. Compressor magnetizers has led to a slight discharge pressure increase in the pressure ratio. 5. Slightly reduced discharge pressure was observed with higher field strength. Sami and R-507, R-407C, and NdFeB permanent magnets 1. Boiling pressure 1. Insignificant impact on the 2 Comeau [13] R-404A (400 mT) drop pressure drop. 1. Evaporator COP 2. Evaporator 1. Boosts the evaporator capacity Samuel Sami R-410A, R-507, R- NdFeB permanent magnets 3 capacity and improves the compressor [14] 407C, and R-404A (400 mT) 3. Pressure ratio efficiency and COP. 4. Cycle COP 1. Enhances the COP with Mani and R290/R600a, R12, NdFeB permanent magnets 4 R290/R600a as compared with Selladurai [11] and R134a (400 mT) 1. Cycle COP others 1. Power 1. Decreases the energy utilization consumption 2. Advances in the cooling effect Tipole et al. NdFeB permanent magnets 5 R134a and R600a 2. Refrigeration effect 3. Enhancement in refrigerant [12] (300 mT) 3. Mass flow rate mass flow rate 4. COP 4. Enhances the COP 1. Power 1. Decreases the energy utilization consumption 2. Advances in the cooling effect NdFeB permanent magnets 8 Previous Study R134a 2. Refrigeration effect 3. Enhancement in refrigerant (300 mT and 720 mT) 3. Mass flow rate mass flow rate 4. COP 4. Enhances the COP NdFeB permanent magnets 1. Condenser heat 1. Enhancement in heat transfer 9 Previous Study R134a (300 mT) transfer coefficient coefficient Niu et al. [16] conducted a numerical investigation on the solution’s inlet, there is a 1.3% increase in the concentration impact of magnetization on the absorption process via a of the NH -H O solution at the exit, resulting in a 5.9% 3 2 mathematical absorption model for NH -H O falling film enhancement in absorbability. In a simple NH -H O 3 2 3 2 absorption. The mathematical model incorporates a absorption refrigeration system, the COP experiences a 4.73% macroscopic magnetic field force, considering variations in increase, accompanied by an 8.3% reduction in the circulation the physical characteristics of ammonia–water solution during ratio. absorption, variations in falling film thickness, and convection in the direction of the liquid film thickness. Niu et al. [17] carried out an experimental investigation of NH -H O falling film absorption under magnetic exposure of 3 2 Numerical results indicate a positive impact of the varying field strengths, orientations, and operating conditions. magnetization on NH -H O falling film absorption. The experimental findings revealed that in a downward 3 2 Specifically, at a magnetization strength of 3 T at the magnetic field, the outlet concentration of NH -H O, cooling 3 2 25 Rahul G. Deshmukh et al. / IJME, 11(4), 18-29, 2024 water outlet temperature, and absorption heat and mass were behaviour under actual operating conditions. The falling film higher compared to a non-magnetic field. Conversely, these of the NH -H O solution moved along the plates with co- 3 2 parameters decreased in an upward magnetic field. This current vapour flow and counter-current coolant fluid flow. A suggests that a magnetic field aligned with the falling film brief work of the absorber, along with native analyses derived direction enhances absorption, while a magnetic field from temperature measurements along the falling film, were opposing the falling film weakens the absorption of NH -H O. offered. 3 2 The study also indicated that the impact of the magnetization on absorption is more pronounced in solutions with low inlet A mathematical model and simulation tool were concentration. established to complement the investigational work, with a parametric study focusing on the impact of coolant mass flow Niu et al. [18] explored the impact of magnetiztion on rate. The model’s validation with investigational data ammonia absorption in an NH -H O absorption refrigeration demonstrated the highest relative error of 15%. The outcomes 3 2 system. The study experimentally explored the changes in the propose that, in the absorption process, mass transfers are viscosity and heat conductivity of NH -H O under a magnetic primarily constrained by the falling film mass transfer 3 2 field. The magnetization was achieved using an electromagnet resistance, while the liquid-side heat transfer resistance is with intensities ranging from 1326.4 to 2613.5 Gauss, and insignificant. magnetization times of 10, 20, and 30 minutes were examined. Wu and Ortiz et al. [22] conducted an investigational Results revealed that magnetization led to a decrease in study exploring the enhancement of VARS with the help of the viscosity of the NH -H O solution, with a more significant magnetization, which generates slip movement of 3 2 reduction observed under stronger magnetic fields and longer nanoparticles in a nanofluid. The experiments were conducted magnetization times. Conversely, heat conductivity increased in an adiabatic falling film absorber using a blend of lithium with prolonged magnetization time and higher magnetizing bromide-water solution and Iron (III) nanopowder, with intensity. These changes in viscosity and heat conductivity particles less than 50nm at a mass fraction of 0.17% in the were attributed to the Lorentz force and the breaking of fluid. hydrogen bonds in the microstructure of magnetized NH- 3 H O. The results demonstrated an increase in vapour 2 absorption rates by 17.6% and 4.9% when the nanofluid Odunfa et al. [20] explored absorption improvement as a circulated at 3L per min and 3.5L per min, respectively, in prominent means of enhancing the performance of comparison with the reference fluid. Notably, a further refrigeration systems, with a focus on enhancement using enhancement was observed when external magnetic fields magnetization. This paper presents a model for magnetization influenced the movement of nanoparticles in the fluid. With improvement in ammonia-water absorption systems, the magnetization in place, the vapour absorption rates were employing a theoretical model developed based on 1.58 times and 1.32 times more developed than those in the conservation equations and mass transport relationships. The absence of the nanofluid circulating at 3.5L per min and 3.0L momentum equation was enriched with a macroscopic per min, respectively. magnetization force. Jadhav et al. [19] present a simulation model aimed at Validation of the model was performed using literature analysing and forecasting magnetization patterns along with data. The study investigated changes in the physical properties magnetic flux density on pipes. Various magnet arrangements, of NH -H O solution during absorption in both the direction including series, parallel, and Halbach arrays, are examined, 3 2 of the falling film and across its thickness. The magnetization and their respective magnetization flux density and demonstrated a considerable influence on NH -H O falling magnetization strength are related to the pipes. Utilizing 3 2 film absorption, with enhanced absorption performance electromagnetic field simulation software, the study computes correlating with increased magnetization strength. Notably, diverse magnetization patterns and circuit parameters, the performance of a simple NH -H O solution absorption allowing for precise outcomes in terms of optimal magnet 3 2 refrigeration system exhibited a 1.9% and 3.6% increase for arrangements. magnetization strength of 14000 and 30000 Gauss, respectively. Neodymium-35-type magnets with stable magnetic strength are employed for the experimentation. The findings Triché et al. [21] conducted comprehensive from different magnetic arrangements are expected to be investigational and numerical investigations on heat and mass highly beneficial in selecting the appropriate magnet transfer in a falling film absorber, utilizing a plate heat arrangement for diffusion absorption refrigeration systems, exchanger configured for falling film absorption with an NH- offering potential alternatives to conventional vapour 3 H O solution. The study employed a prototype of an NH -H O compression refrigeration systems in domestic cooling 2 3 2 absorption chiller (as shown in Figure 14) to examine absorber applications. 26 Rahul G. Deshmukh et al. / IJME, 11(4), 18-29, 2024 Table 5. Impact of magnetic treatment on performance of VARS S. Source of Magnetic Author Refrigerant Parameters Magnetic Field Effects No. Field 1. 5.9% enhancement in absorbability 1. Absorbability 2. COP experiences a 4.73% increase 1 Niu et al. [16] Ammonia–water 0 to 3 T 2. COP 3. Reduction in circulation ratio by 3. Circulation ratio 8.3% 1. Outlet concentration 1. In downside magnetization, the of NH -H O outlet concentration of NH -H O, 3 2 3 2 2. Cooling water outlet cooling water outlet temperature, and 2 Niu et al. [17] Ammonia–water 0 to 0.2 T temperature, absorption heat and mass are higher in 3. Absorption of heat comparison with no magnetization. and mass 1326.4 to 2613.5 1.Viscosity 1. Decrement in flow resistance 3 Niu et al. [18] Ammonia–water Gauss 2. Heat conductivity 2. Increment in heat conductivity 1. Halbach array enhances heat Jadhav et al. 4. Ammonia–water 0.1 to 0.6 T 1. Heat absorption absorption in comparison with other [19] arrangements 1. Performance of a simple NH -H O 3 2 solution absorption refrigeration Odunfa et al. system exhibited a 1.9% and 3.6% 5 Ammonia–water 1.4 T and 3 T [20] 1. Cycle COP increase for magnetic inductions of 14000 and 30000 Gauss, respectively Wu and Ortiz 1. Vapour absorption 6 Ammonia–water -------- 1. Boost in vapour absorption rate et al. [22] rates Fig. 14 Prototype of an ammonia-water absorption chiller [23] 5. Conclusion 1. Many applications, specifically VCRS and VARS, This review paper comprehensively explores the impact have the benefit of magnetization on heat transfer, of magnetization on electrically conducting fluids, with a refrigerant properties, and overall performance, focus on their applications in VCRS and VARS. The paper thereby motivating researchers to delve further into this also explores the root cause of changes in the thermophysical promising field. properties of fluids. 2. More emphasis should be placed on experimental investigations concerning the impact of magnetic Some of the specific conclusions identified in this article exposure on refrigerants. are: 27 Rahul G. Deshmukh et al. / IJME, 11(4), 18-29, 2024 3. Greater importance should be provided on the insufficient emphasis on the environmental aspect. mathematical modelling aspect of magnetized VCRS Consequently, greater attention should be directed systems, as none of the reviewed papers have presented towards developing eco-friendly magnetized a comprehensive mathematical model considering the refrigeration systems. influence of magnetic fields. 7. The influence of magnetism and magnetization on 4. The influence of magnetic treatment on refrigerant refrigeration systems is still regarded as a relatively flow has gained relatively little consideration in unexplored and not well-understood subject. existing research activities. 5. Numerous researchers have explored the impact of Acknowledgments magnetic pairs on refrigeration system performance; The authors would like to express their gratitude to the there is a need for increased focus on investigating the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Shri Ramdeobaba effects of alternative configurations such as ring College of Engineering and Management, Nagpur, for their magnets and Halbach arrays. support in conducting this work. 6. The majority of research efforts have concentrated on enhancing system performance, and there has been References [1] Samuel M. Sami, and Shawn Aucoin, “Effect of Magnetic Field on the Performance of New Refrigerant Mixtures,” International Journal of Energy Research, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 203–214, 2003. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme peut améliorer les performances des moteurs, mais le manque de preuves uniformes freine l'adoption."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Cette étude utilise des aimants pour rendre le diesel plus propre avant qu'il n'arrive dans les moteurs. Le diesel contient des polluants appelés hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques (HAP) qui ne sont pas assez faibles pour respecter les normes écologiques modernes (EURO-5). Pour retirer ces polluants, on utilise une technique d'extraction chimique (avec un produit appelé N-méthylpyrrolidone). Les chercheurs ont trouvé qu'en appliquant un champ magnétique (20 milliTesla) pendant cette extraction, le procédé fonctionne mieux. L'aimant aide le produit chimique à \"attraper\" les polluants, réduisant ainsi la quantité de HAP à un niveau acceptable. Ce n'est pas un gain direct sur le moteur, mais cela améliore la qualité du carburant lui-même."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "La magnétisation augmente l'énergie de combustion (712,50 kJ) des mélanges essence/bioéthanol."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Review summarizing results on magnetically assisted combustion, citing a maximum CO reduction up to 40.00% [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "La magnétisation des carburants permet une réduction notable des polluants."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "INT ERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY STUDIES e-ISSN: 2717-7513 (ONLINE); homepage: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ijes Review Article Received : 30 Dec 2023 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 Revised : 30 Jan 2024 DOI: 10.58559/ijes.1412125 Accep ted : 05 Feb 2024 A review of magnetic field assisted combustion Ozan Öztürka,b*, Murat Taştanc aDal aman School of Civil Aviation, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, 48680, Muğla, Turkiye, ORCID: 0000-0002-4959-6808 bGraduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Erciyes University, 38280, Kayseri, Turkiye, ORCID: 0000-0002-4959-6808 cFac ulty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Erciyes University, 38280, Kayseri, Turkiye, ORCID: 0000-0001-9988-2397 (*Corresponding Author: [email protected]) Highlights  Impact of Magnetic Fields on Combustion Processes.  Fuel Atomization and Homogeneous Fuel-Air Mixtures.  Potential for Emission Reduction. You can cite this article as: Öztürk O, Taştan M. A review of magnetic field assisted combustion. Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175- 198. ABSTRACT Since the early 1980s, research on magnetically enhanced combustion has garnered significant attention and importance. These studies have primarily focused on investigating the influence of magnetic fields on the combustion process of fue ls. During this period, studies that highlighted the potential to alter molecular structures and properties through powerful magnetic fields emerged as significant contributors to the field. Simultaneously, the effects of magnetic fields on flame formation, behavior, and propagation have been thoroughly explored through various combustion models and experiments. The significance of these investigations lies in their contribution to a better understanding of the effects of combustion on energy efficiency and emission profiles. The capability of strong magnetic fields to modify molecular arrangements can enhance fuel atomization, promoting the creation of a more homogeneous fuel-air mixture. Additionally, the potential of magnetic fields to influence the reaction rates and behavior of gas molecules holds promise for achieving improved combustion and reduced emission production. Investigations have also focused on how chemical reactions of fuels are altered under magnetic fields and how these changes translate into motor performance. Specifically, research has highlighted how chain reactions such as gas combustion and explosion can be altered under magnetic fields, potentially reducing the production of harmful emissions like carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. In this context, a comprehensive exploration of various aspects such as flame formation, engine performance, emissions, and explosion intensity under the influence of magnetic fields is of paramount importance. Future endeavors can potentially yield a more profound and precise understanding of the effects of magnetic fields on combustion processes and enable the utilization of this knowledge for more efficient and cleaner energy production across different industrial applications. Keywords: Combustion in magnetic field, Pollution emissions, Combustion instabilities 175 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 1. INTRODUCTION Energy is an essential part of the economy and everyday life, playing a crucial role in the future of societies and nations [1]. Between 1960 and 2020, the world population increased from 3.03 billion to 7.75 billion, marking a 254% growth [2]. With this population surge, the supply and demand for energy are also changing. In 2020, while oil and natural gas production reached 4.296 million tons, the total demand recorded was 4.070 million tons, resulting in an imbalance of 226 million tons between supply and demand [3]. The combustion process holds a significant role in generating thermal and mechanical energy. However, the emission gases resulting from this reaction pollute the environment. An array of emissions, encompassing nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, water vapor, sulfur oxides, particulates, and assorted compounds, are discharged into the atmosphere Incomplete combustion releases CO gas, while complete combustion yields water vapor. These reactions occur due to the interaction between hydrogen in the fuel and oxygen in the air. The adverse effects of combustion are observed both locally and globally [4]. In recent years, hydrogen has drawn attention as an alternative energy source, alongside various hydrocarbons. Particularly, the synthesis of gaseous fuels in combination has intrigued researchers [5]. At the same time, the discovery of the effects of powerful magnetic fields on molecular structures and their capacity to modify properties on a molecular scale has emerged. This discovery has directed researchers to explore the characteristics of fuels under magnetic fields, such as combustion efficiency, flame temperatures, and emission releases [6]. Magnetic fields find applications across various disciplines, including energy and combustion fields. They can influence chemical reaction rates [7,8], and magnetic fields can also induce combustion reactions and explosions [9]. Technology aimed at reducing global carbon emissions has made significant strides in recent years. Utilizing magnetic fields in fuel engines has the potential to diminish explosion emissions and improve combustion efficiency. The behavior of fuels during combustion can be affected by molecular-level magnetic interactions. For instance, the spin orientation of hydrogen can influence molecular behavior, and magnetic fields can alter this spin orientation. Additionally, magnetic fields can influence thermodynamic factors like binding energy and enthalpy, thereby directing fuel consumption [10-14]. 176 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 This review provides a comprehensive exploration of the influence of magnetic fields on combustion flames and internal combustion engines. By discussing the findings of pioneering studies in this field, our aim is to guide future researchers in this area. 2. EXPLORING THE INFLUENCE OF MAGNETIC FIELDS ON FUEL STRUCTURE AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FLAME DYNAMICS The effects of magnetic fields on the hydrocarbon structure, properties, and flame behavior will be discussed below. According to the results of research conducted on different types of fuels, the effects of magnetic fields on combustion processes have been examined. Figure 1. Schematic Representation of the Behaviour of The Combustion Flame Under Magnetic Field Shoogo et al. [15-17] investigated the influence of magnetic fields on flame structure and gas flow for fuels such as methane, propane, and hydrogen. Despite the use of different fuels, they concluded that the magnetic field significantly altered the shape of the flame and increased the combustion rate. It was observed that the combustion rate increased depending on the gradient of the magnetic field. Additionally, it was determined that the combustion temperature and rate changed depending on the magnetic field. The combustion temperature of methanol in a magnetic field has been thoroughly investigated over time. The findings indicate that varying magnetic field intensities reduce the flame temperature. Specifically, a 0.9 Tesla magnetic field has been determined to completely extinguish the flame. 177 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 Guo et al. [18] investigated the influence of magnetic fields on the viscosity of hydrocarbon fuels. They observed that increasing magnetic field strength increased viscosity change, especially noting a more pronounced decrease in viscosity with an increase in the number of carbon atoms, particularly in normal paraffinic hydrocarbons. The same study also revealed that magnetic fields reduced the surface tension of hydrocarbons. Research conducted by Wakayama [19-22] investigated the dynamics of gas flow in air under a gradient magnetic field ranging from 0 to 1.5 T. Observations revealed that the magnetic field exhibited fluctuations corresponding to changes in oxygen concentration, with higher oxygen levels correlating to increased magnetic force. Analysis of methane diffusion flames indicated that a negative gradient field heightened the burning velocity of diffusion flames, whereas its impact on premixed flames was negligible. Moreover, non-uniform magnetic fields were observed to stimulate combustion reactions within diffusion flames and augment gas flow in inclined regions.Magnetic fields can also create convective airflow and support combustion under microgravity conditions. Fujita et al. [23] explored the impact of magnetic fields on the behavior of laminar jet diffusion flames in a microgravity environment.In a study conducted under low (approximately 0 mT) and high (approximately 215 mT) magnetic fields, the effects of the magnetic field on flame shape, length, brightness, and color were evaluated. It was determined that with an increase in the magnetic field, the flame length decreased, and the flame color turned yellow with increased temperature. Morozov et al. [24] studied how a steady magnetic field changed the propagation conditions of the combustion wave. In their study, it was observed that combustion speed increased by 30% in a 0.27T magnetic field. It was noted that the increase in combustion speed was related to the degree of compression created by the magnetic field. The ionization of reactants at the combustion front resulted in the development of combustion electromotive force. Baker and Varagani [25] studied the behavior of laminar diffusion slot flames when subjected to non-uniform magnetic fields. Slot flames were specifically chosen for mathematical modeling purposes because of the ease in establishing a symmetrical magnetic field.This study observed a decrease in maximum flame temperature. 178 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 onducted numerical simulations to investigate the impact of a magnetic field on airflow at the inlet. Their findings indicated that the magnetic field augmented the airflow, resulting in a twofold increase in pressure difference.Tung et al. [27] addressed how magnetic forces affected the fluidity of crude oil and demonstrated the effect of magnetic fields on viscosity through electron microscopy analysis. Loskutova et al. [28] examined the effects of magnetic fields on the properties of resin, asphaltene, and paraffin hydrocarbons, showing their impact on factors like viscosity, antioxidants, and paramagnetic properties. Tao's studies [29,30] observed that strong and pulsed magnetic fields could reduce the viscosity of gasoline and diesel. Numerous researchers have extensively investigated the impact of magnetic fields on the performance of fuel combustion systems, yielding significant findings in this field. Saksono's research [31] examined the influence of multiple factors—such as magnetic density, pole orientation, fuel flow rate, and the distance between the magnet and the burner—on the efficiency of kerosene stoves. This study emphasized the potential of magnetization to enhance the efficiency of kerosene stoves. Chang and Weng's work [32] contained an important finding on how an increasing magnetic field affected hydrogen bonds in liquid water. This study proposed an interesting suggestion that magnetic fields could control the size of molecular clusters. Gillion et al.'s study [33] thoroughly investigated the influence of an axially symmetric superconducting magnetic field on propane combustion within burners. Their study elucidated the effects of magnetic fields on combustion reactions, proposing mechanisms such as the Lorentz force, direct impacts on chemical reactions, and indirect effects on oxygen. Evdokimov and Kornishin [34] observed how magnetic fuel conditioning led to a decrease in viscosity through the separation of colloids in oil. The research conducted by Legros and colleagues [35] explored the impact of high magnetic density on methane diffusion flames, suggesting that magnetic fields had the potential to augment instability and expand the flame's reaction zone. [36], addressing the effects of magnetic fields on molecules like n-hexane and benzene, suggested that magnetization could influence the vibration states of molecules, potentially increasing the fuel's kinetic and free energy. The work by Ugare et al. [37] explores the performance analysis of a single-cylinder, four-stroke compression-ignition 179 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 engine under the influence of a magnetic field. The magnetic field was applied along the fuel line using powerful permanent magnets with a strength of 5000 gauss. Various engine load conditions were examined in experiments, and exhaust gas emissions (CO, CO , HC, and NO ) were 2 x measured utilizing an exhaust gas analyzer. The application of the magnetic field resulted in a 12% reduction in fuel consumption, along with a 22% decrease in HC emissions and a 7% decrease in CO emissions. However, a notable 19% increase in NO levels was observed. Additionally, CO x 2 emissions from the compression-ignition engine experienced a 7% rise. Kumar and Shakher [38] extensively investigated how flames produced by a butane torch behaved under the presence of a magnetic field. These studies comprehensively addressed the effects of magnetic fields on fuel combustion systems, enhancing the knowledge in this field and paving the way for future research. Research conducted to understand the effects of magnetic fields on combustion processes addresses a complex topic. For instance, many of these studies have examined various fuel types to comprehend how magnetic fields influence combustion rates. The text may include examples or specific scenarios to better understand these interactions. For example, it could provide a more detailed explanation of how the combustion temperature of methanol in a magnetic field changes over time or discuss the factors influencing the impact of a magnetic field on the combustion process of a specific fuel type. Agarwal and colleagues' study [39] extensively analyzed the influence of magnetic fields on the temperature profile of diffusion flames, noting a reduction in flame temperature attributed to the presence of the magnetic field. Elamin et al.'s research [40] addressed the effects of magnetic fields on the properties of diesel fuel and cetane number. They explored effects on density and viscosity, concluding that magnetization improved the quality of diesel fuel. Singh's study [41] evaluated the influence of magnetic fields on flame behavior using dimensionless parameters and emphasized the importance of Froude, Grashoff, and Reynolds numbers. Wein-Fei Wu et al. [42] investigated methane combustion characteristics under strong magnetic fields and studied how magnetic fields affected flame temperature. Barmina et al. [43,44] conducted comprehensive research into the influence of magnetic forces on the combustion dynamics of wood biomass. Their investigation thoroughly analyzed the impact on flame speed, composition, temperature variations, and combustion efficiency profiles. Similarly, Barmina et al.'s studies [45] focused on the development of rotating flame dynamics under the influence of gradient magnetic fields, demonstrating that this effect led to more effective 180 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 vaporization and facilitated clean energy production. Morsi K.'s research [46] emphasized the principles and recent advancements in electrically driven combustion synthesis processes, highlighting the benefits of electric fields in these processes. Boben, Ramnath, and Lyons [47] investigated the effect of moderate magnetic fields on the temperature of diffusion flames, finding that decreasing magnetic fields led to a significant increase in local temperature. Agarwal and Shakher [48] examined the impact of magnetic fields on the temperature profile and flow characteristics of microflames using numerical modeling and experimental studies, detailing their results extensively. Di Renzo et al.'s study [49] explored differences in the strength of electrical failures in their experiment, and they used a thorough chemical model of methane-air combustion to pinpoint possible causes of these differences. Ramnath and Lyons [50] explored a technique involving low- strength permanent magnets to control propane diffusion flames. Marouf et al.'s work [51] examining the effects of magnetic fields on candle flames determined a positive effect on flame height and lifespan. Perdana et al.'s research [52], focusing on the effect of magnetic field orientation on the combustion properties of vegetable oil, explained the transformation of hydrogen protons with the electron becoming energetic, indicating that stronger magnetic poles could increase the combustion rate of vegetable oil. These studies have offered new perspectives on the impact of magnetic fields on fuel combustion processes from different angles, contributing to advancements in fuel technologies. Oxygen and water vapor behaved differently under magnetic fields, affecting heat distribution and combustion. Hence, it was found that in an attractive magnetic field, flame speed was highest, whereas in a repulsive magnetic field, it was lowest. Perdana [53] scrutinized the combustion process of olive oil droplets, exploring facets such as temperature changes, height, evolution, and ignition delay. A high-speed camera was utilized to observe the behavior of the olive oil droplet, positioned atop a K-type thermocouple, situated between two magnetic bars within a nitrogen-pressurized combustion chamber. The nitrogen pressure was tested at three different levels: 0.5, 1, and 1.5 bars. Results showed that 0.5 bar nitrogen pressure provided more stable flame evolution and stability. Additionally, it was found that 0.5 bar pressure resulted in higher temperature and shorter ignition delay compared to 1 bar 181 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 and 1.5 bar pressure. This was experimentally attributed to higher nitrogen pressure hindering the collision of olive oil vapor with air. Perdana et al. [54] investigated pre-mixed combustion with coconut oil, studying different perforated plates and magnetic field orientations. They found varied plate designs significantly affected flame stability, favoring an 11-hole plate at higher reactant velocities. The magnetic field notably accelerated combustion speeds, especially at 659°C using a 7-hole plate, attributed to electron spin's role in breaking carbon chain bonds in the fuel. In their study, Perdana et al. [55] explored the impact of magnetic fields on pre-mixed combustion using vegetable oil. Their findings indicated that the magnetic field enhanced laminar combustion speed by energizing electron spin, particularly notable with stronger electrical poles within vegetable oils. They observed that in repulsion poles, the laminar flame speed was lower compared to attraction poles. Perdana et al. [56] studied magnetic field effects on kapok oil combustion. They found that attractive fields created brighter, hotter flames compared to repulsive ones. Magnetic fields broke bonds in the flame, promoting high-temperature combustion with increased oxygen. Additionally, they enhanced heat transfer, altering flame heights via induced airflow. Zharfa and Karimi [57] examined the effect of a magnetic field on the reaction flow of hydrogen- methane fuel mixtures. Numerical simulations were conducted by adding obstacles to the inlet nozzles and applying magnetic fields of varying intensities, showing that the applied magnetic field significantly reduced the required preheating temperature for air in medium or heavily diluted oxygen combustion. They also observed that the applied magnetic field thickened the combustion flow and increased heat release. In their study, Zhang and Wie [58] examined altering solid fuel combustion rates to enhance solid- fueled ramjet performance. They experimentally and numerically explored magnetic field effects on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) rods' regression rates, observing changes in flame structure. Experimental results showcased varied regression rates (-32.5% to 10.8%) with different magnetic field effects on PMMA. Numerical simulations aligned with gas-phase combustion and gas-solid 182 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 heat transfer. Magnetic fields consistently adjusted combustion rates for paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, suggesting potential for tailored solid-fueled ramjet performance. Xie et al. [59] investigated the effect of vertically decreasing magnetic fields on the combustion characteristics of laminar biogas flames. They found no significant effect of the magnetic field on premixed flames, attributed to the low oxygen concentration and relatively high flow momentum of the injected gas. Varied oxygen distributions were determined to bring about better combustion and higher flame temperatures. In their study, Gap et al. [60] researched the suppression effects of magnetic fields on alkane gas explosions. The effects of alkane gas explosions on explosion pressure, pressure rise rate, and flame propagation speed were experimentally examined. The mechanism of alkane gas explosions was explained by combining experimental results with simulation and the gradient magnetic field force. It was found that the magnetic field significantly weakened alkane gas explosions, reducing flame propagation speed and explosion pressure. This effect was observed to be more pronounced in ethane gas explosions. They explained the mechanism of the effect of the magnetic field based on altering the orbit of free radicals, thereby preventing collisions. Zhou et al. [61] studied the impact and mechanism of magnetic fields on the explosion reaction of C H /air mixtures. They tested the explosion suppression capabilities of ferromagnetic and 3 8 diamagnetic materials, noting that ferromagnetic materials exhibited greater effectiveness in suppressing explosions. Moreover, they investigated the influence of a DC magnetic field on gas explosions, concluding that magnetizing the iron surface did not enhance explosion suppression capability. 3. MAGNETIC FIELD APPLICATIONS IN ENHANCING ENGINE COMBUSTION Numerous experimental studies consistently demonstrate that the application of an external magnetic field has the potential to enhance engine performance and mitigate pollution emissions. 183 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 Figure 2. Placement Diagram Of The Magnetic Field On The Engine Fuel Line Govindasamy and Dhandapani [62] delved into magnetically enhanced combustion by introducing NdFeB magnets with varying intensities into a single-cylinder two-stroke spark-ignition engine. Placing these magnets with their north pole directed towards the radiator core boosted the engine's Brake Thermal Efficiency by 3.2% and peak pressure by 6.1%, concurrently reducing unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions. In another study Govindasamy and Dhandapani [63], the utilization of single-pole magnetic technology amplified peak pressure per cycle in correlation with increased magnetic power. Govindasamy and Dhandapani [64] examined the impact of magnetic conditioning on Jatropha Biodiesel in a single-cylinder four-stroke diesel engine. Magnetic conditioning enhanced thermal efficiency by up to 5% and substantially reduced NO emissions, approaching near-zero levels. x Fatih et al. [65] demonstrated a remarkable 15% reduction in CO, HC, and NO emissions within x a four-cylinder four-stroke gasoline engine through the application of permanent magnets. This reduction consequently led to decreased Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC). It was observed that the magnetic field increased fuel ionization, resolved carbon buildup, and extended engine life. Due to enhanced combustion efficiency, methane concentration decreased by up to 40%. Faris et al. [66] investigated the effect of the magnetic field on the microstructure of fuel using ultraviolet and infrared absorption spectra. It was found that magnetization increased the ultraviolet absorption power of aromatic hydrocarbons, enhancing combustion efficiency by breaking bonds in aromatic rings. In tests conducted on a two-stroke spark-ignition engine, a notable decrease in specific fuel consumption of up to 14% was observed.Habbo et al. [67] 184 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 examined the effect of ignition timing on engine performance and emissions using magnetic coils. Altering ignition timing resulted in reduced specific fuel consumption and up to 8% decrease in exhaust gas temperature. Jain et al. [68] incorporated permanent magnets into both the fuel and air lines of a single-cylinder diesel engine. Tests revealed an increased reduction in fuel consumption with increasing load. Siregar and Nainggolan [69] tested electromagnetic fuel-saving devices made of plain carbon steel and copper under laboratory and road conditions. It was noted that copper cores were more effective in generating magnetic force, contrary to theoretical suggestions. Attar et al. [70] investigated the impact of magnetic fields on fuel consumption, assessing different magnetic strengths in both a stationary diesel engine and a motorized bicycle. Approximately 7 kmpl increase was observed in the motorcycle test, although it was noted that high magnetic intensities could negatively impact engine performance. Garg et al. [71] examined the performance and emission improvements of magnetically conditioned gasoline-powered car engines. All brands showed performance and emission enhancements, with an average increase in mileage performance ranging from 15% to 25%. Vijayakumar et al. [72] investigated the impact of applying a magnetic field to a single-cylinder four-stroke diesel engine using Ni-Cu-Ni-coated magnets. The conclusion was drawn that the magnetic field increased internal energy, thereby enhancing combustion efficiency. explored the influence of magnetic fuel treatment on combustion engine performance. Their tests, involving gasoline, diesel, and natural gas, highlighted the magnetic field's greatest efficacy with gasoline. The study suggested a stronger impact of magnetic fields on liquid-phase fuels, noting a quicker decline in effectiveness within the gas phase. Patel et al. [74] investigated the impact of magnetic conditioning in conjunction with a catalytic converter on performance and emission characteristics within a diesel engine.The combination of both technologies proved effective in improving performance and emissions. Sala & Notti [75] observed a 4.6% reduction in fuel consumption and a 14.1% decrease in CO emissions after installing an electromagnetic device on a fishing boat. Khedawan & Gaikwad [76] examined the influence of a magnetic field on hydrocarbon-based refrigerants. Their findings revealed reduced fuel consumption and exhaust concentration for the hydrocarbon-based R600, whereas no discernible effect was observed for the non-hydrocarbon-based R134A. Mohammed Al-Rawaf [77] noted a 5.5% reduction in fuel consumption and a 13.5% increase in brake thermal efficiency in a Mercedes Benz engine running on Iraqi gasoline with magnetic fuel 185 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 conditioning. Gabina et al. [78] investigated the effect of magnetic devices on improving energy efficiency in fishing vessels and observed reduced fuel consumption under laboratory conditions. Gad [79] analyzed the influence of magnetic fuel conditioning on the performance and emission traits of a single-cylinder diesel engine across diverse conditions. Chen et al. [80] investigated the performance and emissions of a diesel generator equipped with a magnetic tube attachment. They noted a 3.5% reduction in fuel consumption alongside an enhancement in brake thermal efficiency. Tipole et al. [81] studied a diesel engine integrated with magnetic flux and found the highest improvement at 9000 G magnetic intensity. Kurji & Imran [82] reported a 15.71% decrease in fuel consumption by placing permanent magnets before the injection pump in a CI engine. Sahoo & Jain [83] examined the impact of nano-fuel additives with magnetic fuel conditioning and highlighted that the magnetic field facilitated better atomization of fuel particles. Niaki et al. [84] found that magnetic fuel conditioning improved fuel economy by 4% to 12% and reduced emissions on a multi-cylinder gasoline engine. Oommen & Narayanappa [85] explored the impact of magneticfield-supported combustion on gas and liquid phase fuels, specifically gasoline and LPG, within an automobile engine, assessing its influence on emission levels.The magnetic field positively affected combustion, reducing toxic components in both fuel types with a decrease of 20.58% in CO and 14.47% in UBHC emissions. In another study [86], they explored the interaction between magnetic field-supported LPG combustion and partial EGR. Applied magnetic fields improved LPG combustion characteristics, leading to a 13.8% fuel economy increase and a 3.9% increase in brake thermal efficiency. In their study [87], they investigated the impact of magneto-ignition on air polluting gas emitted by a multi-point fuel-injected car engin. Magneto-ignition reduced toxic emissions and restructured the hydrocarbon composition, with reductions of 23.97% in CO, 13.1% in UBHC, and 5.23% in NO . x In a different study with a gasoline-fed engine, the authors [88] investigated combustion characteristics under a magnetic field and found decreased exhaust emissions and enhanced engine performance. In their recent study [89], they examined the charge combustion mixed with inert exhaust gas under a strong magnetic field, observing increased fuel oxidation and reduced cycle variability. Pawar & Hudgikar [90], in their study, suggested that permanent magnets could enhance gasoline combustion, improving the performance of internal combustion engines while reducing exhaust emissions. They observed that a strong magnetic field altered the fuel structure, allowing better 186 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 atomization. This effect could reduce fuel consumption while aiding in the reduction of exhaust pollutants by enhancing combustion efficiency. 4. EMISSIONS FROM ENGINES Engines play a crucial role in modern industry and transportation; however, their operations can lead to the release of various pollutants into the atmosphere. Emission gases produced during the combustion process pose a substantial threat to both the environment and human health. This article examines the types of emission gases originating from engines and their environmental impacts. These gases primarily consist of combustion by-products, including Particulate Matter (PM), Nitrogen Oxides (NO ), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Sulfur Dioxide (SO ), and Carbon Dioxide x 2 (CO ). Emission gases from engines can result in air pollution, acid rain, climate change, water 2 and soil pollution, impacting living organisms. They pose a significant threat to both human health and the environment. Cleaner fuel technologies, innovative engine designs, and strict regulations offer opportunities to mitigate these adverse effects. Investments in sustainable transportation and energy sources are essential for controlling emission gases and creating a habitable environment for future generations [91-93]. 4.1. Potential Applications of Magnetic Field to Combustion Among the prospective applications of applying magnetic fields to fuels are increasing the combustion rate, enhancing engine performance, reducing emissions, and improving fuel efficiency. It has been observed that magnetic fields increase laminar flame velocity and optimize combustion processes in Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel [94]. Additionally, by influencing fuel molecules, magnetic fields can lead to better reactions with oxygen and improved combustion, especially in hydrocarbon fuels [95]. Furthermore, the application of magnetic fields to microalgae cultivation has shown promising results in achieving high-efficiency biomass concentration and accumulating carbohydrates and lipids, making it a viable alternative for third-generation biofuel production [96]. Research has indicated that magnetic field induction affects the characteristics of pre-mixed ethanol combustion flames, resulting in more effective and efficient flames [97]. Moreover, magnetization of bioethanol-gasoline fuel blends has been demonstrated to increase combustion energy in internal combustion engines, reduce emissions, and enhance combustion quality [98]. 187 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 It has been found that magnetic fields have various effects on combustion and explosions, leading to potential industrial applications. Firstly, they can enhance fuel efficiency and engine performance by increasing the combustion rate and improving the reaction between fuel and oxygen [95]. Secondly, magnetic fields can reduce emissions by influencing the orientation of hydrocarbons and facilitating the oxidation process [99]. Thirdly, they have been shown to be beneficial for biofuel production, such as increasing the laminar flame velocity of biodiesel from Calophyllum Inophyllum [100]. Additionally, magnetic fields can improve the efficiency of gas turbines by increasing oxygen intake and reducing particulate agglomeration [101]. Finally, by influencing the behavior of chain-like aggregates and increasing flame intensity, magnetic fields have the potential to prevent explosions [102]. These findings emphasize the potential of magnetic fields in improving combustion processes and their relevance to real-world applications. The negative effects of magnetic fields on fuel combustion are limited, but there are some potential challenges and disadvantages that need to be considered. Issues with combustion stability may arise when magnetic fields are applied [94]. Additionally, oxidation problems can occur as magnetic fields may influence the molecules involved in the combustion process [99]. Furthermore, a decrease in fuel efficiency may be observed when magnetic fields are utilized [97]. Considering the cost of additional equipment and resources required for magnetic field application, the cost of magnetization is another factor that needs to be taken into account [95]. Moreover, the natural properties of the fuel can change when exposed to magnetic fields [100]. Determining the optimal conditions for combustion when magnetic fields are present can also be challenging. In general, while magnetic fields can have positive effects on combustion, there are potential disadvantages that need to be considered. 5. CONCLUSION This comprehensive literature review delves into the effects of magnetic fields on fuel combustion processes from a diverse array of perspectives. Various studies have demonstrated that magnetic fields augment combustion rates, alter flame structures, and influence fuel properties. Nonetheless, in some instances, the impact of magnetic fields can lead to alterations in combustion rates, flame temperatures, and fuel characteristics. In the concluding section of the article, attention can be directed toward the following key points: 188 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 Effect of Magnetic Fields on Combustion Efficiency: The studies conducted generally indicate an enhancement in combustion efficiency due to magnetic fields. This augmentation correlates with changes in combustion rates and is achieved through the intervention of magnetic fields in the combustion process. Changes in Emissions and Environmental Impacts: Magnetic fields have the potential to reduce emissions during the fuel combustion process. This could be attributed to the promotion of a cleaner combustion process, which may have a positive impact on atmospheric pollution and environmental concerns. Alterations in Physical and Chemical Properties of Fuel: It's observed that magnetic fields affect fuel viscosity, surface tension, and molecular structures. These effects could play a significant role in optimizing the combustion process. Impact on Engine Performance and Fuel Economy: Several studies suggest that magnetic fields can improve both engine performance and fuel economy. They may facilitate better combustion of fuel and its more efficient utilization. Applicability and Potential of Magnetization Technology: Research on the practical applications and industrial uses of magnetic fields underscores the potential of this technology. However, the effects of magnetic fields on different fuel types and engine systems might require further investigation. The recommendation section can provide a framework for future research endeavors: Further Exploration of Magnetic Fields: More comprehensive experimental studies are necessary to explore interactions between different fuel types, engine systems, and magnetic fields. Industrial Application of Magnetic Fields: More research is needed on the practical applications of magnetic fields in industrial systems. Their impact on industrial efficiency and environmental sustainability should be evaluated. Effects of Magnetic Fields on Emission Control: The potential of magnetic fields in emission control and reduction of atmospheric pollution needs to be more thoroughly examined. 189 Int J Energy Studies 2024; 9(1): 175-198 These conclusions and recommendations could serve as a foundational basis to comprehend the effects of magnetic fields on fuel combustion processes and guide future research in this field. SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS °C: Celsius degrees. m: Meter. %: Percent. mT: Millitesla CH: Hydrocarbons like methane. NdFeB: Neodymium Iron Boron CI: Compression Ignition. N: Newton (unit of force). CFD: Computational Fluid Dynamics. Ni-Cu-Ni: Nickel-Copper-Nickel. C H : Propane. NO : Nitrogen oxides. 3 8 x CO: Carbon Monoxide. O : Oxygen gas. 2 CO : Represents carbon dioxide gas. PM: Particulate Matter. 2 DC: Direct current. PMMA: Polymethyl methacrylate (a polymer). DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid. ppm: Parts per million (a part in a million). EGR: Exhaust Gas Recirculation. SFC: Specific Fuel Consumption. G: Gauss (unit of magnetic field). SO : Sulfur Dioxide. 2 H : Hydrogen. SO : Sulfur oxides. 2 x HC: Hydrocarbons. T: Tesla (unit of magnetic field). IR: Infrared. UBHC: Unburned Hydrocarbons. kmpl: Kilometers per liter UV: Ultraviolet. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Review exploring magnetization factors (Nd-Fe-B favored). The Halbach array is mentioned for its potential to optimize the magnetic field gradient, despite the high variability in results [470, Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'optimisation du champ magnétique par des techniques avancées comme le réseau Halbach est essentielle, mais les résultats sont variables en pratique."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Jurnal Kejuruteraan 35(1) 2023: 105-115 https://doi.org/10.17576/jkukm-2023-35(1)-10 105 Ulasan: Kebolehan Medan Magnet Merawat Bahan Api Hidrokarbon dalam Enjin Pembakaran Dalam (Review: Magnetic Field Ability to Treat Hydrocarbon Fuel in Internal Combustion Engine) Ahmad Fazli Mohamad Nor, Wan Mohd Faizal Wan Mahmood* & Muhamad Alias Md Jedi Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia *Corresponding author: [email protected] Received 4 March 2022, Received in revised form 4 July 2022 Accepted 5 August 2022, Available online 30 January 2023 ABSTRAK Peningkatan penggunaan bahan api fosil dan tahap pencemaran udara yang tinggi mendorong penyelidik meneroka pelbagai kaedah untuk mengurangkan kesannya. Selain daripada naiktaraf komponen enjin, modifikasi molekul bahan api juga berupaya menyumbang kepada penyelesaian. Penggunaan medan medan pada paip bahan api sebelum ianya dipancit dalam enjin menjadi salah satu alternatif penting bagi meningkatkan penyampaian enjin dan mengurangkan pembebasan gas ekzos yang mencemarkan. Kajian terdahulu membuktikan bawaha medan magnet berupaya meningkatkan kadar pembakaran dengan mempengaruhi molekul bahan api. Setelah rawatan magnet dilakukan, atom hidrogen dalam bahan api hidrokarbon lebih cenderung untuk bertindakbalas dengan molekul oksigen dan menghasilkan pembakaran yang lebih sempurna. Namun, keputusan yang diperolehi daripada penyelidik adalah berbeza-beza daripada segi kadar penjimatan dan pengeluaran gas ekzos yang bergantung kepada keadaan ujikaji tertentu. Walaupun sesetengah penyelidik berjaya merekodkan penjimatan bahan api yang signifikan dan persis, namun kaedah ini masih belum popular dikalangan pengeluar kenderaan dan pengguna. Objektif laporan ini diterbitkan adalah bagi membincangkan kajian berkaitan pengaruh medan magnet kepada bahan api hidrokarbon dan kesan pembakarannya dalam enjin. Penemuan daripada penyelidikan terdahulu hingga kini dirangkumkan yang menerangkan perihal tindakbalas molekul bahan api semasa rawatan magnet dijalankan serta faktor-faktor utama yang menyumbang kepada pengionan yang lebih berkesan dalam meningkatan prestasi enjin dan pengurangkan gas ekzos secara ketara. Kata kunci: Enjin; prestasi; penggunaan bahan api; gas ekzos; magnet ABSTRACT The increasing consumption of fossil fuels and the high emission of exhaust gases have encouraged researchers to explore different approaches to reduce its consequences. Apart from focussing on the engine components, modifications on the fuel molecules can also deliver huge improvement. Using magnetic fields on the fuel line becomes one of the promising alternatives to give a better performance of the engine and produce less hazardous emissions. Previous researchers have proven that the magnetic field could enhance combustion rate by influencing the fuel molecules. After the magnetic treatment, hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbon fuel tend to react better with oxygen molecules, thus creating more improved combustion. However, the results were varied among the researchers with huge ranges, especially in the rate of fuel-saving and emissions depending on the experiment’s setup. While many previous researchers have reported significant improvement in engine performance with the use of the magnetic fields on the fuel line, some reported insignificant effects. Despite the promising potential, this method has not received much attention from both automotive manufacturers and users. The objective of this paper is to discuss the previous studies regarding influences of the magnetic field to the hydrocarbon fuel and engine’s output. Based on the up-to-date research findings, discussion and explanations consisting of molecular reactions, important factors in influencing the changes in the engine performance and exhaust emissions are to be discussed. Keywords: Engine; performance; fuel consumption; emission; magnet 106 PENGENALAN ianya hadir dengan kos yang tinggi dan negara membangun pasti sukar menanganinya. Penyelidik cuba meneroka Sejak revolusi perindustrian pertama bermula, bahan api kaedah lain dengan melakukan modifikasi kepada bahan fosil telah diekstrak secara besar-besaran bagi menampung api dan menggunakan bahan api yang lebih mesra alam permintaan industri. Sehingga kini, ia masih menjadi sumber (Alagumalai 2014). terpenting dalam sektor tenaga dan dilihat kebergantungan Oleh kerana banyak kesan buruk terhasil, kadar terhadapnya semakin meningkat walaupun banyak usaha penggunaan sumber perlu diminimumkan. Pelbagai mencari alternatif lain telah dijalankan (Martins et al. penyelidikan meningkatkan prestasi enjin pembakaran 2019). Penggunaan bahan api hidrokarbon bagi tahun dalam dan mengurangkan gas ekzos telah dijalankan tanpa 2017 melonjak sebanyak 1.7 juta tong sehari mengatasi menaiktaraf enjin secara major. Antaranya, pengawalan purata penggunaan sepuluh tahun dahulu. Peningkatan susunan molekul udara masukan sebelum dipancit ke dalam drastik yang dicatat ini bersamaan 2.2% peningkatan kebuk pembakaran (Cheruyiot et al. 2015), menambah secara tahunan yang menyumbang kepada pembebasan gas kandungan oksigen semasa pancitan (Baskar & Senthilkumar ekzos yang tinggi serta meningkatkan suhu bumi (British 2016), modifikasi masa dan tempoh suntikan bahan api (Sayin Petroleum 2018). Namun, penurunan penggunaan bahan api & Canakci 2009), pengoptimuman operasi EGR (Maiboom dicatat pada tahun 2020 iaitu sebanyak 4.5% disebabkan et al. 2008), penambahan pemangkin dalam bahan api oleh faktor penularan sejagat Covid-19 (British Petroleum (Mehta et al. 2013), meningkatkan tindak balas pembakaran 2021). Penggunaan bahan api hidrokarbon secara besar- bahan api dengan air (Chang et al. 2013; Tsai et al. 2015), besaran bukan sahaja memberi kesan kepada peningkatan kajian bahan pemangkin dalam penukar bermangkin (He harga komoditinya, malah penggunaannya melalui enjin & Yu 2005) dan penggunaan penapis partikel pada bahan yang tidak cekap menyumbang kepada kesan rumah api (Heeb et al. 2007). Satu kaedah yang kurang mendapat hijau (Lelieveld et al. 2019). Kesan daripada pembakaran perhatian adalah kaedah penggunaan medan magnet bagi kurang sempurna juga menyumbang kepada pembebasan meningkatkan prestasi enjin dan mengurangkan gas ekzos. gas berbahaya yang boleh menyebabkan kematian serta Kaedah ini boleh dilakukan kerana tindak balas semula jadi memberi kesan buruk kepada sudut ekonomi (Brugha & terhasil antara medan magnet dan molekul hidrokarbon. Grigg 2014; IARC Working Group 2015; Lelieveld et al. Susunan molekul hidrokarbon diperbaiki selepas melalui 2019; De Marco et al. 2019; Ochoa-Hueso et al. 2017). medan magnet yang mencukupi lalu meningkatkan kadar Mitigasi segera perlu dilakukan bagi mengurangkan kesan tindakbalas dengan molekul oksigen (Abdul-Wahhab et al. kepada alam (Kuo & Smith 2018). Penghasilan partikel asap 2016). Fokus laporan ini adalah menentukan dan menerokai yang halus daripada enjin diesel juga berbahaya yang boleh faktor penting dalam rawatan medan magnet yang akan menyebabkan ia diserap jauh ke dalam paru-paru (Dang et diulas dan dibincangkan dengan lebih terperinci. al. 2008). Pemakaian piawai emisi yang lebih ketat menyebabkan KAJIAN PERPUSTAKAAN pengeluar kereta tidak mempunyai pilihan iaitu beralih daripada enjin pembakaran dalaman (Reynaert 2020). Namun pertukaran keseluruhan teknologi yang lebih PEMBAKARAN BAHAN API HIDROKARBON hijau memerlukan masa. Semakin lama tempoh teknologi Bahan api yang diperoleh daripada pengekstrakan minyak itu untuk matang, semakin banyak kesan buruk terhasil mentah petroleum terdiri daripada rantaian molekul daripada pembakaran enjin yang tidak cekap. Chen & hidrokarbon yang kompleks. Ikatan karbonnya wujud dalam Borken-Kleefeld (2016) menyatakan penyusutan prestasi bentuk rantaian panjang dan rantaian cincin yang terikat enjin direkodkan antara 5-10% bagi kenderaan enjin diesel secara tepu dan tidak tepu. Molekul hidrokarbon wujud selepas sela perjalanan 250,000 km. Antara penyumbang dalam isomer yang berbeza-beza iaitu parafin, naftalena, kepada masalah ini adalah penghasilan produk yang tidak aromatik dan olefin yang mempunyai sifat yang berbeza. diingini seperti pembentukan mendakan karbon yang tidak Namun, parafin dengan ikatan tepu (kumpulan alkana) terbakar sempurna. Keadaan ini menyebabkan gangguan adalah yang paling lazim (Gonçalves et al. 2011). operasi pada komponen penting enjin di dalam kebuk Tindak balas pembakaran bahan api hidrokarbon hanya pembakaran, pemancit dan karburator (Fatih & M.Saber boleh berlaku apabila ia meruwap dan bercampur dengan 2010). molekul oksigen. Pada kondisi biasa, sebahagian molekul Pelbagai modifikasi dan naiktaraf telah dibuat ke atas oksigen gagal menembusi ke dalam kluster molekul sistem enjin sediada bagi meningkatkan kadar pembakaran. hidrokarbon menyebabkan percampuran tidak berlaku Kecekapan haba brek yang biasa dicatat bagi enjin dengan baik (Nedunchezhian & Dhandapani 1999). Antara pada sebuah lori kapasiti sederhana adalah sekitar 40% kesan buruk daripadanya adalah penghasilan mendakan pada keadaan tanpa beban. Nilai ini dilihat masih pada karbon pada komponen dalam enjin, pelepasan hidrokarbon tahap yang rendah dan pelbagai usaha dilakukan untuk tidak terbakar (HC) serta pelepasan gas karbon monoksida meningkatkannya (Johnson & Joshi 2017). Pengenalan (CO) dan jelaga yang tinggi (Sankar et al. 2018). teknologi baharu seperti hibrid dan enjin elektrik dapat Antara kaedah meningkatkan tahap pembakaran dalam menyediakan penyelesaian yang lebih holistik. Namun, enjin adalah dengan mengkaji karakter molekul bahan api 107 semasa pembakaran. Penyelidik lebih tertumpu melakukan dengan berkesan. Ini membolehkan tindak balas antara kajian terhadap tindak balas atom hidrogen memandangkan molekul oksigen dengan molekul hidrokarbon meningkat, tenaga bagi setiap jisim molekul (energy per molecular seterusnya menghasilkan pembakaran yang lebih sempurna. mass) yang dibebaskan semasa pembakaran oleh hidrogen Setiap bendalir juga menunjukkan tindak balas melebihi karbon (Ugare et al. 2013). Oleh itu, usaha paramagnetik ataupun diamagnetik bergantung kepada meningkatkan tindak balas pembakaran adalah dengan komposisinya. Tindak balas ini wujud kerana momen melakukan modifikasi kepada konfigurasi atom hidrogen magnet telah wujud secara semula jadi hasil daripada dalam sebatian cecair bahan api agar tindakbalas dengan putaran cas positif proton dan cas negatif elektron. oksigen dipertingkatkan semasa pembakaran. Apabila medan magnet luar diberikan, elektron cenderung menyerap tenaga tersebut dan bergerak dengan tenaga yang lebih tinggi. Daya Van Der Waals semakin melemah TINDAK BALAS MEDAN MAGNET dan ikatan kovalen daripada perkongsian elektron valen mudah diatasi. Kluster padat hidrokarbon semakin mudah Medan magnet boleh diperoleh daripada sumber magnet dipecahkan lalu menyebabkan oksigen berupaya sampai ke kekal dan elektromagnet. Magnet kekal adalah lebih baik dalam sebatian ketika pembakaran. Tindak balas oksigen memandangkan tiada tenaga luar yang diperlukan dan semasa pembakaran juga bergantung kepada keadaan atom kekuatannya tidak berkurang dengan masa (Sahoo & Jain hidrogen dalam sebatian. Pada suhu bilik, kebanyakan atom 2019). Kebanyakan penyelidik memilih magnet aloi yang hidrogen wujud dalam keadaan hidrogen para iaitu ia wujud terdiri daripada neodymium, ferum dan boron (Nd-Fe-B) secara rapat. Arah putaran proton (proton spin) hidrogen kerana nisbah kekuatan kepada saiznya paling tinggi memainkan peranan menentukan keadaan ini. Putaran proton berbanding magnet Ferrite, Alnico dan Samarium-Cobalt. sesuatu atom hidrogen pada arah bertentangan dengan atom Kelebihan lain magnet Nd-Fe-B adalah sifat menghalang hidrogen yang lain seperti pada rajah 1(a) menghasilkan sifat pengaratannya yang tinggi dan sesuai bagi aplikasi yang yang kurang reaktif. Momen magnet yang terhasil adalah mementingkan saiz yang kecil (Attar et al. 2020; Fathallah sejajar namun pada arah yang bertentangan menyebabkan et al. 2020; Trout 2000). Walaubagaimanapun, kawalan suhu dua atom berdekatan tertarik. Hidrogen tersusun dengan operasi perlu dilakukan bagi memastikan suhu operasi adalah lebih rapat dan menunjukkan tindakbalas dengan sifat dalam julat optimum iaitu di bawah 100 oC walaupun suhu diamagnetik (Libin & Kumar 2019; Ubaid et al. 2014). curie magnet boleh mencapai 480 oC (Miyake & Akai 2018). Apabila molekul hidrokarbon dibekalkan dengan Ia boleh menyebabkan prestasi magnet merudum dengan medan magnet yang mencukupi, atom hidrogen bertindak pengurangan magnitud medan magnet dan menyebabkan berputar pada arah yang sama dengan hidrogen yang keseluruhan kajian terganggu (Jain & Deshmukh 2012; Ma berdekatan. Momen putaran proton yang sama arah terhasil & Narasimhan 1986). Penggunaan magnet yang lebih tebal lalu menyebabkan atom hidrogen menjauhi atom lain dan dan gred yang tinggi meningkatkan kekuatan dan ketahanan wujud keadaan hidrogen orto seperti yang ditunjukkan pada magnet namun ianya lebih mahal (Xiong et al. 2016). rajah 1(b). Hidrogen orto lebih reaktif kerana mempunyai Setiap bahan yang bertindak balas dengan magnet ruang yang lebih luas antara atom seperti yang digambarkan akan menunjukkan sifat samada diamagnetik ataupun dalam Rajah 2. Molekul oksigen diserap jauh ke dalam Jurnal Kejuruteraan 35(1) 2023: xxx-xxx paramagnetik. Bahan dengan sifat diamagnetik akan molekul hidrokarbon dan menggalakkan tindak balas yang menjauhi sumber medan magneth t t(pUse:n/o/d &oi .Iowragsa/1k0a .11979547) 6/j l k eb u i k h m se - m 20 p 2 ur 3 n - a 3 5 (A (1 b ) d - u 1 l 0 -W ahhab et al. 2016; Calabrò & dan bahan dengan sifat paramagnetik akan mendekati Magazù 2015; Govindasamy & Dhandapani 2007a, 2007b; sumbDehr amneddaapna mnia g2n0e0t. 7Aan, ta2r0a 0k7ribte; riMa pPematbealk aerta na ly.a ng M Patel et al. 2014; Sahoo & Jain 2019). baik2 a0d1al4ah; Spearhcoamo p&ur aJna iund a2ra0 1da9n) .b ahan api dapat berlaku (a) (b) RRAAJJAAHH 1 1 . . P P u u t t a a r r a a n n p p r r o o t t o o n n h h i i d d r r o o g g e e n n p p a a d d a a k k e e a a d d a a a a n n ( ( a a ) ) h h i i d d r r o o g g e e n n p p a a r r a a ( ( b b ) ) h h i i d d r r o o g g e e n n o o r r t t o o ( ( M M P P a a t t e e l l e e t t a a l l . . 2 2 0 0 1 1 4 4 ) ) RAJAH 2. Perubahan susunan hidrogen dalam molekul hidrokarbon daripada (a) hidrogen para kepada (b) hidrogen orto (Calabrò & Magazù 2015) efektif tanpa memanaskannya adalah PENGARUH MAKROSKOPIK MEDAN dengan menggunakan medan magnet. MAGNET KEPADA BENDALIR Pengenalan medan magnet pada tempoh masa yang memadai dapat mengurangkan Ueno & Iwasaka (1994) dalam kajian kelikatan tanpa menaikkan suhunya mereka berjaya menggunakan medan (Loskutova et al. 2008; Tao & Xu 2006), magnet untuk mengawal aliran bendalir. namun kesannya hanya secara makroskopik Aliran dapat diberhentikan sepenuhnya ( Abdel-Rehim & Attia 2014). apabila medan magnet bertindak balas Gonçalves et al. (2011) telah dengan sifat diamagnetik yang ada pada menjalankan kajian bagi mengenalpasti bendalir. Namun, ianya dapat dicapai tindak balas antara beberapa sampel dengan penggunaan magnitud medan sebatian hidrokarbon dengan nisbah parafin magnet yang amat besar iaitu sehingga berbeza. Sampel diberikan medan magnet 80,000 Gs. Kajian ke atas bendalir juga bermagnitud 13,000 Gs selama 1 minit. menunjukkan perubahan pada sifat Sepanjang proses itu, nilai pemagnetan bagi termodinamiknya. Tenaga dalaman dan sampel berubah-ubah daripada positif kapasiti haba didapati meningkat apabila kepada negatif menunjukkan bahan api medan magnet yang mencukupi diberikan hidrokarbon adalah terdiri daripada (Zhou et al. 2000). campuran bahan yang bersifat diamagnetik Perkara utama yang perlu dicapai dan paramagnetik. Keputusan yang bagi menggalakkan pembakaran adalah diperoleh terhadap kelikatan adalah menurunkan kelikatan bahan api. berbeza-beza antara sampel namun Perubahan ini dapat menyediakan susunan kelikatannya boleh menurun sehingga 39% molekul yang kurang padat dan apabila medan magnet diberikan dengan menggalakkan pembakaran yang lebih suhu terkawal. Kajian juga menunjukkan sempurna. Satu kaedah menurunkan kehadiran ion lain yang wujud dalam kelikatan bendalir hidrokarbon dengan sebatian seperti Mn2+ juga memainkan Jurnal Kejuruteraan 35(1) 2023: xxx-xxx https://doi.org/10.17576/jkukm-2023-35(1)-10 Dhandapani 2007a, 2007b; M Patel et al. 2014; Sahoo & Jain 2019). (a) (b) 108 RAJAH 1. Putaran proton hidrogen pada keadaan (a) hidrogen para (b) hidrogen orto (M Patel et al. 2014) RAJAH R 2A. PJAerHub 2a.h Paner suubsauhnaann s huisdurnoagne nh iddarloagme nm doalleakmu lm hoidlerokkual rhbiodnro dkaarribpoand ad (aari)p haiddar o(ga)e nh ipdarroag kenep paadraa k(bep) ahdida r o(bg)e nh iodrrtoog (eCna olartbor ò & (CalaMbraòg a&zù M 2a0g1a5z)ù 2015) PENGARUH MAKROSKOPIK MEDAN MAGNET eRfaewkattiafn mtaagnnpeta t elamh deimsoaknonags koalenhn Fyaar is eat dala. l(a2h0 12) PENGARUKHE PMADAA KBERNODASLKIROPIK MEDAN to redduecnignga nco nsmumepntgiognu, nasa wkaelnl as rmedeudcainng them eamginsseiot.n of MAGNET KEPADA BENDALIR certa P in e n po g l e lu n t a an la ts n r a m tes e . d T a h n e ex m p a er g im ne e t n ts p i a n d c a u rr t e e n m t r p e o se h a rch Ueno & Iwasaka (1994) dalam kajian mereka berjaya comprise the using of permanent magnets with different masa yang memadai dapat mengurangkan menggunakan medan magnet untuk mengawal aliran intensity (2000, 4000, 6000, 9000 yang menjalankan kajian bendal U ir. e n A o li ra & n da I p w at a s d a ib k e a r he ( n 1 ti 9 k 9 a 4 n ) se d pe a n la uh m n ya k a ap ji a a b n il a berk k ai e ta li n k g a e t t a a n ra n se t b a a n t p ia a n hid m rok e a n r a b i o k n k y a a n n g di s ra u w h a u t n d y en a g an medanm meraegkneat bebrteirnjdaayka balams ednegnggaunn askifaatn diammaegdnaenti k meda(Ln omsakgunteot vbae rmeta ganli.t u2d0 20,080; 0T, 4a,o0 0&0, 6X,0u0 02 d0a0n6 9),,0 00 yang madaag npeadt a unbetundka limr. eNngamawuna, l iaanlyiraa nd abpaetn ddaiclairp.a i Gs dnaanm duinpe krheastaiknanny ad ehnagnany am seencgagruan makaakn rospsekkotrpoiskk opi denganA lpiernagng undaaapn amt agdniibtuedr hmenedtiakna nm agsneept eynaunhg naymaa t infra(- mAebradhe. l-BRaheahni map &i y Aantgti ate 2la0h1 d4i)r.a w at menunjukkan besar a ia p i a tu b i s l e a h in m gg e a d a 80 n , 00 m 0 a G g s n . e K t aj b ia e n r t k in e d a a ta k s b b e a n l d a a s l ir penyerapanG inofrnaç-malevraehs yanegt lebiahl .t ingg(2i s0e1p1er)t i patdeal aRha jah juga menunjukkan perubahan pada sifat termodinamiknya. 3. Daya tarikan antara molekul berkurang setelah rawatan dengan sifat diamagnetik yang ada pada menjalankan kajian bagi mengenalpasti Tenaga dalaman dan kapasiti haba didapati meningkat dan membolehkan tindak balas pembakaran boleh berlaku bendalir. Namun, ianya dapat dicapai tindak balas antara beberapa sampel apabila medan magnet yang mencukupi diberikan (Zhou et dengan lebih berkesan. al. 200 d 0 e ). n gan penggunaan magnitud medan s S e e b m a u t a ia m n i n h y i a d k r o be k r a a r s b as o k n a n d p e e n tr g o a le n u n m i s a b ka a n h m p e a m ra b f e i r n ik an Pemrkaagran eutt amyaa nygan ga pmeraltu dbiecaspaari biaagitiu m esneghgianlagkgkaa n kesabn eyrabnegz as.e rSupaam speeple rtdi ibpaerraifikna.n U mjiaend akne amtaas gmnienty ak pemba8k0ar,a0n0 0a dGalsa.h Kmaejniaunru nkkean atkaesli kbateannd ablaihr anju gaap i. berubnseurrmkaang nhiatunyda 1p3a,r0afi0n0 sGahsa jas elmaemnuan j1uk kmani nikta. dar Perubamhaenn uinnij udkapkaat nm enypeedriuakbaanh asuns unanp amdoal ekusl iyfaant g aliraSnneypaa nmjaenngin gpkraots esse hitiung, gnai ladiu pa emkaalig ngeatnadna baapgaib ila kurang t e p rm ad o at d i d n a a n m m i e k n n g y g a a . l ak T ka e n n a p g em a ba d k a a l r a an m y a a n n g d l a eb n i h diber s i a k m an p e m l e da b n e m ru a b g a n h et - u ( b Ta a o h et d a a l. r i 2 p 0 a 1 d 4 a ; Ta p o o & si ti T f a ng sempurna. Satu kaedah menurunkan kelikatan bendalir 2014). Nufus et al. (2017) pula mengkaji bahan api biodiesel kapasiti haba didapati meningkat apabila kepada negatif menunjukkan bahan api hidrokarbon dengan efektif tanpa memanaskannya bergred B10 dengan medan magnet. Keputusan yang sama medan magnet yang mencukupi diberikan hidrokarbon adalah terdiri daripada adalah dengan menggunakan medan magnet. Pengenalan diperoleh iaitu kelikatan semakin berkurang apabila medan medan( Zmhaogune et t paald. a2 0te0m0p)o. h masa yang memadai dapat magn c e a t m di p b u er r i a k n a n b . a han yang bersifat diamagnetik mengurangkaPn erkkaelriak atuanta mtaan pya anmg enpaeikrkluan discuahpuanyi a dSaalna h saptua rpaemrkaargan yeatnigk .p erluK deibpeurti upseannek anayna andga lah (Loskubtaogvai etm ale. n2g0g08a;l aTkako a&n Xpu e2m00b6a),k naarmanu n akedsaalnanhy a kebodleiphaenr olmeohl ekutl erbhaahdana p api kmeleinkgaetkaanlk an adsiafalat hd an hanya mseecanruar munakkraonsk opikk (e Alibkdaetla-Rn ehimb &ah Aatnti a 201a4p).i . susubnaenr bmezoale-bkuelznay a seatneltaahr a dirawsaamt. pKeel likatnaanm suamn pel G P on e ç r a u l b ve a s h e a t n a l i . n ( i 2 0 d 1 a 1 p ) a t t e l m ah e m ny en e j d al i a a n k k a a n n k su aj s ia u n n a b n ag i yang k d e i l b i i k a a rk ta an n n se y l a am b a o 1 le 5 h 0 m m i e n n it u b r e u rt n a m se b h ah in s g eb g a a n y 3 a 9 k % 2 0% mengenalpasti tindak balas antara beberapa sampel sebatian daripada kelikatan yang telah dikurangkan seperti Rajah 4 molekul yang kurang padat dan apabila medan magnet diberikan dengan hidrokarbon dengan nisbah parafi J n u rn b a er l b K ez e a j . u r S u a t m er p a e a l n 3(G5(o1n)ç a2lv0e2s3 e:t xaxl. x2-0x1x1x). Molekul bahan api gas seperti gas diberik m an e n m g e g d a a l n a m kk a a gn n e t b p e e rm m a b g a n k it a u r d a 1 n 3 ,0 y 00 a n G g s se l l e a b m i a h 1 asli s p u ul h a u l eb te ih r k s a u w ka a r l. u n K tu a k j i d a ik n e k j a u lk g a a n m su e su n n u a n n j n u y k a k s a e n te lah https://doi.org/10.17576/jkukm-2023-35(1)-10 minit. sSeempapnujarnnga .p rosSesa tituu , niklaai epdeamha gnemtane nbuargui nsakmapne l rawaktaenh (aAdbirdaunl- Wiaohnh abl eati nal . 2y0a1n6g). wujud dalam berubakhe-ulibkaaht adnar ipabdean pdoasliitirf kehpiaddrao nkeagrabtiofn m enduennjugkakna n sebatian seperti Mn2+ juga memainkan bahanp aepria nhaidnr okakrbeopna daad alahp etenrudrirui ndaanri padkae lciakmaptaunra n bahan( Gyoanngç albveerss ifate t diaaml.a gn2e0ti1k 1)d. an Opleahra maygannegti k. Keputduesamn iykainagn d,i pkearojlieahn t emrhaadganpe kte ltiekrahtaand aadpa laphr beesrtbaeszia - beza eanntjairna psearmlupe ml enammaulna rkkealnik jaetanninsy daa nbo pleehn gmeelnuuarru n sehingga 39% apabila medan magnet diberikan dengan bahan api yang digunakan. Thiyagarajan et suhu terkawal. Kajian juga menunjukkan kehadiran ion lain al. (2019) telah menjalankan kajian yang wujud dalam sebatian seperti Mn2+ juga memainkan menggunakan medan magnet pada bahan peranan kepada penurunan kelikatan (Gonçalves et al. 2011).a Opile hb yiaon g ydaemngik iabne, rklaajiianna mn agjneent itse.r haHdaaps iplrneystaa si enjin pkeerpluu mtuesmaanl ayraknang jbeneirsl adwana pneanng etleulaarh b adhipane raopli eyha.n g digunakan. TRhaiywagaatraanja nm eatg nale. t (2te0l1a9h) dteilsaohk monengj aolalnekha n kajian menggunakan medan magnet pada bahan api bio Faris et al. (2012) yang menjalankan kajian yang berlainan jenis. Hasilnya keputusan yang berlawanan berkaitan getaran sebatian hidrokarbon RAJAH 3. Tahap kekuatan serapan ultraviolet oleh bahan api yang telah diperoleh. dirawa R t d A en J g A an H m a 3 g . n i T tu a d h m a a p g n k e e t k be u rb a e t z a a n ( F s a e r r is a e p t a a n l. 2012) yang dirawat dengan medan magnet ultraviolet oleh bahan api yang dirawat bermagnitud 2,000, 4,000, 6,000 dan 9,000 dengan magnitud magnet berbeza (Faris et Gs dan diperhatikan dengan menggunakan al. 2012) spektroskopi infra-merah. Bahan api yang telah dirawat menunjukkan penyerapan infra-merah yang lebih tinggi seperti pada Rajah 3. Daya tarikan antara molekul berkurang setelah rawatan dan membolehkan tindak balas pembakaran boleh berlaku dengan lebih berkesan. Semua minyak berasaskan petroleum akan memberikan kesan yang serupa seperti parafin. Ujian ke atas minyak berunsurkan hanya parafin sahaja menunjukkan kadar alirannya meningkat sehingga dua kali ganda apabila diberikan medan magnet (Tao et al. 2014; Tao & Tang 2014). Nufus RAJAH 4. Perbezaan tahap kelikatan bagi et al. (2017) pula mengkaji bahan api sampel yang didedahkan kepada medan biodiesel bergred B10 dengan medan magnet serta setelah 150 minit direhatkan magnet. Keputusan yang sama diperoleh (Gonçalves et al. 2011) iaitu kelikatan semakin berkurang apabila medan magnet diberikan. Salah satu perkara yang perlu diberi penekanan adalah kebolehan molekul FAKTOR PENINGKATAN bahan api mengekalkan sifat dan susunan TINDAKBALAS MAGNET DAN molekulnya setelah dirawat. Kelikatan PERUBAHAN PRESTASI ENJIN sampel yang dibiarkan selama 150 minit bertambah sebanyak 20% daripada Pelbagai kaedah telah dijalankan oleh kelikatan yang telah dikurangkan seperti penyelidik bagi mencari kesan medan Rajah 4 (Gonçalves et al. 2011). Molekul magnet kepada pembakaran termasuk bahan api gas seperti gas asli pula lebih mengkaji faktor jenis paip dan lokasi sukar untuk dikekalkan susunannya setelah pemasangannya pada enjin. Chavan & rawatan (Abdul-Wahhab et al. 2016). Jhavar (2016) menyatakan penggunaan magnet pada paip logam menyebabkan gangguan pada medan magnet. Ia disokong oleh Sahoo & Jain (2019) yang menyatakan medan magnet tidak dapat menembusi paip Jurnal Kejuruteraan 35(1) 2023: xxx-xxx https://doi.org/10.17576/jkukm-2023-35(1)-10 peranan kepada penurunan kelikatan (Gonçalves et al. 2011). Oleh yang demikian, kajian magnet terhadap prestasi enjin perlu memalarkan jenis dan pengeluar bahan api yang digunakan. Thiyagarajan et al. (2019) telah menjalankan kajian menggunakan medan magnet pada bahan api bio yang berlainan jenis. Hasilnya keputusan yang berlawanan telah diperoleh. Rawatan magnet telah disokong oleh Faris et al. (2012) yang menjalankan kajian berkaitan getaran sebatian hidrokarbon RAJAH 3. Tahap kekuatan serapan yang dirawat dengan medan magnet ultraviolet oleh bahan api yang dirawat bermagnitud 2,000, 4,000, 6,000 dan 9,000 dengan magnitud magnet berbeza (Faris et Gs dan diperhatikan dengan menggunakan al. 2012) 109 spektroskopi infra-merah. Bahan api yang telah dirawat menunjukkan penyerapan Oleh kerana kesan susunan hidrokarbon yang telah infra-merah yang lebih tinggi seperti pada dirawat berkurang dengan masa, lokasi pemasangan paling Rajah 3. Daya tarikan antara molekul hampir dengan pemancit adalah dicadang (Chavan & Jhavar 2016). Merujuk kepada Rajah 6, posisi 1 merupakan berkurang setelah rawatan dan lokasi yang paling hampir dengan pemancit dan lokasi lain membolehkan tindak balas pembakaran adalah semakin menjauhi pemancit dengan jarak yang tidak boleh berlaku dengan lebih berkesan. dinyatakan. Pada posisi 1, peningkatan kecekapan haba brek Semua minyak berasaskan petroleum yang paling tinggi iaitu sehingga 15%. Melalui pengawalan akan memberikan kesan yang serupa seperti tersebut, penggunaan magnet Nd-Fe-B bermagnitud parafin. Ujian ke atas minyak berunsurkan 3,000 Gs pada enjin diesel telah menurunkan penggunaan hanya parafin sahaja menunjukkan kadar bahan api tentu brek sehingga 10%. Hidrokarbon yang tidak terbakar (HC), oksida-oksida nitrogen (NO), karbon alirannya meningkat sehingga dua kali x monoksida (CO) dan karbon dioksida (CO) juga mencatat ganda apabila diberikan medan magnet 2 penurunan sehingga 21%, 28%, 6% dan 7.5% (Sahoo & Jain (Tao et al. 2014; Tao & Tang 2014). Nufus RAJAH 4. Perbezaan tahap kelikatan bagi sampel yang 2019). dRidAedJaAhkHan k4e.p Padear mbeedzaana mna gtanheta sper tka eseliteklaahta 1n5 0b maigniit et al. (2017) pula mengkaji bahan api Faktor utama yang mempengaruhi prestasi enjin sampeld yireahnagtk adni d(Geodnaçhalkveasn e tk ael.p 2a0d11a) medan biodiesel bergred B10 dengan medan adalah magnitud medan magnet yang digunakan. Chen et magnet serta setelah 150 minit direhatkan magnet. Keputusan yang sama diperoleh al. (2017) menggunakan magnet Nd-Fe-B berbentuk tiub FAKTOR PEN(IGNGoKnAçTaAlNv eTIsN eDtA aKlB.A 2L0A1S 1M)A GNET DAN yang dipatenkan dengan kekuatan 150 Gs terhadap enjin iaitu kelikatan semakin berkurang apabila PERUBAHAN PRESTASI ENJIN generator dengan bahan api diesel. Penggunaan bahan api medan magnet diberikan. tentu brek dan kecekapan haba brek hanya diperbaiki antara Salah satu perkara yang perlu diberi Pelbagai kaedah telah dijalankan oleh penyelidik bagi 3-4% sahaja. Namun, medan magnet tersebut berupaya penekanan adalah kebolehan molekul mencari kesaFn AmKedTanO mRa gPnEetN kIeNpaGdaK pAemTbAakNar an termasuk mengurangkan gas ekzos dengan signifikan. Zarahan (PM), bahan api mengekalkan sifat dan susunan mengkaji T f I a N kt D or A je K ni B s p A a L ip A d S an M lok A a G si N pe E m T as D an A ga N nn ya pada CO, HC dan CO menurun sehingga 33%, 11%, 64%, 4 dan 2 molekulnya setelah dirawat. Kelikatan enjin. Chavan & Jhavar (2016) mJeunrynaatalk Kane jpuernugtgeurnaaaann 351(31%) 2k0e2ra3n:a x sxuxs-uxnxanx hidrogen bagi diesel telah berubah PERUBAHAN PRESTASI ENJIN sampel yang dibiarkan selama 150 minit magnet pada paip logam menhytetbpasb:k//adno ig.aonrggg/u1a0n. 1p7a5d7a 6/jdkaurkipmad-a2 0p2a3ra- 3k5e( 1o)-rt1o0 apabila melalui medan magnet bertambah sebanyak 20% daripada med an mag net. Ia disokong oleh Sahoo & Jain (2019) yang menyebabkan ia mudah untuk bertindak balas dengan kelikatan yang telah dikurangkan seperti men y Py a ae n tlab g ka agn a d mi i b ed u ka a an t e dmaa d hg a n r e i tt p e a tli d adh a a k dd b ai a jpa h alt a a n mn kean b enm e r b s ou i ls f ei a h t p aip ok t s i i u g b en y . a O n k g si d d a i - p o a k t s e id n a k b a a n g i d n e it n ro g g a e n n k (NeOkxu ) a p t u a l n a m 15 en 0 i ngkat yangp ednibyuealti ddaikri pabdaa gbia hamn ebnercsaifrait fekrerosamna gnmetiekd saenp erti sehingga 13% disebabkan oleh peningkatan suhu hasil Rajah 4 (Gonçalves et al. 2011). Molekul Raja f m h e r a 5 r g . o n m e a t gn k e e ti p k a d se a p er p ti e m Ra b j a a k h a 5 ra . n termasuk da G rip s a d te a r p h e a m d b a a p k a e r n an ji y n a n g g e n le e b r ih a t s o e r m d pu e r n n g a a . n bahan bahan api gas seperti gas asli pula lebih ap i A d b ie d s e e l- l R . e P h e im ng g & u n A a t a ti n a b ( a 2 h 0 a 1 n 4) ap te i l a t h e n m tu e b ng re g k un akan mengkaji faktor jenis paip dan lokasi sukar untuk dikekalkan susunannya setelah m d ag a n n i tu k d e c m ek ed a a p n a n m h a a g b ne a t b l r e e b k ih h b a e n s y a a r d d i a p ri e p r a b d a a ik s i u mber pemasangannya pada enjin. Chavan & rawatan (Abdul-Wahhab et al. 2016). gealunntga reale 3k-tr4o%ma sganheta djae.n gNaan mbauhnan, mtereads adna nm paangjnanegt yang Jhavar (2016) menyatakan penggunaan betrebreszeab. uKt ebkeurautapna ydaih masielknagnu raanntagrak a1n,3 g0a0s Geks zsoesh ingga magnet pada paip logam menyebabkan 2,6d2e0n gGasn. sKigepnuitfuiskaann .t eZrbaariakh adinp e(rPolMeh) , aCpaObi,l aH dCu a (2) gangguan pada medan magnet. Ia disokong gelung dengan kekuatan tertinggi digunakan. Peningkatan dan CO menurun sehingga 33%, 11%, 2 oleh Sahoo & Jain (2019) yang menyatakan kuasa output lebih tinggi iaitu sehingga 13% bagi laju 64%, 4 dan 13% kerana susunan hidrogen putaran enjin yang sama dicatat. Penggunaan bahan api medan magnet tidak dapat menembusi paip bagi diesel telah berubah daripada para ke juga berkurang lebih banyak iaitu sehingga 15% disamping peonrutrou nana pgaasb C il O a, HC m dealna l N u O i sembaendyaank 61m.5%ag, n5e3t% dan x 50m%e.nyebabkan ia mudah untuk bertindak a) Paip besi (Fe) baAlanst adrae nfagkatonr olakinsi gyeanng. Opekrlsui ddaib-oerki spidenae kbaangani juga adnailatrho tgemenp oh(N peOng)i onpaunl am emdaenn minaggnkeatt k espeahdian bgaghaa n api. x Aliran yang laju perlu dibekalkan dengan medan magnet 13% disebabkan oleh peningkatan suhu yang lebih lama (Arias Gilart et al. 2020; Niaki et al. 2019). hasil daripada pembakaran yang lebih Tipole et al. (2017) menguji magnet bermagnitud 3,000 sempurna. Gs pada enjin diesel silinder tunggal. Tempoh pengionan dimanipu lAasbi ddeeln-gRaenh pimen ge&n alAant tisae hi(n2g0g1a 4e)m tpealta hp asang mmagenentg bgeurmnaakgnaintu d msaamgan isteucdar a mbeersdiarin. Mmeruajgunk ekte pada Ralejabhi h7, prebsetassair p endjiamraiptaand baa hans uampi bpealri ng gtienlgugni gdi capai menggunakan tiga pasang magnet. Penggunaan magnet elektromagnet dengan bahan teras dan yang berlebihan pula menyebabkan prestasi berkurangan. b) Paip plastik panjang yang berbeza. Kekuatan dihasilkan Terdapat titik optimum medan magnet yang akan antara 1,300 Gs sehingga 2,620 Gs. RARJAAHJ A5.H C 5o.r aCko mraekd mane dmaang mneatg mneetl amlueil aplauiip p baeipsi b deasni dpalans tik memberikan hasil yang terbaik bagi enjin tersebut. Dalam Keputusan terbaik diperoleh apabila dua (2) plas(tSika h(Soaoh &oo J a&in J a2i0n1 290)19) ujian berbeza, kaedah yang sama dijalankan pada empat engjienl uynangg berdbeeznag. aDni dapaktie pkeunajitmanat an btaehratnin agpgi im asih Oleh kerana kesan susunan digunakan. Peningkatan kuasa output lebih hidrokarbon yang telah dirawat berkurang tinggi iaitu sehingga 13% bagi laju putaran dengan masa, lokasi pemasangan paling enjin yang sama dicatat. Penggunaan bahan hampir dengan pemancit adalah dicadang api juga berkurang lebih banyak iaitu (Chavan & Jhavar 2016). Merujuk kepada sehingga 15% disamping penurunan gas Rajah 6, posisi 1 merupakan lokasi yang CO, HC dan NO sebanyak 61.5%, 53% x paling hampir dengan pemancit dan lokasi dan 50%. lain adalah semakin menjauhi pemancit Antara faktor lain yang perlu diberi dengan jarak yang tidak dinyatakan. Pada penekanan juga adalah tempoh pengionan posisi 1, peningkatan kecekapan haba brek medan magnet kepada bahan api. Aliran yang paling tinggi iaitu sehingga 15%. yang laju perlu dibekalkan dengan medan Melalui pengawalan tersebut, penggunaan magnet yang lebih lama (Arias Gilart et al. magnet Nd-Fe-B bermagnitud 3,000 Gs 2020; Niaki et al. 2019). Tipole et al. pada enjin diesel telah menurunkan (2017) menguji magnet bermagnitud 3,000 penggunaan bahan api tentu brek sehingga Gs pada enjin diesel silinder tunggal. 10%. Hidrokarbon yang tidak terbakar Tempoh pengionan dimanipulasi dengan (HC), oksida-oksida nitrogen (NO x ), pengenalan sehingga empat pasang magnet karbon monoksida (CO) dan karbon bermagnitud sama secara bersiri. Merujuk dioksida (CO 2 ) juga mencatat penurunan kepada Rajah 7, prestasi penjimatan bahan sehingga 21%, 28%, 6% dan 7.5% (Sahoo api paling tinggi dicapai menggunakan tiga & Jain 2019). pasang magnet. Penggunaan magnet yang Faktor utama yang mempengaruhi berlebihan pula menyebabkan prestasi prestasi enjin adalah magnitud medan berkurangan. Terdapat titik optimum magnet yang digunakan. Chen et al. (2017) medan magnet yang akan memberikan hasil menggunakan magnet Nd-Fe-B berbentuk yang terbaik bagi enjin tersebut. Dalam Jurnal Kejuruteraan 35(1) 2023: xxx-xxx https://doi.org/10.17576/jkukm-2023-35(1)-10 ujian berbeza, kaedah yang sama dijalankan apabila rawatan magnet diberikan. Ini pada empat enjin yang berbeza. Didapati kerana medan magnet berjaya mengubah penjimatan bahan api masih belum ikatan antara molekul hidrokarbon dan mencapai tahap maksimum walaupun lima mengurangkan ketumpatan dan ketegangan pasang magnet dipasang (Tipole et al. permukaan. Ia menjadikan proses 2019). percampuran udara dan bahan api menjadi 110 Niaki et al. (2019) dalam kajian pula lebih berkesan. Oleh itu, bahan api terbakar menggunakan magnet kekal Nd-Fe-B gred dengan lebih sempurna dan menghasilkan belum menNc3a8paHi tbahearmp amgankistiumdu mm awkasliamuupumn l9im,0a0 0 p aGsas ng rawteantaang a myagannegt dleibbeirhi katnin. gIgnii. kPeeranngag umnaeadna n magnet magnet dippaasdaan gk (eTnipdoelrea aent alj.e 2n0is1 9P).e ugeot, 4 silinder bermjaaygan mete pnagduab ache cikaairt aent aannotal r ad amno mlekinuyl ahkid broiok arbon dan Niaki beetr saels. a(r2a0n1 91), 7d6a1lacmc. kKajaiajina np umlae mnuennjgugkuknaank an meynagnugr alnagink ajun gak emtuemnapiaktakna nd saunh uk peteemgabnagkaanr anp ermukaan. magnet kebkaalh Nand -Faep-Bi gyreadn gN 38dHir abweramt agmnietnudg hmaaskilskimanu m Ia smeceanrjaa dikkaonn spirsotesnes p(eTrhcaiymapguarraanja nud, arEa ddwanin bahan api 9,000 Gs pada kenderaan jenis Peugeot, 4 silinder menjadi lebih berkesan. Oleh itu, bahan api terbakar dengan suntikan bahan api yang lebih halus seperti Geo, et al. 2019; Ulfiana et al. 2021). bersesaran 1,761cc. Kajian menunjukkan bahan api yang lebih sempurna dan menghasilkan tenaga yang lebih tinggi. yang ditunjukkan pada Rajah 8. Suhu dan Niaki et al. (2019) juga merekodkan dirawat menghasilkan suntikan bahan api yang lebih halus Penggunaan magnet pada cecair etanol dan minyak bio yang tekanan dalam silinder yang diperoleh juga penjimatan yang semakin berkurang pada seperti yang ditunjukkan pada Rajah 8. Suhu dan tekanan lain juga menaikkan suhu pembakaran secara konsisten lebih rendah. Walau bagaimanapun, hasil laju enjin yang tinggi yang disebabkan oleh dalam silinder yang diperoleh juga lebih rendah. Walau (Thiyagarajan, Edwin Geo, et al. 2019; Ulfiana et al. 2021). yang dapat diperhatikan adalah penjimatan tempoh pengionan yang tidak mencukupi bagaimanapun, hasil yang dapat diperhatikan adalah Niaki et al. (2019) juga merekodkan penjimatan bahan api direkodkan antara 4-12%. Nufus oleh kerana kapasiti enjin yang besar penjimatan bahan api direkodkan antara 4-12%. Nufus et yang semakin berkurang pada laju enjin yang tinggi yang et al. (2020) pula mencatatkan profil digunakan. al. (2020) pula mencatatkan profil tekanan yang berlainan. disebabkan oleh tempoh pengionan yang tidak mencukupi tekanan yang berlainan. Peningkatan Peningkatan tekanan yang konsisten diperhatikan apabila oleh kerana kapasiti enjin yang besar digunakan. tekanan yang konsisten diperhatikan Jurnal Kejuruteraan 35(1) 2023: xxx-xxx RAJAH 6. Kesan tahap kecekapan habhat btpresk: /p/dadoai .boerbga/n1 e0n.1jin7 5y7an6 g/ jbkeurbkemza- 2m0e2ng3i-k3u5t (p1o)s-is1i0 m agnet dipasang (Sahoo & Jain 2019) RAJAH 6. Kesan tahap kecekapan haba brek pada beban enjin yang berbeza mengikut posisi magnet dipasang (Sahoo & Jain 2019) RAJAH 7. Kesan tahap penjiRmAaJtAanH b 7a. hKaens aanp it adheanpg paenn jpimenagtagnu bnaahaann bapeib deeranpgaan b pileanngggaunn amana gbenbeetr (aTpaip boillaen, gKaanr mthaigkneeyta (nT,i pBohleo,j wani, Tipole, et Karthikeyaanl,. B20ho1j7w)ani, Tipole, et al. 2017) RAJAH 8. Perbezaan kesan semburan bahan api sebelum dan selepas rawatan magnet (Niaki et al. 2019) Oommen & G. N (2020) telah Penggunaan enjin yang berbeza mempertimbangkan faktor yang lain iaitu menunjukkan perubahan yang berbeza. pengaruh bentuk magnet yang dipasang Tipole et al. (2019) telah menjalankan pada paip bahan api. Magnet berbentuk kajian menggunakan magnet pada beberapa bongkah dan silinder berongga digunakan enjin yang berlainan. Walaupun semua yang menyediakan medan magnet bercorak enjin menunjukkan kemajuan, namun paksi dan berjejari. Hasil yang diperoleh perubahan yang dicatat adalah berbeza- adalah penggunaan medan magnet berjejari beza. Para penyelidik juga berdepan situasi memberikan penjimatan tambahan yang sukar bagi menentukan magnitud sehingga 49% daripada penjimatan yang medan magnet yang terbaik untuk dicapai menggunakan medan magnet paksi digunakan. Beberapa kajian terdahulu pada kekuatan yang sama. menggunakan magnitud yang berbeza-beza Banyak kajian lain yang telah antara 150 Gs sehingga 10,000 Gs. dilakukan oleh penyelidik menunjukkan Walaupun begitu, semua konfigurasi keputusan yang berbeza-beza mengikut tersebut merekodkan penjimatan bahan api jenis dan kapasiti enjin yang digunakan. yang ketara iaitu antara 4% sehingga 23.4% Jurnal Kejuruteraan 35(1) 2023: xxx-xxx https://doi.org/10.17576/jkukm-2023-35(1)-10 RAJAH 7. Kesan tahap penjimatan bahan api dengan penggunaan beberapa bilangan magnet (Tipole, 111 Karthikeyan, Bhojwani, Tipole, et al. 2017) RAJARHA 8JA. PHe r8b. ePzearbaenz akaens akne ssaenm sebmurbaunra bna bhaahna na papi is esebbeelluumm ddaann sseelleeppaas sr arwawataatna mn amgnaegtn (eNt i(aNkii aekt ia le. t2 a0l1.9 2) 019) Oommen &O Gom. Nm e(n2 02&0) tGel.a h Nm e(m2p0e2r0ti)m btaenlgahk an yanPge ntegrgbuanika aunn tuk deingjuinn akany. aBnegb erapab ekrabjeiazna terdahulu faktor yang lain iaitu pengaruh bentuk magnet yang menggunakan magnitud yang berbeza-beza antara 150 Gs mempertimbangkan faktor yang lain iaitu menunjukkan perubahan yang berbeza. dipasang pada paip bahan api. Magnet berbentuk bongkah sehingga 10,000 Gs. Walaupun begitu, semua konfigurasi pengaruh bentuk magnet yang dipasang Tipole et al. (2019) telah menjalankan dan silinder berongga digunakan yang menyediakan medan tersebut merekodkan penjimatan bahan api yang ketara pada paip bahan api. Magnet berbentuk kajian menggunakan magnet pada beberapa magnet bercorak paksi dan berjejari. Hasil yang diperoleh iaitu antara 4% sehingga 23.4% seperti yang ditunjukkan bongkah dan silinder berongga digunakan enjin yang berlainan. Walaupun semua adalah penggunaan medan magnet berjejari memberikan dalam jadual 1. Merujuk jadual tersebut juga merekodkan yang menyediakan medan magnet bercorak enjin menunjukkan kemajuan, namun penjimatan tambahan sehingga 49% daripada penjimatan penurunan HC dan CO yang dilepaskan antara 20-34% dan paksi dan berjejari. Hasil yang diperoleh perubahan yang dicatat adalah berbeza- yang dicapai menggunakan medan magnet paksi pada 7-40%. adalah penggunaan medan magnet berjejari beza. Para penyelidik juga berdepan situasi kekuatan yang sama. Jadual 1 juga memperincikan kesan NO setelah rawatan memberikan penjimatan tambahan yang sukar bagi menentukan magxnitud Banyak kajian lain yang telah dilakukan oleh penyelidik magnet. Terdapat percanggahan keputusan yang direkodkan sehingga 49% daripada penjimatan yang medan magnet yang terbaik untuk menunjukkan keputusan yang berbeza-beza mengikut jenis antara penyelidik. Beberapa kes merekodkan peningkatan dicapai menggunakan medan magnet paksi digunakan. Beberapa kajian terdahulu dan kapasiti enjin yang digunakan. Penggunaan enjin yang NO sehingga 19%, namun rata-rata penyelidik merekodkan pada kekuatan yang sama. mx enggunakan magnitud yang berbeza-beza berbeza menunjukkan perubahan yang berbeza. Tipole et penurunan antara 11 hingga 56% apabila medan magnet Banyak kajian lain yang telah antara 150 Gs sehingga 10,000 Gs. al. (2019) telah menjalankan kajian menggunakan magnet diberikan sebelum bahan api disuntik ke dalam kebuk dilakukan oleh penyelidik menunjukkan Walaupun begitu, semua konfigurasi pada beberapa enjin yang berlainan. Walaupun semua enjin pembakaran. Perubahan pelepasan gas karbon dioksida keputusan yang berbeza-beza mengikut tersebut merekodkan penjimatan bahan api menunjukkan kemajuan, namun perubahan yang dicatat juga tidak konsisten antara penyelidik. Beberapa penyelidik adalah berbjeenzias- bdezaan. Pkaarpaa pseitniy eelnidjiink jyuagna gb edrdigeupanna ksaitnu.a si meynadnagp aktie tgaaras itaeirtsue abnutt armae 4n%ur usne hsienhgignag g2a3 .140%% . Namun yang sukar bagi menentukan magnitud medan magnet ramai penyelidik merekodkan kenaikan antara 3-12% . JADU AL 1. Perbandingan keputusan penyelidikan penggun aan magnet pada bahan api berbanding keadaan ta npa magnet Penemuan No Rujukan Perbezaan CO HC tidak CO NO Konfigurasi magnet Spesifikasi enjin penggunaan terbakar 2 x (%) (%) (%) bahan api (%) (%) Raj Kumar & Janardhana 5.2 kW, 1 Magnet kekal 12,000 Gs -19.3 -13 -15 X 12.4 Raju (2021) 1 silinder 2 Chandravanshi et al.(2021) Magnet kekal 4,000 Gs Tidak diberikan -9 X X X X 44.5 kW, 3 Oommen & G. N (2020) Magnet kekal 6,400 Gs -17 -32 -13 27 -19 4 silinder Beberapa magnet kekal 13.4 kW, 2 4 Arias Gilart et al. (2020) -4 -21 -7 X -4 3,600 Gs silinder, 930 cm3 Elektromagnet 5 Chandrasekaran et al. (2020) bermagnitud 4,000 hingga 6 kW, 1 silinder -11 -25 -14 12 -11 10,000 Gs 1000 cm3, 6 Hazwi et al. (2019) Bermagnitud 2,500 Gs -22 -20 -6 5 X 1 silinder bersambung ... 112 ... sambungan 5.5 – 11.1 kW, 6 Tipole et al. (2019) Magnet kekal 3,000 Gs 1 silinder, X -17 -68 20 X 97 – 150 cm3 1761 cm3, 7 Niaki et al. (2019) Magnet kekal 9,000 Gs -12 -11 -18 -10 -10 4 silinder 3.5 kW, 8 Sahoo & Jain (2019) Magnet kekal 3,000 Gs -10 -6 -21 -7 -28 1 silinder 9 C. Y. Chen et al. (2017) Magnet tiub 150 Gs 30 kW -4 -11 -64 -4 13 8.2 kW, 1 10 Sankar et al. (2018) Magnet kekal 5,000 Gs X -10 -25 3 X silinder, 99 cm3 Tipole, Karthikeyan, Beberapa magnet kekal 47.7 kW, 3 11 Bhojwani, Tipole, et al. -23.4 X X X X 3,000 Gs silinder, 998 cm3 (2017) Tipole, Karthikeyan, Beberapa magnet kekal 47.7 kW, 3 12 Bhojwani, Deshmukh, et al. X -17 -18 3.4 X 3,000 Gs silinder, 998 cm3 (2017) Elektromagnet Chaware & Basavaraj 3.75 kW, 13 bermagnitud sehingga -12 -8 -34 -9 -17 (2015) 1 silinder 4,000 Gs 5.2 kW, 1 14 M Patel et al. (2014) Magnet kekal 2,000 Gs -8 -37 -30 -9 -27 silinder, 661 cm3 A. Abdel-Rehim & A.A. Beberapa electromagnet 9.7 kW, 15 -15.5 -20 -19 X -56 Attia (2014) bermagnitud 2,620 Gs 1 silinder 256 cm3, 16 Ugare et al. (2013) Magnet kekal 5,000 Gs -12 -11 -26 -11 19 1 silinder 17 Faris et al. (2012) Magnet kekal 8,000 Gs 4 kW, 1 silinder -14 -40 -30 10 X 18 Fatih & M.saber (2010) Tidak diberikan 15 kW, silinder -15 -7 -66 X -30 PERBINCANGAN kapasiti yang besar, beban dan pada laju yang tinggi akan menghasilkan peningkatan prestasi yang tidak signifikan. Terdapat dua jenis sumber medan magnet yang boleh Keputusan yang dicatat terhadap pembebasan gas NO x digunakan pada enjin iaitu medan magnet daripada magnet dan CO adalah tidak konsisten bagi kajian-kajian yang telah 2 kekal dan elektromagnet. Magnet kekal lebih sesuai dilakukan. Penjelasan yang boleh diberikan adalah seperti diaplikasikan pada enjin memandangkan tiada tenaga luar berikut. Hasil rawatan medan magnet menghasilkan profil yang diperlukan serta pemasangan yang lebih senang dan suntikan yang lebih halus, lalu meningkatkan campuran selamat. Bagi mendapatkan magnitud yang tinggi dan antara bahan api dengan udara. Molekul oksigen berupaya saiz yang kecil, kebanyakan penyelidik menggunakan sampai ke dalam molekul bahan api dan meningkatkan magnet Nd-Fe-B, namun ia mempunyai suhu operasi yang percampuran. Ia menambah baik prestasi pembakaran. tidak tinggi. Bagi memastikan suhu persekitaran tidak Produk pembakaran tidak lengkap seperti hidrokarbon mengganggu prestasinya, magnet perlu ditebat dan ventilasi yang tidak terbakar dan gas karbon monoksida menurun. yang baik diperlukan. Selain itu, penggunaan magnet dengan Akibatnya, pertambahan kuantiti CO yang dilepaskan 2 gred yang tinggi juga boleh digunakan bagi memperbaiki boleh meningkat. Namun, oleh kerana penggunaan magnet prestasi magnet. berupaya menjimatkan bahan api, kuantiti karbon yang Selain magnitud magnet, faktor penting lain adalah tersedia juga berkurang menyebabkan CO yang dilepaskan 2 lokasi magnet dipasang dan tempoh medan magnet diberikan. boleh berkurang. Semakin Panjang magnet permukaan magnet pada paip Penghasilan NO adalah berkait rapat dengan tekanan x bahan api, semakin cekap pengionan berlaku. Penggunaan dan suhu yang dihasilkan dapat silinder beserta kuantiti beberapa magnet juga berupaya meningkatkan kadar oksigen yang hadir. Penyelidik merekodkan keputusan rawatan. Lokasi terhampir dengan pemancit menghasilkan yang berbeza pada tekanan dan suhu apabila magnet perubahan yang lebih ketara kerana molekul hidrokarbon diberikan. Peningkatan kedua parameter ini menyebabkan yang telah dirawat menunjukkan kesan yang sementara pembentukan NO semakin tinggi dan sebaliknya. Kajian x dan berkurang dengan masa. Manakala, peningkatan yang lebih terperinci perlu dilakukan bagi memahami dan aliran bahan api menyebabkan tempoh pengionan tidak menjawab data yang tidak konsisten ini. mencukupi. Ini mungkin menyebabkan enjin dengan 113 Terdapat juga kajian yang mencatatkan penurunan kuat. Aplikasi magnet juga telah terbukti berjaya mengubah penjimatan bahan api apabila medan magnet berlebihan kelikatan sesetengah bendalir tanpa mempengaruhi suhunya. diberikan. Perubahan ini masih belum dihuraikan dan Jika mekanisma ini dikaji dengan teliti, rawatan medan kajian terperinci perlu dilakukan. Setiap enjin bersifat unik magnet berupaya mengubah sifat bendalir dengan signifikan dan menunjukkan perubahan yang berbeza-beza apabila dan menyumbang kepada operasi yang lebih berkesan serta bahan api terawat digunakan. Pembakaran dalam enjin berpotensi diguna pakai pada bendalir lain seperti minyak bergantung kepada tetapan talaannya yang terdiri daripada sistem hidraulik, sistem pelinciran, bendalir pemindahan beberapa faktor penting seperti suhu, nisbah tekanan, proses haba atau aplikasi lain. Dengan kemajuan teknologi magnet ambilan udara, nisbah campuran udara kepada bahan api pada masa hadapan, dijangka magnet yang lebih kecil dan dan sebagainya. Perbezaan keputusan yang signifikan antara berkekuatan tinggi serta pengendalian yang lebih mudah penyelidik juga disebabkan beberapa faktor lain antaranya dapat dihasilkan. Potensi penggunaannya dijangka lebih kapasiti enjin yang digunakan, jenis dan gred bahan api, meluas dan membolehkan kajian susulan dapat dilakukan instrumen kajian dan metodologi yang berbeza. Penyelidik agar peluang pengkomersialan dalam industri dapat juga perlu menerangkan kaedah pengawalan terhadap direalisasikan. Oleh itu, kajian berterusan rawatan magnet parameter kawalan yang boleh mempengaruhi keputusan kepada bendalir dicadang diteruskan seiring pembangunan seperti spesifikasi bahan api, jenis paip bahan api, kawalan teknologi magnet. suhu operasi magnet dan lokasi pemasangan magnet secara terperinci. PENGHARGAAN Penulis mengucapkan terima kasih kepada Universiti KESIMPULAN Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) atas sokongan terhadap kertas penyelidikan ini. Medan magnet berupaya merawat molekul bahan api dan meningkatkan tahap prestasi pembakaran dalam enjin. Ianya PENGISYTIHARAN KEPENTINGAN BERSAING mempunyai potensi yang besar bagi membantu penghasilan enjin yang lebih mesra alam. Prestasi enjin bertambah Tiada. baik, penjimatan bahan api dicatat dan pengurangan gas ekzos yang ketara berjaya dicapai hasil penyelidikan yang RUJUKAN telah dijalankan sejak lebih sepuluh tahun dahulu. Rekod 5 tahun kebelakang pula menunjukkan penyelidik telah mula A. Abdel-Rehim, A. & A.A. Attia, A. 2014. Does magnetic fuel mengkaji menggunakan magnet pada enjin kenderaan yang treatment affect engine’s performance? In SAE 2014 World lebih besar. Antara faktor utama yang mempengaruhi rawatan Congress & Exhibition 2014, 01–1394. magnet adalah kekuatan magnet, panjang pengionan, bentuk Abdul-Wahhab, H.A. Al-Kayiem, H.H. A. Aziz, A.R. & Nasif, magnet serta lokasi pemasangannya. Terdapat juga faktor M.S. 2016. 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Journal of Mechanical Engineering and kajian yang diperlukan bagi memahami hubungan antara Sciences 14(1): 6285–94. faktor utama yang terlibat secara menyeluruh. Tambahan, Attar, A. Arulprakasajothi, M. Vasulkar, D. Gorde, N. Kharat, S. & keputusan daripada penyelidikan terdahulu terlalu berbeza Kulkarni, S. 2020. Investigation of impact of the magnetic field dalam julat yang besar. Semua parameter pengionan medan through Halbach Array on Hydrocarbon Fuel. International magnet kepada bahan api yang terlibat perlu dikaji dengan Journal of Ambient Energy 1–10. Baskar, P. & Senthilkumar, A. 2016. Effects of oxygen enriched terperinci agar keputusan yang lebih ketara dan persis combustion on pollution and performance characteristics of diperolehi. Selain itu, ujian terhadap enjin berkapasiti besar a Diesel Engine. Engineering Science and Technology, an yang biasa digunakan pada kenderaan perlu dilakukan International Journal 19(1): 438–43. secara meluas. British Petroleum. 2018. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Meta-study on magnetic fields (150 to 10,000 Gauss). SFC gains range from 4.00% to 23.4%, HC reductions from 20% to 34%, and CO reductions from 7% to 40%. Result disparity justifies protocol standardization.", "fr_vulgarise": "Les aimants ont un potentiel prouvé, mais l'absence de résultats cohérents entre les études empêche une adoption généralisée par l'industrie."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Traduit de Malaisien vers Français - www.onlinedoctranslator.com Journal d'ingénierie 35(1) 2023 : 105-115 105 https://doi.org/10.17576/jkukm-2023-35(1)-10 Analyse : La capacité du champ magnétique à traiter les hydrocarbures dans les moteurs combustion interne (Revue : Capacité du champ magnétique à traiter le carburant hydrocarboné dans les moteurs à combustion interne) Ahmad Fazli Mohamad Nor, Wan Mohd Faizal Wan Mahmood* & Muhamad Alias Md Jedi Département de génie mécanique et de fabrication, Faculté de génie et d'environnement bâti, Université nationale Malaisie, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaisie * Auteur correspondant : [email protected] Reçu le 4 mars 2022, reçu sous forme révisée le 4 juillet 2022 Accepté le 5 août 2022, disponible en ligne le 30 janvier 2023 ABSTRAIT L'augmentation de l'utilisation des combustibles fossiles et les niveaux élevés de pollution atmosphérique ont incité les chercheurs à explorer diverses méthodes pour en réduire les effets. Outre l'amélioration des composants du moteur, la modification des molécules de carburant peut également contribuer à la solution. L'application de champs magnétiques sur les conduites de carburant avant leur injection dans le moteur est une alternative importante pour améliorer le rendement du moteur et réduire les rejets de gaz d'échappement polluants. Des études antérieures ont démontré que les champs magnétiques peuvent augmenter le taux de combustion en agissant sur les molécules de carburant. Après traitement magnétique, les atomes d'hydrogène des hydrocarbures sont plus susceptibles de réagir avec les molécules d'oxygène et de produire une combustion plus complète. Cependant, les résultats obtenus par les chercheurs en termes d'économies et de taux de production de gaz d'échappement varient selon les conditions expérimentales. Bien que certains chercheurs aient enregistré des économies de carburant significatives et précises, cette méthode reste peu répandue auprès des constructeurs automobiles et des consommateurs. L'objectif de ce rapport est d'analyser les études relatives à l'influence des champs magnétiques sur les hydrocarbures et les effets de leur combustion dans les moteurs. Les résultats des recherches précédentes sont résumés, expliquant les réactions moléculaires du carburant lors du traitement magnétique ainsi que les principaux facteurs qui contribuent à une ionisation plus efficace, améliorant considérablement les performances du moteur et réduisant les gaz d'échappement. Mots-clés : Moteur ; performances ; consommation de carburant ; gaz d'échappement ; aimant ABSTRAIT La consommation croissante de combustibles fossiles et les fortes émissions de gaz d'échappement ont incité les chercheurs à explorer différentes approches pour en réduire les conséquences. Outre l'amélioration des composants du moteur, des modifications des molécules de carburant peuvent également apporter des améliorations considérables. L'utilisation de champs magnétiques sur la conduite d'alimentation en carburant constitue une alternative prometteuse pour optimiser les performances du moteur et réduire les émissions nocives. Des chercheurs ont déjà démontré que le champ magnétique pouvait améliorer le taux de combustion en agissant sur les molécules de carburant. Après le traitement magnétique, les atomes d'hydrogène du carburant hydrocarboné ont tendance à mieux réagir avec les molécules d'oxygène, améliorant ainsi la combustion. Cependant, les résultats varient considérablement d'un chercheur à l'autre, notamment en termes d'économie de carburant et d'émissions, selon le dispositif expérimental. Si de nombreux chercheurs ont signalé une amélioration significative des performances du moteur grâce à l'utilisation de champs magnétiques sur la conduite d'alimentation, certains n'ont rapporté que des effets négligeables. Malgré son potentiel prometteur, cette méthode n'a pas suscité beaucoup d'intérêt de la part des constructeurs et des utilisateurs automobiles. Cet article a pour objectif de présenter les études antérieures concernant l'influence du champ magnétique sur le carburant hydrocarboné et le rendement du moteur. Sur la base des résultats de recherche les plus récents, des discussions et des explications comprenant des réactions moléculaires, des facteurs importants influençant les changements dans les performances du moteur et les émissions d'échappement doivent être discutés. Mots-clés : Moteur ; performances ; consommation de carburant ; émissions ; aimants 106 INTRODUCTION Son coût est élevé et les pays en développement auront du mal à le gérer. Les chercheurs tentent d'explorer d'autres Depuis le début de la première révolution industrielle, les combustibles méthodes en modifiant le carburant et en utilisant des fossiles ont été extraits à grande échelle pour répondre à la demande carburants plus respectueux de l'environnement industrielle. À ce jour, ils demeurent la source d'énergie la plus (Alagumalai 2014). importante et sont considérés comme une source majeure. Étant donné que de nombreux effets indésirables sont produits, le taux L'impact sur ce phénomène s'accroît malgré les nombreux efforts déployés pour minimiser l'utilisation des ressources. Diverses recherches alternatives ont été menées (Martins et al.). Français Les recherches visant à améliorer les performances des Français). La consommation de carburants hydrocarbonés en moteurs à combustion interne et à réduire les gaz d'échappement ont 2017 a bondi de 1,7 million de barils par jour, dépassant la été menées sans mises à niveau majeures du moteur. Parmi celles-ci, le consommation moyenne des dix années précédentes. Cette contrôle de la disposition moléculaire de l'air d'admission avant son augmentation drastique équivaut à une augmentation annuelle injection dans la chambre de combustion (Cheruyiot et al. 2015), de 2,2 %, ce qui contribue à des émissions élevées de gaz l'augmentation de la teneur en oxygène pendant l'injection (Baskar & d'échappement et à une augmentation des températures Senthilkumar 2016), la modification du moment et de la durée de mondiales (British Petroleum 2018). Cependant, une baisse de l'injection de carburant (Sayin & Canakci 2009), l'optimisation du la consommation de carburant a été enregistrée en 2020, qui fonctionnement de l'EGR (Maiboom et al. 2008), l'ajout de catalyseurs au était de 4,5 % en raison de la propagation mondiale de la carburant (Mehta et al. 2013), l'amélioration de la réaction de Covid-19 (British Petroleum 2021). L'utilisation à grande échelle combustion du carburant avec l'eau (Chang et al. 2013 ; Tsai et al. 2015), de carburants hydrocarbonés affecte non seulement la hausse l'étude des matériaux catalytiques dans les convertisseurs catalytiques des prix des matières premières, mais son utilisation par le biais (He & Yu 2005) et l'utilisation de filtres à particules sur le carburant (Heeb de moteurs inefficaces contribue à l'effet de serre (Lelieveld et et al. 2007). Une méthode qui a reçu moins d'attention est l'utilisation de al. 2019). Les effets d'une combustion incomplète contribuent champs magnétiques pour améliorer les performances du moteur et également à la libération de gaz nocifs pouvant entraîner la réduire les gaz d'échappement. Cette méthode est rendue possible mort et avoir un impact négatif sur l'économie (Brugha et Grigg grâce à la réaction naturelle entre les champs magnétiques et les 2014 ; Groupe de travail du CIRC 2015 ; Lelieveld et al. 2019 ; De molécules d'hydrocarbures. L'arrangement des molécules Marco et al. 2019 ; Ochoa-Hueso et al. 2017). Des mesures d'hydrocarbures est amélioré après passage dans un champ magnétique d'atténuation immédiates sont nécessaires pour réduire suffisant, ce qui augmente la vitesse de réaction avec les molécules l'impact sur l'environnement (Kuo et Smith 2018). La production d'oxygène (Abdul-Wahhab et al., 2016). Ce rapport vise à déterminer et à de fines particules de fumée par les moteurs diesel est explorer les facteurs importants du traitement par champ magnétique, également dangereuse, car elle peut être absorbée qui seront examinés et analysés plus en détail. profondément dans les poumons (Dang et al. 2008). L'application de normes d'émissions plus strictes a ÉTUDE DE BIBLIOTHÈQUE contraint les constructeurs automobiles à abandonner les moteurs à combustion interne (Reynaert 2020). Cependant, la transition globale vers une technologie plus verte prend COMBUSTION DE CARBURANTS À HYDROCARBURES du temps. Plus la technologie tarde à mûrir, plus les effets Les carburants issus de l'extraction du pétrole brut sont constitués néfastes d'une combustion inefficace du moteur sont de chaînes complexes de molécules d'hydrocarbures. Les liaisons importants. Chen et Borken-Kleefeld (2016) ont constaté carbone existent sous forme de longues chaînes et de chaînes une baisse de performance du moteur de 5 à 10 % pour les cycliques, saturées et insaturées. Les molécules d'hydrocarbures véhicules diesel après un kilométrage de 250 000 km. Parmi existent sous différents isomères, à savoir les paraffines, les les facteurs contribuant à ce problème figure la production naphtalènes, les aromatiques et les oléfines, qui présentent des de produits indésirables, tels que la formation de dépôts de propriétés différentes. Cependant, les paraffines à liaisons saturées carbone incomplètement brûlés. Cette situation provoque (groupes alcanes) sont les plus courantes (Gonçalves et al., 2011). des perturbations opérationnelles de composants importants du moteur, comme la chambre de combustion, La réaction de combustion des hydrocarbures ne peut se les injecteurs et les carburateurs (Fatih et M. Saber 2010). produire que lorsqu'ils se vaporisent et se mélangent à des molécules d'oxygène. Dans des conditions normales, certaines Diverses modifications et améliorations ont été apportées molécules d'oxygène ne pénètrent pas dans les agrégats de aux systèmes moteurs existants afin d'améliorer les taux de molécules d'hydrocarbures, ce qui entraîne un mauvais combustion. Le rendement thermique typique des freins mélange (Nedunchezhian et Dhandapani, 1999). Parmi les enregistré pour un moteur de camion de moyenne capacité est effets néfastes de ce phénomène figurent la formation de d'environ 40 % à vide. Cette valeur est encore considérée dépôts de carbone sur les composants du moteur, l'émission comme faible et divers efforts sont déployés pour l'améliorer d'hydrocarbures imbrûlés (HC) et des émissions élevées de (Johnson et Joshi, 2017). L'introduction de nouvelles monoxyde de carbone (CO) et de suie (Sankar et al., 2018). technologies, telles que les moteurs hybrides et électriques, Parmi les méthodes permettant d’améliorer les niveaux de combustion pourrait offrir une solution plus globale. Cependant, dans les moteurs figure l’étude du caractère moléculaire du carburant. 107 Lors de la combustion, les chercheurs se concentrent efficacement. Cela permet à la réaction entre les molécules davantage sur l'étude des réactions des atomes d'hydrogène, d'oxygène et les molécules d'hydrocarbures d'augmenter, car l'énergie par masse moléculaire (énergie par masse ce qui entraîne une combustion plus complète. moléculaire) libéré lors de la combustion par l'hydrogène Chaque fluide présente également une réaction dépasse le carbone (Ugare et al., 2013). Par conséquent, les paramagnétique ou diamagnétique selon sa composition. Cette efforts visant à améliorer la réaction de combustion consistent réaction se produit car le moment magnétique est apparu à modifier la configuration des atomes d'hydrogène dans le naturellement suite à la rotation de la charge positive du proton et composé liquide combustible afin d'améliorer la réaction avec de la charge négative de l'électron. Lorsqu'un champ magnétique l'oxygène pendant la combustion. externe est appliqué, l'électron a tendance à absorber l'énergie et à se déplacer avec une énergie plus élevée. La force de Van Der Waals est affaiblie et la liaison covalente résultant du partage des RÉPONSE DU CHAMP MAGNÉTIQUE électrons de valence est facilement rompue. Les agrégats denses d'hydrocarbures sont plus faciles à décomposer, ce qui permet à Les champs magnétiques peuvent être obtenus à partir de sources l'oxygène d'atteindre le composé lors de la combustion. La réaction permanentes et électromagnétiques. Les aimants permanents sont de l'oxygène lors de la combustion dépend également de l'état des préférables car ils ne nécessitent aucune énergie externe et leur atomes d'hydrogène dans le composé. À température ambiante, la puissance ne diminue pas avec le temps (Sahoo & Jain 2019). La plupart des atomes d'hydrogène sont à l'état parahydrogène, ce qui plupart des chercheurs choisissent les aimants en alliage de signifie qu'ils sont proches les uns des autres. La direction du spin néodyme, fer et bore (Nd-Fe-B) car ils présentent le meilleur rapport du proton (spin du proton) L'hydrogène joue un rôle dans la résistance/taille par rapport aux aimants en ferrite, Alnico et détermination de cet état. La rotation du proton d'un atome Samarium-Cobalt. Un autre avantage des aimants Nd-Fe-B est leur d'hydrogène dans le sens opposé à celui d'un autre atome grande résistance à la corrosion et leur adéquation aux applications d'hydrogène, comme dans la figure 1(a), entraîne des propriétés où la petite taille est un facteur important (Attar et al. 2020 ; moins réactives. Les moments magnétiques résultants sont alignés, Fathallah et al. 2020 ; Trout 2000). Cependant, il est nécessaire de mais dans des directions opposées, ce qui entraîne l'attraction de contrôler la température de fonctionnement afin de garantir qu'elle deux atomes proches. L'hydrogène est plus compact et présente se situe dans la plage optimale, inférieure à 100 °C.OhC bien que la une réactivité diamagnétique (Libin & Kumar 2019 ; Ubaid et al. température de curie magnétique puisse atteindre 480OhC (Miyake 2014). et Akai, 2018). Cela peut entraîner une baisse des performances de Lorsqu'une molécule d'hydrocarbure est soumise à l'aimant avec la diminution de l'intensité du champ magnétique et un champ magnétique suffisant, les atomes perturber l'étude dans son ensemble (Jain et Deshmukh, 2012 ; Ma d'hydrogène tournent dans le même sens que et Narasimhan, 1986). L'utilisation d'aimants plus épais et de l'hydrogène voisin. Le moment de spin du proton qui en meilleure qualité augmente la résistance et la durabilité de l'aimant, résulte éloigne les atomes d'hydrogène et forme un état mais est plus coûteuse (Xiong et al., 2016). d'hydrogène ortho, comme illustré à la figure 1(b). L'hydrogène ortho est plus réactif car l'espace entre ses Toute substance réagissant avec un aimant présente atomes est plus large, comme illustré à la figure 2. Les des propriétés diamagnétiques ou paramagnétiques. molécules d'oxygène sont absorbées en profondeur Les matériaux diamagnétiques s'éloignent de la source dans la molécule d'hydrocarbure et favorisent une du champ magnétique (Ueno et Iwasaka, 1994), tandis réaction plus complète (Abdul-Wahhab et al. 2016 ; que les matériaux paramagnétiques s'en rapprochent. Calabrò et Magazù 2015 ; Govindasamy et Dhandapani Parmi les critères d'une bonne combustion figure le 2007a, 2007b ; M. Patel et al. 2014 ; Sahoo et Jain 2019). mélange air-carburant. (un) (b) FIGURE 1. Rotation des protons d'hydrogène dans l'état (a) para hydrogène (b) ortho hydrogène (M Patel et al. 2014) 108 FIGURE 2. Changement dans la disposition de l'hydrogène dans les molécules d'hydrocarbures de (a) l'hydrogène para à (b) l'hydrogène ortho (Calabrò & Magazine 2015) EFFETS MACROSCOPIQUES DES CHAMPS MAGNÉTIQUES Le traitement magnétique a été soutenu par Faris et AU FLUIDE al. (2012) pour réduire la consommation et les émissions de certains polluants. Les expériences en cours de Ueno et Iwasaka (1994) ont utilisé avec succès des champs recherche comprennent l'utilisation d'aimants magnétiques pour contrôler l'écoulement d'un fluide. permanents d'intensité variable (2 000, 4 000, 6 000, L'écoulement peut être complètement arrêté lorsque le champ 9 000) qui ont étudié les vibrations de composés magnétique réagit avec les propriétés diamagnétiques du hydrocarbonés traités par des champs magnétiques fluide. Cependant, cela peut être obtenu en utilisant des d'intensités de 2 000, 4 000, 6 000 et 9 000 Gs et champs magnétiques très importants, pouvant atteindre 80 000 observées par spectroscopie infrarouge. Le carburant G. Des études sur le fluide montrent également des traité a montré une absorption infrarouge plus élevée, modifications de ses propriétés thermodynamiques. On comme le montre la figure 3. L'attraction entre les constate que l'énergie interne et la capacité thermique molécules est réduite après traitement, ce qui permet augmentent lorsqu'un champ magnétique suffisant est une réaction de combustion plus efficace. appliqué (Zhou et al., 2000). Toutes les huiles à base de pétrole ont un effet similaire Le principal objectif pour favoriser la combustion est de à celui de la paraffine. Des tests sur les huiles à base de réduire la viscosité du carburant. Ce changement permet paraffine seules ont montré que leur débit était jusqu'à d'obtenir une structure moléculaire moins dense et de deux fois plus élevé lorsqu'elles étaient exposées à un favoriser une combustion plus complète. Une méthode champ magnétique (Tao et al., 2014 ; Tao et Tang, 2014). pour réduire la viscosité du fluide est disponible. Nufus et al. (2017) ont également étudié le biodiesel. Les hydrocarbures de grade B10 sont efficacement dosés sans chauffage grâce à un champ magnétique. On obtient les mêmes résultats en utilisant un champ magnétique. Introduction obtenu, c'est-à-dire que la viscosité diminue lorsqu'un champ Un champ magnétique pendant une période de temps magnétique est appliqué. suffisante peut réduire la viscosité sans augmenter la Il convient de souligner la capacité des molécules de température (Loskutova et al. 2008 ; Tao & Xu 2006), mais carburant à conserver leurs propriétés et leur arrangement l'effet n'est que macroscopique (Abdel-Rehim & Attia 2014). moléculaire après traitement. La viscosité d'un échantillon Gonçalves et al. (2011) ont mené une étude visant à laissé 150 minutes a augmenté de 20 % par rapport à la identifier la réaction entre plusieurs échantillons de composés viscosité réduite, comme le montre la figure 4 (Gonçalves et al., hydrocarbonés présentant différents ratios de paraffine. Les 2011). Les molécules de carburant gazeux, comme le gaz échantillons ont été soumis à un champ magnétique d'une naturel, ont plus de difficulté à conserver leur arrangement intensité de 13 000 Gs pendant une minute. Au cours du après traitement (Abdul-Wahhab et al., 2016). processus, la valeur de magnétisation des échantillons est passée de positive à négative, indiquant que le carburant hydrocarboné est composé d'un mélange de matériaux diamagnétiques et paramagnétiques. Les résultats obtenus concernant la viscosité variaient selon les échantillons, mais celle-ci pouvait diminuer jusqu'à 39 % sous l'effet d'un champ magnétique à température contrôlée. L'étude a également révélé la présence d'autres ions présents dans les composés, tels que le manganèse.2+joue également un rôle dans la réduction de la viscosité (Gonçalves et al. 2011). Par conséquent, les études magnétiques sur les performances du moteur doivent être cohérentes avec le type et le fabricant du carburant utilisé. Thiyagarajan et al. (2019) ont mené une étude utilisant des champs magnétiques sur différents types de FIGURE 3. Niveau d'absorption des ultraviolets par les carburants biocarburants. Les résultats étaient contradictoires. traités avec différentes magnitudes magnétiques (Faris et al. 2012) 109 Étant donné que l'effet de la composition d'hydrocarbures traitée diminue avec le temps, il est recommandé d'installer le système au plus près du brûleur (Chavan & Jhavar 2016). Comme le montre la figure 6, la position 1 est l'emplacement le plus proche du brûleur, les autres emplacements étant plus éloignés d'une distance non spécifiée. À la position 1, l'augmentation la plus importante du rendement thermique du frein peut atteindre 15 %. Grâce à ce contrôle, l'utilisation d'aimants Nd-Fe-B de 3 000 Gs dans les moteurs diesel a permis de réduire la consommation de carburant spécifique du frein jusqu'à 10 %. Les hydrocarbures imbrûlés (HC), les oxydes d'azote (NO), le monoxyde de carbone (CO) et le dioxyde de x carbone (CO) ont également enregistré une diminution allant 2 jusqu'à 21 %, 28 %, 6 % et 7,5 % (Sahoo & Jain 2019). FIGURE 4. Différence de niveaux de viscosité pour les échantillons exposés à un champ magnétique et après 150 minutes Le principal facteur affectant les performances du reposé (Gonçalves et al. 2011) moteur est l'intensité du champ magnétique utilisé. Chen et al. (2017) ont utilisé un aimant tubulaire breveté en Nd-Fe-B FACTEUR D'AMÉLIORATION DE LA RÉPONSE MAGNÉTIQUE ET d'une force de 150 Gs sur un moteur de générateur diesel. MODIFICATIONS DES PERFORMANCES DU MOTEUR La consommation spécifique de carburant et le rendement thermique du frein n'ont été améliorés que de 3 à 4 %. Les chercheurs ont utilisé diverses méthodes pour déterminer Cependant, le champ magnétique a permis de réduire l'effet des champs magnétiques sur la combustion, notamment en significativement les gaz d'échappement. Particules (Premier étudiant le type de tuyau et son emplacement sur le moteur. ministre), les émissions de CO, HC et CO ont diminué de 33 2 Chavan et Jhavar (2016) ont démontré que l'utilisation d'aimants sur %, 11 %, 64 %, 4 et 13 % car la disposition de l'hydrogène du des tuyaux métalliques provoque des interférences dans le champ diesel est passée de para à ortho lors du passage dans un magnétique. Ce constat est confirmé par Sahoo et Jain (2019), qui champ magnétique, ce qui facilite sa réaction avec ont affirmé que les champs magnétiques ne peuvent pas pénétrer l'oxygène. Les oxydes d'azote (NO) ont également x les tuyaux en matériaux ferromagnétiques, comme le montre la augmenté de 13 % en raison de la température plus élevée figure 5. résultant d'une combustion plus complète. Abdel-Rehim et Attia (2014) ont utilisé un champ magnétique plus important provenant d'une boucle électromagnétique source dont les noyaux étaient composés de différents matériaux et longueurs. Les forces produites variaient de 1 300 G à 2 620 G. Les meilleurs résultats ont été obtenus avec deux boucles présentant les forces les plus élevées. Une augmentation de puissance supérieure, allant jusqu'à 13 % pour un même régime moteur, a été constatée. La consommation de carburant a également été réduite jusqu'à 15 %, ainsi que les émissions de CO, HC et NO de 61,5 %, 53 % et x 50 %. a) Tuyau en fer (Fe) Un autre facteur à prendre en compte est la durée de l'ionisation du carburant par le champ magnétique. Un débit plus rapide nécessite un champ magnétique plus long (Arias Gilart et al. 2020 ; Niaki et al. 2019). (2017) ont testé un aimant d'une magnitude de 3 000 Gs sur un moteur diesel monocylindre. La durée d'ionisation a été modifiée en introduisant jusqu'à quatre paires d'aimants de même magnitude en série. La figure 7 montre que les économies de carburant les plus élevées ont été obtenues avec trois paires d'aimants. Une utilisation excessive d'aimants a également entraîné une baisse des performances. Il existe un point b) Tuyau en plastique optimal du champ magnétique qui offre les meilleurs résultats pour le moteur. Lors de différents tests, la même méthode a FIGURE 5. Diagramme du champ magnétique à travers des tuyaux en fer et en plastique (Sahoo & Jain 2019) été appliquée sur quatre moteurs différents. Il a été constaté que les économies de carburant étaient toujours possibles. 110 n'a pas atteint le niveau maximum même si cinq paires Un traitement magnétique est appliqué. En effet, le champ d'aimants sont installées (Tipole et al. 2019). magnétique modifie les liaisons entre les molécules Niaki et al. (2019) ont utilisé, dans une étude, des d'hydrocarbures et réduit la densité et la tension superficielle. Il aimants permanents N38H de grade Nd-Fe-B d'une améliore l'efficacité du mélange air-carburant. Par conséquent, magnitude maximale de 9 000 G sur un véhicule de type le carburant brûle plus complètement et produit plus d'énergie. Peugeot, 4 cylindres d'une cylindrée de 1 761 cm³. L'étude a L'utilisation d'aimants sur les liquides à base d'éthanol et autres montré que le carburant traité produisait une injection plus bio-huiles augmente également considérablement la douce, comme illustré à la figure 8. La température et la température de combustion (Thiyagarajan, Edwin Geo et al. pression dans le cylindre étaient également plus basses. 2019 ; Ulfiana et al. 2021). Cependant, les résultats observés sont des économies de Niaki et al. (2019) ont également enregistré une carburant de 4 à 12 %. Nufus et al. (2020) ont également diminution des économies à des régimes moteur élevés observé un profil de pression différent. Une augmentation en raison d'une durée d'ionisation insuffisante en raison constante de la pression a été observée lorsque de la grande capacité du moteur utilisé. FIGURE 6. Effet du niveau d'efficacité thermique du frein sur différentes charges du moteur en fonction de la position d'installation de l'aimant (Sahoo & Jain 2019) FIGURE 7. Effet du niveau d'économie de carburant avec l'utilisation de plusieurs nombres d'aimants (Tipole, Karthikeyan, Bhojwani, Tipole, et et al. 2017) 111 FIGURE 8. Différence dans les effets de pulvérisation de carburant avant et après traitement magnétique (Niaki et al. 2019) Oommen et G. N. (2020) ont étudié un autre facteur, à La meilleure solution. Plusieurs études antérieures savoir l'influence de la forme de l'aimant installé sur la conduite ont utilisé des valeurs allant de 150 G à 10 000 G. de carburant. Des aimants cylindriques creux et en forme de Cependant, toutes ces configurations ont enregistré bloc ont été utilisés, fournissant des champs magnétiques des économies de carburant significatives, allant de 4 axiaux et radiaux. Les résultats obtenus ont montré que % à 23,4 %, comme le montre le tableau 1. Ce tableau l'utilisation de champs magnétiques radiaux permettait des indique également que la réduction des émissions de économies supplémentaires allant jusqu'à 49 % par rapport à HC et de CO variait de 20 à 34 % et de 7 à 40 %. celles obtenues avec des champs magnétiques axiaux de même intensité. Le tableau 1 détaille également les effets du NO après un x De nombreuses autres études ont été menées par des traitement magnétique. Les résultats des chercheurs sont chercheurs, montrant des résultats variables selon le type et la contradictoires. Certains cas ont enregistré une augmentation du NO cylindrée du moteur utilisé. L'utilisation de différents moteurs a allant jusqu'à 19 %, mais en moyenne, les chercheurs ont constaté une x entraîné des changements différents. Tipole et al. (2019) ont diminution comprise entre 11 et 56 % lorsque le champ magnétique était mené une étude utilisant des aimants sur plusieurs moteurs appliqué avant l'injection du carburant dans la chambre de combustion. différents. Bien que tous les moteurs aient montré des progrès, L'évolution des émissions de dioxyde de carbone était également inégale les changements enregistrés étaient différents. Les chercheurs d'un chercheur à l'autre. Certains chercheurs ont constaté une ont également rencontré des difficultés pour déterminer diminution allant jusqu'à 10 %, tandis que de nombreux chercheurs ont l'intensité du champ magnétique. constaté une augmentation comprise entre 3 et 12 %. TABLEAU 1. Comparaison des résultats de recherche utilisant des aimants sur du carburant par rapport aux conditions sans aimants Découverte Non.Références Différence CO HC non CO NON Configuration magnétique Spécifications du moteur utiliser (%) brûlé (%) 2 (%) x carburant (%) (%) Raj Kumar & Janardhana 5,2 kW, 1 Aimant permanent 12 000 Gs - 19,3 - 13 - 15 X 12.4 Raju (2021) 1 cylindre 2 Chandravanshi et al.(2021) Aimant permanent de 4 000 Gs Non donné - 9 X X X X 44,5 kW, 3 Oommen et G. N (2020) Aimant permanent 6 400 Gs - 17 - 32 - 13 27 - 19 4 cylindres Certains aimants permanents 13,4 kW, 2 4 Arias Gilart et al. (2020) -4 - 21 - 7 X - 4 3 600 G cylindre, 930 cm3 Électro-aimant 5 Chandrasekaran et al. (2020) magnitude de 4 000 à 6 kW, 1 cylindre - 11 - 25 - 14 12 - 11 10 000 G 6 Hazwi et al. (2019) Magnitude 2 500 G 1000 cm3, - 22 - 20 - 6 5 X 1 cylindre à suivre... 112 . . . connexion 5,5 – 11,1 kW, 6 Tipole et al. (2019) Aimant permanent de 3 000 Gs 1 cylindre, X - 17 - 68 20 X 97 – 150 cm3 7 Niaki et al. (2019) Aimant permanent de 9 000 Gs 1761 cm3, - 12 - 11 - 18 - 10 - 10 4 cylindres 3,5 kW, 8 Sahoo et Jain (2019) Aimant permanent de 3 000 Gs - 10 - 6 - 21 - 7 - 28 1 cylindre 9 C.Y. Chen et al. (2017) Aimant tubulaire 150 Gs 30 kW - 4 - 11 - 64 - 4 13 8,2 kW, 1 10 Sankar et al. (2018) Aimant permanent de 5 000 Gs X - 10 - 25 3 X cylindre, 99 cm3 Tipole, Karthikeyan, Certains aimants permanents 47,7 kW, 3 11 Bhojwani, Tipole, et al. - 23,4 X X X X (2017) 3 000 G cylindre, 998 cm3 Tipole, Karthikeyan, Certains aimants permanents 47,7 kW, 3 12 Bhojwani, Deshmukh et coll. X - 17 - 18 3,4X 3 000 G cylindre, 998 cm3 (2017) Électro-aimant Chaware et Basavaraj 3,75 kW, 13 magnitude jusqu'à - 12 - 8 - 34 - 9 - 17 (2015) 1 cylindre 4 000 G 5,2 kW, 1 14 M. Patel et al. (2014) Aimant permanent de 2 000 Gs - 8 - 37 - 30 - 9 - 27 cylindre, 661 cm3 A. Abdel-Rehim & AA Plusieurs électroaimants 9,7 kW, 15 - 15,5 - 20 - 19 X - 56 Attia (2014) magnitude 2 620 Gs 1 cylindre 16 Ugare et al. (2013) Aimant permanent de 5 000 Gs 256 cm3, - 12 - 11 - 26 - 11 19 1 cylindre 17 Faris et al. (2012) Aimant permanent de 8 000 Gs 4 kW, 1 cylindre - 14 - 40 - 30 10 X 18 Fatih et M. Saber (2010) Non donné 15 kW, cylindre - 15 - 7 - 66 X - 30 DISCUSSION Une grande capacité, une charge importante et une vitesse élevée entraîneront des améliorations de performances insignifiantes. Il existe deux types de sources de champ magnétique utilisables Les résultats enregistrés concernant les émissions x dans les moteurs : les champs magnétiques provenant d'aimants de NO et de CO sont contradictoires selon les études 2 permanents et les champs magnétiques provenant menées. L'explication est la suivante : le traitement par d'électroaimants. Les aimants permanents sont plus adaptés aux champ magnétique produit un profil d'injection plus applications dans les moteurs, car ils ne nécessitent aucune énergie régulier, améliorant ainsi le mélange air-carburant. Les externe et leur installation est plus simple et plus sûre. Pour obtenir molécules d'oxygène peuvent atteindre les molécules de une amplitude élevée et une taille réduite, la plupart des chercheurs carburant et améliorer le mélange. Cela améliore les utilisent des aimants Nd-Fe-B, mais leur température de performances de combustion. Les produits de fonctionnement est basse. Pour que la température ambiante combustion incomplète, tels que les hydrocarbures n'affecte pas leurs performances, les aimants doivent être isolés et imbrûlés et le monoxyde de carbone, sont réduits. Par une bonne ventilation est nécessaire. De plus, l'utilisation d'aimants conséquent, la quantité de CO libérée peut augmenter. 2 de haute qualité peut également améliorer leurs performances. Cependant, l'utilisation d'aimants permettant d'économiser du carburant, la quantité de carbone Outre la puissance de l'aimant, d'autres facteurs disponible diminue également, entraînant une 2 importants sont son emplacement et la durée du champ diminution de la quantité de CO libérée. magnétique appliqué. Plus la surface de l'aimant est longue sur La production de NO est étroitement liée à la pression et à x la conduite de carburant, plus l'ionisation est efficace. la température régnant dans le cylindre, ainsi qu'à la quantité L'utilisation de plusieurs aimants augmente également la d'oxygène présente. Les chercheurs ont obtenu des résultats vitesse de traitement. Plus l'emplacement est proche de différents à différentes pressions et températures lors de l'injecteur, plus les changements sont importants, car les l'application d'aimants. L'augmentation de ces deux paramètres molécules d'hydrocarbures traitées ont un effet temporaire et a entraîné une formation accrue de NO, et inversement. Des x diminuent avec le temps. À l'inverse, un débit de carburant études plus approfondies sont nécessaires pour comprendre et accru entraîne une durée d'ionisation insuffisante, ce qui peut répondre à ces données contradictoires. entraîner une surchauffe du moteur. 113 Des études ont également constaté une diminution de la Fort. Il a également été démontré que les applications magnétiques consommation de carburant lors de l'application de champs modifient efficacement la viscosité de certains fluides sans affecter magnétiques excessifs. Ces changements n'ont pas encore été leur température. Si ce mécanisme est étudié attentivement, le décrits et des études détaillées doivent être menées. Chaque traitement par champ magnétique peut modifier significativement moteur est unique et présente des variations différentes selon les propriétés des fluides et contribuer à un fonctionnement plus l'utilisation de carburant traité. La combustion du moteur dépend efficace. Il pourrait également être appliqué à d'autres fluides tels de ses réglages, qui prennent en compte plusieurs facteurs que les huiles pour systèmes hydrauliques, les systèmes de importants tels que la température, le rapport de pression, le lubrification, les fluides caloporteurs, etc. Grâce aux progrès de la processus d'admission d'air, le rapport air/carburant, etc. La technologie magnétique, on s'attend à ce que des aimants plus différence significative de résultats entre les chercheurs est petits et plus puissants, ainsi qu'une manipulation plus aisée, également due à plusieurs autres facteurs, notamment la cylindrée puissent être produits. Son potentiel d'utilisation devrait s'élargir et du moteur, le type et la qualité du carburant, ainsi que les différents permettre la réalisation d'études complémentaires afin de instruments et méthodologies de recherche. Les chercheurs doivent concrétiser des opportunités de commercialisation dans l'industrie. également expliquer en détail les méthodes de contrôle des Par conséquent, il est proposé de poursuivre les études sur le paramètres susceptibles d'influencer les résultats, tels que les traitement magnétique des fluides parallèlement au spécifications du carburant, le type de conduite de carburant, la développement de la technologie magnétique. température de fonctionnement de l'aimant et son emplacement. APPRÉCIATION L'auteur tient à remercier l'Université nationale de CONCLUSION Malaisie (UKM) pour son soutien à ce document de recherche. Les champs magnétiques permettent de traiter les molécules de carburant et d'améliorer les performances de combustion du DÉCLARATION D'INTÉRÊTS CONCURRENTS moteur. Ils offrent un potentiel considérable pour la production de moteurs plus respectueux de l'environnement. Grâce à des Aucun. recherches menées depuis plus de dix ans, les performances des moteurs se sont améliorées, des économies de carburant ont été RÉFÉRENCE réalisées et des réductions significatives des gaz d'échappement ont été obtenues. Ces cinq dernières années, les chercheurs ont A. Abdel-Rehim, A. & AA Attia, A. 2014. Le traitement magnétique du commencé à étudier l'utilisation d'aimants sur les moteurs de carburant affecte-t-il les performances du moteur ?Congrès mondial véhicules de plus grande taille. Parmi les principaux facteurs et exposition SAE 20142014, 01–1394. influençant le traitement magnétique figurent l'intensité Abdul-Wahhab, HA Al-Kayiem, HHA Aziz, AR et Nasif, magnétique, la longueur d'ionisation, la forme de l'aimant et son MS 2016. Enquête sur la magnétisation du carburant d'investissement dans le emplacement d'installation. D'autres facteurs restent encore développement des caractéristiques des moteurs à combustion interne.Revues sur les incertains, comme la présence d'ions étrangers dans les molécules énergies renouvelables et durables79 : 1392–99. de carburant et l'utilisation de différents modèles de champ Alagumalai, A. 2014. Moteurs à combustion interne : progrès et magnétique, qui peuvent faciliter le processus de traitement du Perspectives.Revues sur les énergies renouvelables et durables 38 : 561–71. carburant. Si la recherche répond à cette question, des économies Arias Gilart, R. Ungaro, MRB Rodríguez, CEA Hernández, de carburant supplémentaires seront certainement réalisées. Une JFF Sofía, MC & Verdecia, DD 2020. Performances et gaz question fréquemment posée est : quels sont les paramètres d'échappement d'un moteur diesel utilisant différents magnétiques les plus adaptés à un moteur de véhicule ? 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Numerical simulation (CFD) of premixed flames in a burner under a magnetic field (up to 5000 Gauss). Modeling of temperature profiles and NOx emissions [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Simulation pour comprendre l'impact d'un aimant (5000 Gauss) sur le contrôle des flammes."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study of flame characteristics during the combustion of biodiesel droplets (coconut and palm oil) under a magnetic field, aiming to influence flame stability and improve biofuel combustion efficiency [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est utilisé pour influencer la combustion des biocarburants sous forme de gouttelettes."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Vol. 12, No. 2 (2023) : 326 - 337 DOI : http://dx.doi.org/10.23960/jtep-l.v12i2.326-337 Effect of Magnetic Field on the Flame Characteristics of Droplet Com- bustion of Coconut and Palm Oil Dony Perdana 1, Asrori 2, Muhamad Hanifudin 1, Novembrian Isam Dinata 1 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Maarif Hasyim Latif University, Sidoarjo, INDONESIA 2Department of Mechanical Engineering, State Polytechnic of Malang, Malang, INDONESIA Article History : ABSTRACT Received : 31 January 2023 Received in revised form : 5 March 2023 Experimental has been conducted on the effects of Accepted : 7 March 2023 variations in the direction of the magnetic fields on flames characteristic of droplets combustion of coconut and palm Keywords : oils. Two variations of the directions magnetic field N-N Flames evolution, and S-N were used in this experiment by placing droplets of Flames height, Flames temperature, vegetable oils on the type K thermocouple between two Ignition delay, permanent magnet rods. High-speed camera (120 frame Vegetable oils. per second) recorded the flames up to extinguished. The result showed that S-N magnetic fields affected on shorter burning time of coconut and palm oil, respectively 670 ms and 871 ms, with the highest temperature of 816.25 oC and 778 oC. The flame height produced by the S-N magnetic field in coconut oil is 34.36 mm shorter, ignitions delay time for all oils has faster than the N-N magnetic field. The strong magnetic field direction increases the oxygen concentrations and fuel molecules around the reaction zone, causing shorter combustion. This combustion Corresponding Author: produces different flame evolution, shape, height, [email protected] temperature, and ignition delay times. 1. INTRODUCTION Worldwide energy consumption has increased due to cultural changes and human population increase. Transportation is one of the primary energy consumers, mainly diesel engine, leading to the depletion of petroleum fuels. The energy crisis caused the energy exploration of alternative sources to sustain global energy demand (Ayeni et al., 2021). Several studies have identified biomass as an alternative, renewable, and environmentally friendly as solar cell, wind and hydro (Ighalo & Adeniyi, 2020; Fitriana & Febriana, 2021). Vegetable oil as biomass has much superior to petrol, has lower emissions and abundant availability. However, vegetable oils have the high density, surface tensions, flash points, and viscosity while having lower volatilities than diesel. Several problems were encountered in its direct use in the combustion chamber: clog filters and deposits on piston rings (San José Alonso et al., 2012). However, various solutions have been proposed Jurnal Teknik Pertanian Lampung Vol 12, No. 2 (2023) : 326-337 to overcome this problem, including making vegetable oils and its derivatives; mixing with diesel fuel in different ratios; vegetable oil heating; mixing with additives; exhaust gas recirculated and combustion chamber modification (piston, nozzle, etc.). Several studies that have been carried out using biomass fuel found that preheating coconut oil is directly used as an alternate diesel and engine replacements are not required (Malik et al., 2017). Coconut oil is an alternate diesel fuel because its fatty acids have lengthy carbon chains comparable to diesel fuel (Nanlohy et al., 2018). Four-stroke diesel engine, single-cylinder with various throttle settings using a blend of diesel and biodiesel from coconut oil (B5 and B15). The two biodiesels produce higher exhaust gas temperatures and reduced CO but slight increased NOx than to diesel (Liaquat et al., 2013). Research by Malik et al. (2017) has investigated the combustion performance of blend biodiesel coconut oil (B5, B15, and B25) with diesel fuel under three equivalence ratios (φ = 0.8, φ = 1.0, φ = 1.2). Results showed the biodiesel coconut oil blend burns at a lower temperature and produced fewer emissions than diesel for all equivalent ratios. In addition, increasing the content of coconut oil biodiesel mixture reduces the temperature of combustion chamber walls and concentration of emissions. Many studies have used palm oil in diesel engines to evaluate engine performance and emissions. Preheating palm oil and mixed to diesel (PO20, PO30, and PO40). The result is 5.1% brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and 7.1% lower cylinder pressure, while 11.4% higher brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) than diesel (Prabu et al., 2018). The oxygen molecules in vegetable oils reduce pollutants such as CO and HC while lower BSFC than diesel (Bari & Hossain, 2019). A mixture of 20% palm oil to diesel has been used in diesel engines to study combustion characteristics. It found that ignition delay decreased. At the same time, cylinder pressure and BTE increased with increasing compression ratio (Rosha et al., 2019). A mixture of various concentrations of diesel- crude palm oil (CPO) on diesel engines was found to have decreased that cylinder pressure and heat release rate (HRR). Furthermore, HC and NOx are decreasing, but CO and BSFC are increased than diesel (Ge et al., 2021). Other studies have investigated the emission to single-cylinder diesel engines of a blend of coconut and palm oil with diesel. CO and HC are reducing to a certain by 13.75 to 17.97%, while NOx emissions by 3.13 to 5.67% higher than diesel (Habibullah et al., 2014). Cottonseed, palm, and hemp oil biodiesel on diesel engines results in increased exhaust gas recirculation and CO emissions while NOx decreases (Shehata, 2013). Various palm oil biodiesel blended diesel with three different fuel flow rates at the nozzle (1.25, 1.5 and 1.75 gal/hour). All blends of palm oil biodiesel and fuel flow rates result in lower combustion wall temperatures, NOx and CO emissions than diesel (Ganjehkaviri et al., 2016). Due to the limitations of vegetable oils, some researchers use a magnetic field to increase combustion efficiency and reduce emissions. The properties of the fuel can be improved by adding magnets, such as aligning and directing the hydrocarbon atoms so that the fuel's atomization is better (Jain & Deshmukh, 2012). The fuel viscosity decreases significantly by applying a magnetic field of sufficient strength and suitable duration (Oommen & Kumar, 2019). Five magnetic fields of 3000 G each are applied to the fuel line in a two-wheeled four-stroke single-cylinder petrol engine. It was found that fuel savings increased to a maximum of 9.36%, CO and HC decreased an 12% and 72.84%, respectively (Tipole et al., 2022). A magnet tube is installed on the fuel inlet of the diesel generator at idle a constant rate of 1800 rpm, with a load of 50% and 25%, respectively. It found fuel consumption and BSFC reduced by an average of 15% and 3.5%, while BTE increased by around 3.5% (Chen et al., 2017). From the explanation above, all researchers conducted performance and 327 Perdana et al.: Effect of Magnetic Field on the Flame ... performance studies only on internal combustion engines. However, the behavior of the flame, which plays a vital role in combustion stability, is very rarely studied. A study of the effect of fuel on the combustion chamber is needed, especially for transportation engines. The research was conducted using the droplets combustion method, which was given an additional magnetic field to determine the flame behavior of various vegetable oils and the direction of a magnetic field. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Materials Coconut and palm oil as test fuels was obtained from commercial products, with different chemical and physical properties, respectively, have been shown in previous studies (Wahyudi et al., 2018; Hellier et al., 2015; Perdana et al., 2018) in Table 1 and Table 2. Table 1. Fatty acid composition of various vegetable oils Carbon Vegetable Oils Fatty Acid Number Palm Rapeseed Coconut Jatropha Karanja Castor Lauric C12:0 0.1–0.2 – 47.2 – – – Myristic C14:0 0.8–0.9 <0.1 18.5 0.15 – – Palmitic C16:0 39.5–47 3.3–6 – 14.4–15.6 10.9 1.4–2.0 Palmitoleic C16:1 <0.6 0–3.0 9.41 0.69 – – Stearic C18:0 3–6 1.3–6 – 5.8–10.5 7.9 1.1–2.0 Oleic C18:1 36–44 52–65 – 42–43 53.6 3.4–6.0 Linoleic C18:2 6–12 18–25 3.1 30.9–35.4 21.3 4.0–4.8 Linolenic C18:3 <0.5 8–11 8.2 0.2 2.1 <0.6 Ricinoleic C18:1 (OH) – – – – – 86–88 Table 2. Physical properties of various vegetable oils Vegetable Oils Property Palm Rapeseed Coconut Jatropha Karanja Castor Diesel Kinematic 39.6a 37a 29,35 24.5–53b 27–56b 29.7a 1.3–4.1 viscosity (mm2/s) Calorific 36.9 37.4–39.7 31.25 38–40 34–38.8 39.5 42–43.8 value (MJ/kg) Cloud 31 −3.9 25 8–16 13–15 −11.6 −15 to point (°C) −5 Pour point 31 −31.7 15 −3 to 5 −3 to 6 −31.7 −33 to (°C) 15 Flash point 267–330 246–320 249 180–280 198–263 229 60–80 (°C) Density at 910 915 885.95 901–940b 870–928b 970 834–855 20°C (kg/m3) a Data at 38 °C. b Data at 40 °C. 328 Jurnal Teknik Pertanian Lampung Vol 12, No. 2 (2023) : 326-337 2.2. Experimental Apparatus The research was carried out using the equipment shown schematically in Figure 1. Droplets of coconut and palm oil have suspended a junction of a type K thermocouple made from 13% Pt/Rh material at a diameter of 0.1 mm. Droplets were prepared manual use a syringe of conventional (1 mL) size fixed at a diameter of about 0.4 mm. These droplets are ignited by an electric heater coil with a diameter of 0.3 mm made of material Ni-Cr wire. A length of 30 mm has a resistance of 1.02, voltage of 6 V and current of 5 A. The temperature data collection begins when the electric heater is turned on and then recorded by the data logger Arduino UNO R3 Atmega 328 at a frequency 0.01 Hz connected to a laptop. While an image of a flame is recording used high-speed camera (120 fps) and carried out three times from start to flame until extinguished. The recording results are then processed using the Free Video to JPG Converter application with millisecond (ms) time measurement. Image J converts image files into several frames. Flame evolution, height and delay time were measured using the Corel Draw application. The experiment was repeated three times for each treatment combination, shown in Table 3 to 6. Figure 1. Research installation; 1. Combustion chamber, 2. Data logger, 3. Laptop, 4. High speed camera Figure 2. Variations in the direction of a magnetic field 2.3. Magnetic Field 11000 G magnetic field strength of a permanent bar magnet made of neodymium N45 material with dimensions of 40×25×10 mm. The two permanent magnet bars are spaced 20 mm using two different variations of the magnetic field poles, namely the North-North (N-N) and South-North (S-N) magnetic fields, showed in Figure 2. 329 Perdana et al.: Effect of Magnetic Field on the Flame ... 2.4. Observation and Measurment The experiment was carried out three times, and the data obtained were processed each time experiment. The average results are the final data for analyzing flame height, and temperature in Table 3 to 6. Table 3. Effect of magnetic fields N-N and S-N on flame height using palm oil Palm Oil; Magnet N-N Palm Oil; Magnet S-N Time Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Mean SD Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Mean SD (ms) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) 67 17.65 18.45 18.12 18.07 0.40 15.82 15.90 15.10 15.61 0.44 134 22.48 22.15 21.50 22.04 0.50 15.95 16.80 16.90 16.55 0.52 201 25.00 24.65 23.90 24.52 0.56 19.35 18.61 18.14 18.70 0.61 268 26.91 26.25 27.55 26.90 0.65 22.05 21.30 22.15 21.83 0.46 335 29.10 29.30 28.20 28.87 0.59 24.28 25.40 24.55 24.74 0.58 402 30.90 31.35 30.49 30.91 0.43 26.57 27.55 26.95 27.02 0.49 469 35.30 35.74 34.45 35.16 0.66 32.10 31.05 30.90 31.35 0.65 536 40.26 39.96 39.15 39.79 0.57 33.19 32.45 33.57 33.07 0.57 603 38.20 38.05 36.90 37.72 0.71 36.15 36.75 35.55 36.15 0.60 670 42.10 41.20 40.90 41.40 0.62 42.45 43.68 42.55 42.89 0.68 737 37.40 37.00 36.45 36.95 0.48 41.00 40.06 39.60 40.22 0.71 804 38.20 38.85 37.65 38.23 0.60 40.45 41.00 41.75 41.07 0.65 871 35.15 35.75 36.45 35.78 0.65 32.15 32.65 33.45 32.75 0.66 938 33.90 34.89 35.38 34.72 0.75 - - - - - 1005 31.98 32.35 31.25 31.86 0.56 - - - - - 1072 21.95 21.35 22.65 20.98 0.65 - - - - - Table 4. Effect of magnetic fields N-N and S-N on flame height using coconut oil Coconut Oil; Magnet N-N Coconut Oil; Magnet S-N Time Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Mean SD Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Mean SD (ms) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) 67 17.05 16.15 16.75 16.65 0.46 16.34 15.40 16.00 15.91 0.48 134 18.15 18.87 18.30 18.44 0.38 16.55 16.85 17.40 16.93 0.43 201 21.47 20.7 20.35 20.84 0.57 18.00 17.89 17.18 17.69 0.45 268 24.30 23.78 24.95 24.34 0.59 20.15 21.14 20.87 20.72 0.51 335 26.96 27.05 26.15 26.72 0.50 22.55 22.20 21.59 22.11 0.49 402 28.95 28.26 29.13 28.78 0.46 25.05 25.50 26.10 25.55 0.53 469 32.35 32.69 31.65 32.23 0.53 29.25 28.77 28.05 28.69 0.60 536 33.80 34.75 35.05 34.53 0.65 30.95 31.30 32.05 31.40 0.56 603 39.17 38.60 38.15 38.64 0.51 34.05 34.90 34.13 34.36 0.47 670 44.65 44.08 43.75 44.16 0.46 31.70 31.20 30.85 31.25 0.43 737 42.25 42.75 41.60 42.20 0.58 - - - - - 804 38.85 39.35 40.15 39.45 0.66 - - - - - 330 Jurnal Teknik Pertanian Lampung Vol 12, No. 2 (2023) : 326-337 Table 5. Effect of magnetic fields N-N and S-N on flame temperature using palm oil Palm Oil; Magnet N-N Palm Oil; Magnet S-N Time Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Mean SD Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Mean SD (ms) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) 67 542.75 549.27 534.50 541.50 7.40 571.45 563.65 580.15 571.75 8.25 134 553.85 563.25 568.15 561.75 7.27 588.45 591.65 577.15 585.75 7.62 201 572.40 589.30 578.30 580.00 8.58 614.67 603.85 595.75 604.75 9.49 268 622.55 612.05 607.40 614.00 7.76 669.75 663.15 680.85 671.25 8.94 335 680.30 667.00 682.20 676.50 8.28 759.65 774.15 769.45 767.75 7.40 402 730.20 715.90 731.15 725.75 8.54 804.15 811.10 792.25 802.5 9.53 469 736.95 751.25 742.30 743.50 7.23 809.20 814.10 825.45 816.25 8.34 536 764.25 751.50 749.70 755.15 7.93 805.15 812.80 795.55 804.50 8.64 603 760.15 753.35 769.50 761.00 8.11 777.85 796.95 788.45 787.75 9.57 670 771.05 758.05 760.65 763.25 6.88 780.65 768.15 763.45 770.75 8.89 737 720.20 734.60 723.95 726.25 7.47 740.55 756.35 749.35 748.75 7.92 804 695.95 684.95 698.85 693.25 7.33 709.25 727.85 716.15 718.75 9.40 871 647.10 661.70 654.70 654.50 7.30 685.00 676.15 693.85 685.00 8.85 938 623.00 607.35 613.15 614.50 7.91 - - - - - 1005 566.45 577.25 582.82 575.50 8.32 - - - - - 1072 541.00 546.05 531.45 539.50 7.41 - - - - - Table 5. Effect of magnetic fields N-N and S-N on flame temperature using coconut oil Coconut Oil; Magnet N-N Coconut Oil; Magnet S-N Time Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Mean SD Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Mean SD (ms) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) 67 524.25 534.15 520.35 526.25 7.11 553.75 560.55 545.45 553.25 7.56 134 547.75 555.50 538.50 547.25 8.51 570.40 563.75 578.10 570.75 7.18 201 555.80 566.25 571.45 564.50 7.97 591.45 599.55 583.50 591.50 8.03 268 589.30 593.10 577.10 586.50 8.36 640.10 656.65 649.50 648.75 8.30 335 646.00 662.75 654.75 654.50 8.38 727.20 742.55 732.25 734.00 7.82 402 709.95 699.80 717.25 709.00 8.76 787.45 775.15 771.40 778.00 8.40 469 722.45 737.60 726.95 729.00 7.78 760.15 755.00 770.85 762.00 8.09 536 727.45 740.60 730.95 733.00 6.81 735.50 752.35 747.15 745.00 8.63 603 708.85 698.75 714.15 707.25 7.82 719.20 734.10 723.95 725.75 7.61 670 680.25 667.00 682.25 676.50 8.29 699.35 715.00 705.15 706.50 7.91 737 541.45 552.25 538.30 644.00 7.32 - - - - - 804 620.45 605.20 611.10 612.25 7.69 - - - - - 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Flame Evolution and Shape Figure 3 and 4 shows the flame evolution and shape of a coconut and palm oil with various magnetic field directions. Figures 3a and 4a show that the N-N magnetic field of direction produces an asymmetry the bottom of a flame than S-N magnetic field. On 331 Perdana et al.: Effect of Magnetic Field on the Flame ... the other hand, the N-N magnetic field of direction produces burning with long- duration coconut oil and palm of 804 ms and 1072 ms, respectively. Highest unsaturated fatty acids in palm oil than in coconut oil (Table 1). Vegetable oil burns at three stages, namely a burning stage of unsaturated fatty acids, saturated and glycerol. Flame's length of time burns due to the high composition of unsaturated fatty acid. This condition occurs because most oleic and linoleic acid carbon atoms burn first. After all, their flash point is lower than other fatty acids (Perdana et al., 2018). The S-N magnetic field of direction significantly influences the flame's evolution and shape, showed in Figure 3b and 4b. Figure 3. Flame evolution and shape of coconut oil with two directions: (Top) N-N magnetic field; (bottom) S-N magnetic field Figure 4. Flame evolution and shape of palm oil with two directions: (Top) N-N magnetic field; (bottom) S-N magnetic field The direction of S-N magnetic field results in a shorter burning duration of coconut oil and palm of 670 ms and 871 ms than N-N 804 ms and 1072 ms, respectively. The directions of S-N magnetic field affect a shape of the resulting flame, which is widened and symmetrical than N-N magnetic field, as shown in Figure 3a and 4b. The asymmetry in the shape of the flame is caused because the magnetic field that forms the H O molecule is broken so that each molecule is pulled out of the combustion 2 reaction zone. The shape of the flame in a micro-explosion is spherical due to the 332 Jurnal Teknik Pertanian Lampung Vol 12, No. 2 (2023) : 326-337 release of bubbles containing fuel vapour at a higher pressure. When it explodes, the fuel vapours in the bubbles do not have enough time to disperse and rapidly react. Therefore, the flame becomes spherical or widened (Perdana et al., 2022). 3.2. Flame Height The difference in height a flame on droplets combustion of coconut and palm oil in the various directions of a magnetic fields are shown in Figure 5. The highest flame was 44.16 mm in coconut oil with an N-N magnetic field of direction at 670 ms and then went down until it was extinguished, while the lowest was 34.36 mm at 603 ms with an S-N magnetic field. The change in the height of flame in coconut oil with the direction of the N-N and S-N magnetic fields is relatively stable. It can be observed at 67 ms to 603 ms and 670 ms. The trend increases and then decreases after reaching the maximum height. However, it differs from palm oil where the flame height is unstable. After reaching the maximum height, the size of the flame decreases, then increases and decreases until it is extinguished. Figure 5. Flame height of coconut and palm oil with two directions of a magnetic field Palm oil produces on highest flame on direction of S-N magnetic field of 42.89 mm and the N-N magnetic field of 41.4 ms at 670 ms. This height difference is possible: first, there is a difference in saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Higher the unsaturated fatty acids, the fastest evaporation occurs. So that the combustion process is more immediate after diffusing into the air, causing a shorter flame height. Secondly, the direction of a magnetic field affects combustion to be more complete. The S-N magnetic field attracts O from the surrounding air, accelerating the combustion 2 reaction process with fuel. 3.3. Flame Temperature Variations in the temperature of the droplet combustion of coconut and palm oil with various magnetic field directions are shown in Figure 6. All vegetable oils show that the resulting temperature increases after reaching the maximum temperature and decreases until the flame is extinguished. The droplet combustion of each vegetable oil produces the highest temperature at different times. Palm oil with on direction of an S- N magnetic field produces the highest temperatures of 816.25 oC at 469 ms, followed by coconut oil S-N, palm oil N-N and coconut oil N-N, 778 oC at 402 ms, 763.25 oC at 333 Perdana et al.: Effect of Magnetic Field on the Flame ... 670 ms and 733 oC at 536 ms, respectively. The factors that affect the flame temperature of vegetable oil include, first, the short length of a carbon chain and number of double bonds (Table 1). The temperature was affected by a calorific value of fuels, combustion rates, flash points and heat losses to radiation (Zhu et al., 2020). Palm oil produces the highest temperature than coconut oil because calorific value of palm oils more elevated to coconut oil (see Table 2). The higher the calorific value, the greater the resulting temperatures. Maximum temperatures occur toward the end of combustion, as droplets are entirely burned. Direction of S-N magnetic field on droplets combustion of coconut and palm oil experiences a drastic temperature increase, inversely proportional to the N-N magnetic field. This shows that direction of a magnetic field affects higher flame temperature in droplets combustion. The smaller on intensity of a magnetic field, lower at resulting temperature. Lower intensity magnetic field binds poor O , results in the incomplete combustion reaction . 2 Figure 6. Flame temperature of coconut and palm oil with two directions of a magnetic field Figure 7. Ignition delay time of coconut and palm oil with two directions of a magnetic field 3.4. Ignition Delay Time Figure 7 shows the direction of magnetic field affects ignition delay time in coconut and palm oil. The direction of the N-N magnetic field in palm oil produces longest ignition delay time of around 15839.5 ms, followed by the S-N magnetic field of 11176 ms. 334 Jurnal Teknik Pertanian Lampung Vol 12, No. 2 (2023) : 326-337 Coconut oil with on direction of S-N magnetic field, produces the fastest ignition delay time of 6129.5 ms than palm oil. The short ignition delay time is due to the viscosity playing an important role in combustion. Fuel with low viscosity causes a shorter ignition delay time. Lower viscosity of coconut oil (Table 2) accelerates the combustion reaction because unsaturated fatty acids have a low flash point. The magnetic field causes the spin electrons to be more reactive towards their nuclei in the vegetable oil molecules, thus accelerating the reaction of the fuel with oxygen. 4. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study are magnetic field improves combustion quality by increasing the collisions between molecules to become stronger. The direction of magnetic field S -N makes electron spin more energetic, making it easier to attract oxygen and fuel molecules to the reaction zone, causing faster burning. The combustion has produced the highest temperature and short ignition delay time. In addition, the chemical and physical properties of vegetable oils affect combustion characteristics, such as fatty acid composition, flash point, calorific value and density. However, this study has shortcomings regarding the various vegetable oil and magnetic field intensity. This is probable, given the loss in plantation land influences Indonesia's vegetable oil output, which is on the decline. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Le champ magnétique (200 Gauss) aide à purifier le diesel par extraction."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant faible (249 Gauss) sur un petit moteur 2T diminue la consommation et la pollution."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Contexte sur les technologies de purification de l'eau."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "L'anneau magnétique est évalué pour l'économie d'essence."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "This document concerns an architectural context and does not provide technical data or mechanisms related to fuel magnetization [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Document non pertinent."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering PAPER • OPEN ACCESS You may also like Free-form geometries in contemporary -Combining electrodermal activity analysis and dynamic causal modeling to investigate the visual-odor multimodal architecture – dimensional rules of Folded, Blob integration during face perception Gianluca Rho, Alejandro Luis Callara, and Formlessness architecture Francesco Bossi et al. -Evolutionary heuristic with Gudermannian neural networks for the nonlinear singular To cite this article: Anas Hameed Majeed et al 2021 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 1058 012043 models of third kind Zulqurnain Sabir and Hafiz Abdul Wahab -A Study of Particle Acceleration in Blazar Jets Hubing Xiao, Wenxin Yang, Yutao Zhang View the article online for updates and enhancements. et al. This content was downloaded from IP address 79.93.83.165 on 14/10/2025 at 10:04 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 Free-form geometries in contemporary architecture – dimensional rules of Folded, Blob and Formlessness architecture Anas Hameed Majeed1,*, Huda Al-Alwan1, Nazar Oukaili2 1Department of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq. 2Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq. *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract. The style of Free-form Geometry (FFG) has emerged in contemporary architecture within the last three decades around the world through the progress of digital design tools and the development of constructive materials. FFG is considered as the hard efforts of several contemporary architects to release their products from familiar restrictions to discover new and unfamiliar styles under the perspective of innovation. Many contemporary architects seek to recognize their forms and facilitate dealing with according to specific dimensional rules. The main research problem is the lack of knowledge, in the field of architecture, in previous literature about the formation processes in achieving FFG in contemporary architecture as a response to the new requirements that make architecture more flexible in the final expression and breaking away from regularity. Thus, this paper aims to establish a theoretical framework to determine dimensional rules as formation techniques and utilize them as tools in designing processes, to finally benefit to attain several free-form geometries in architecture now and in the future. The research results confirm the importance of dimensional rules in the designing processes as an effective contribution to achieving FFGs in contemporary architecture. Keywords: Free-form geometry FFG, dimensional rules, folded, blob, formlessness. 1. Introduction Free-form geometries (FFGs) were regarded as one of the expressive appearance in modern architecture with the technical developments of reinforced concrete. FFGs have emerged strongly in contemporary architecture with the progress of digital designing tools and the technical development of steel which achieves an innovative architectural structure with excellent load-bearing solutions and an applicable aesthetic architectural style. The eye-catching effect of the FFG can inspire new notions for contemporary architecture. FFGs were distinguished for the first time in architecture through the pioneer works of Frank Gehry via applicable and flexible surfaces. These surfaces had the abilities, by their geometries, to unfold or bend in several different directions without tearing or failing. ContentfromthisworkmaybeusedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0licence.Anyfurtherdistribution ofthisworkmustmaintainattributiontotheauthor(s)andthetitleofthework,journalcitationandDOI. PublishedunderlicencebyIOPPublishingLtd 1 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 The lack of knowledge, in the field of architecture, in previous literature about the formation processes in achieving FFG in contemporary architecture as a response to the new requirements that make architecture more flexible in the final expression and breaking away from regularity, represents the main research problem. Therefore, This paper assumes that folded, blob, or formlessness geometries have specific dimensional rules that had an impact on FFG in architecture now and in the future. According to this perspective, the following paragraphs tackle the main research problem through four main axes: the first axis introduces the main notions of the paper including the general relationship between form and geometry, the concepts of form versus shapes, and interactive expressions for forms and shapes. The second axis deals with the role of geometry as a starting stage in the architectural design process, including several guide methods to achieve various geometric forms. The third axes include data analysis of FFG and categorizes them into folded, blob, and formlessness geometries. Finally, discussion and conclusions are presented as the fourth axis. 2. General Relationship Between Form and Geometry 2.1. Form vs. Shape Form and shape can be distinguished according to their two- or three-dimensional appearance. Ching [1] distinguished between them according to dimensionality, form’s depth as a third dimension as well as width, and height is notable, while the shape has two dimensions. Also, shapes can be classified as either geometric or free-form. Geometries are defined by mathematical formulas, which means, mathematical formulas can be presented by the geometric graph. Circle, square, triangle is considered as standard, ordinary, and regular geometric shapes. Oval, rectangular, octagon, parallelogram, trapezoid, pentagon, and hexagon are considered as derivations from these regular forms. Otherwise, free-forms, as organic, non-standard, irregular shapes, are the deformation of these mentioned earlier by changing the amount and direction of the depths. For example, square and triangle shape; while the free-form geometrical version of these shapes can be as bent cubes or twisted cones via several ways of transformations. Architects, with the novel imagination and digital tools, use both forms and shapes with their potentialities to represent the new [1]. 2.2. Interactive Expressions for Forms and Shapes The closer shape to Euclidean geometry and basic shapes, the less interaction with recipients according to activity and stability. Also, opened or closed shape may form light or heavy expression. In addition, active shapes are diagonal with orthogonal lines and they may seem more energetic, on the other hand, static shapes are often straight with horizontal lines and may appear quiet [2]. Another expression can be noticed by describing form and shape as either organic or geometric. Organic forms such as snow-covered stones with an irregular and asymmetrical outline. In other words, organic forms are the production of nature. The structural system of the building form depends on its geometry, materials, and the reaction ways of the forces that applied to them. Likewise, these can affect the dimensions, proportion, and other factors to create the geometry of the building. 3. Geometry Geometry is the starting stage in the architectural design process, it is related to mathematics as principals in classic architecture, such as Greek architecture [3]. Therefore, geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with shape, size, positions, and properties. It arose earlier as knowledge concerning one-dimension (length, bar), two-dimensions (area, surface), and three-dimensions (volume, space), with elements of a formal science [3]. Later, geometry became more attractive in the architectural design process with great innovations from form-finding stages to the final fabrication. Advanced digital tools provide a variety of options for efficient design, analysis, and fabrication of free-form geometry, which opens new possibilities for architecture and new problems to geometry that poses the architectural context. [4]. As we know the geometry of the object has a real effect on designing via the vision attraction in order to win the eye- catching. 2 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 The digital design provides a high potentiality of new expertise in designs of free-form geometry. Helmut Pottmann confirmed that geometry is a potential effect to create a new approach of free-form design that is considered for structure [3]. Therefore, the knowledge of geometry is one of the major principles in architectural design. Much consideration has been given to this topic with the start of free-form geometry in architecture and architectural geometry is becoming unfamiliar with more complicity and complexity. 3.1. Geometries Guided by Basic Pieces Before dealing with free-form or complex geometries, the first impression in dealing with the geometry of buildings is the ability to imagine if it would be supposed by linking its geometry with the basic simple forms, then it will be decided even they are simple or complicated geometry. For instance, the glass pyramid at the Louvre in Paris is considered as one of the simplest geometrical buildings, because its geometry follows a simple pyramidal form with a simple squared plan ‘figure 1’ [5]. Otherwise, designers tried to release a little from basic forms by dealing with various options of choosing pieces from simple forms to achieve the desired geometrical goals, such as Pyramid of Botanic Gardens Science in Denver ‘figure 2’ [6]. Figure 1. The glass pyramid at the Louvre in Figure 2. Pyramid of Botanic Gardens Paris [5]. Science in Denver [6]. Besides, the various pieces of simple form or shape can produce complicated and complex geometries by the effects of joints. Explanations of the procedure in each category will be followed to create an analytical framework for the geometry. It can be clarified the idea by using circles, for example, with different properties and the final results will be different according to the applied effects on the three colored circles which are shown in ‘figure 3’ [7]. Figure 3. Different results on a simple shapes according to various possible effects [7]. 3.2. Geometries Guided by Curved Lines As it is known, the basic elements of standard shapes are line and plane. The behavior of the line, as the first tool of design, is represented according to its common directions on the three-dimensional space to create the geometries. This means that geometries can be guided by lines’ behaviors according to their directions whether Positive-curved lines or Negative-curved lines [8]. Therefore, it can be noticed that a positive-curved line guides the spherical geometry, while a negative-curved line guides hyperbolic geometry, ‘figure 4’. 3 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 Figure 4. Lines’ behaviour: Positive-curved lines and Negative- curved lines [8]. Positive-Curved Lines respond to repulsive forces, like a spherical surface, that does not have any boundaries [9]. Kresge Auditorium in Cambridge is an obvious example of such geometries that are guided by positive-curved lines ‘figure 5’ [10]. Figure 5. Positive-curved lines guide the geometry of Kresge Auditorium in Cambridge [10]. Negative-Curved Lines, which like a saddle, mean that negative curvature which is parallel to attractive forces creates hyperbolic geometry. Chapel of Nôtre Dame du Haut is a clear example of such type ‘figure 6’ [11] which has a huge shell of the concrete roof with curved walls that gave the building a sculptural form [12]. Figure 6. Negative-curved lines guide the geometry of Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp [11]. Mixing by simple ways in the joining areas of the two previous types of curved-lines, or curvatures clarifies and simplifies the design processes of complex buildings. Besides, It helps the designers to a wide domain with rhythm and diversity in designing processes in order to produce a different composition. Mixing with positive and negative curvature can be noticed with the project of The NeuroSpin Building ‘figure 7’ which was constructed with a wave-shaped roof [13]. 4 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 Figure 7. Mixing the positive and negative curvatures in The NeuroSpin Building in Paris [13]. 3.3. Geometries Guided by Basic Pieces with Curved Lines Hyperbolic paraboloid shape can be transformed into geometry by double curvature with twisted straight lines. The doubly curved-surfaces, of this geometry, have horizontal cross-sections with a hyperbola shape and vertical cross-section with a parabola one. This shape can be constructed as a saddle roof from diagonal straight beams [14] producing a strong effect with the properties and possibilities of structural necessity especially the principle of self-supporting. This is because of the warped-shape which helps to control buckling effects in the compression state with some stressed members to involve the capability to tension. Warszawa Ochota railway station in Warsaw ‘figure 8’ is considered as a clear structural example of such geometries [15]. F igure 8. Hyperbolic parapolid structures of Warszawa Ochota railway station in Warsaw [15]. 3.3.1Complicated Geometries from Cut-Pieces Guided by Curved-Lines Various curvatures as positive, negative, and mix of them have been showing and analyzed. Furthermore, there are many other methods to combine directions of these curvatures in order to create more complicated geometries such as cut-pieces guided by curved lines. Sydney Opera House ‘figure 9’ is the clearest example to explain the method of combination between directional curvatures and cut-pieces from the basic form, the sphere [16]. Figure 9. Complicated geometries guided by cut-pieces with curved-lines of Opera Sydney House in Australia [16]. 3.3.2Complicated Geometries from Join-Pieces Guided by Curved-Lines Hyperbolic paraboloid, a single whole form, can be separated into several curved pieces. In other words, the whole form can be divided into basic elements of this form as curved pieces, then they are 5 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 joined together to create possibly new complicated and complex forms. TWA Terminal roof, in New York City ‘figure 10’ [17], has a major central curvature which can be defined, according to the previous explanation, as a cut piece of hyperbolic paraboloid form lied between another two curvatures. The joint expression of these pieces reflects the flying inspiration. This example is considered as one of the modern geometric buildings [18]. Figure 10. Complicated geometries by joining pieces with curvature lines of TWA Terminal roof in New York [17]. The curvatures’ joints have adequate flexibilities that reflected the architectural desires to create free-form geometry. Candela’s first idea of releasing from traditional geometries was a Lotus Flower Building 1958 ‘figure 11’ [19]. The geometric form was produced by an eight-segments space (as joining pieces) assembled from four hyperbolic paraboloid form [20]. Figure 11. Curvatures’ joints of Candela’s Lotus Flower Building in Mexico City [19]. 4. Free-Form Geometries Free-form geometries are noticeable notions of contemporary architecture since the late 20th century till now. The geometrical form of these structures can be created with graphical software programs that can produce new, irregular, non-standard forms under the principles of digital design. CAD, as one of the digital design tools, enables architects and designers to produce non-limited free-form geometries for innovative contemporary architecture [21]. To realize the geometries of these free- forms, it can be categorized into three types, as will be clarified, according to their various visual expressions among them. 4.1 Folded Geometries: Folded geometries emerged and became popular in the contemporary era, they had inspired by several architects to create three-dimensional models (geometry) from two-dimensional sheets (surfaces). This transformation from two- to three-dimensional geometry provides simpler and more intuitive solutions in architecture [22]. 6 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 The ‘Origami’ term, in Japanese 折 comes from the word (Ori-) which means folding, and (kami-) which means paper, is the art of folding papers that have been closely related to Japanese culture. Contemporary applications of \"Origami\" that are related to the comprehensive term for all folding practices, in spite of their cultural origin, aim to transform a flat plane shape to a final geometry by folding techniques without any usage of cutting nor pasting in order to produce a self-supported system. Which means, this type of structure depends on the strength properties that are produced from the folding techniques on the form [22]. So, folded geometries are formed by repeating some of the approximate prototypes of polygonal geometric forms. These prototypes are created with considering the properties of geometry, proportion, and order as means of inspiration for several different architects of the world because of the unique characteristics of origami thought such as [22]: • Dynamic behavior that ranges between two- and three-dimensional space. • Continuity by using one surface. • A variety of expressions result from the various process of surface folding. Folded geometries can be classified into two sub-categories according to their formations and the final expression using descriptive analysis,: 4.1.1 Rigid (segmented) folding geometries. This type focuses on the joints of sectors of free- directional lines to achieve the form transformations for these geometries [23]. These joints are essential elements of this stylistic folded system with the existence of surface plates between the folds that remain flat which gives the advantage of modifications and developments of such forms. Origami Pavilion in Shinto reflects this type of folding geometries ‘figure 12’ [24]. 4.1.2 Flexible (curved) folding geometries. This type focuses on achieving a curved bending line, which is characterized by complexity compared with the previous type, because the making-process of a curved bending changes both the bending lines and the faces between them simultaneously, which makes it difficult to describe the bending processes [25]. Duncan, in his book Mechanics of Sheet Metal Forming, provided a new description of the surface relationships between the curves of each side of the bend as well as the curvature of the bend line itself. Al-Wakrah Stadium reflects this type of folding geometries ‘figure 13’ [26]. Figure 12. Rigid (segmented) folding Figure 13. Flexible (curved) folding geometries and its application on Origami geometries of Al-Wakrah Stadium in Qatar Pavilion in Shinto [24]. [26]. 4.2 Blob Geometries Blob geometries, as a new type of free-form architecture, became noticeable landmarks with the progress and the developments of spatial structures, especially grid-shells, that served wide spans and covered open-courtyards. These irregular forms need innovative design processes, advanced technological and structural systems that vary from traditional and familiar systems. Blobs, which are distinguished as irregular geometry, are not instituted on Euclidean principles of plane surfaces. 7 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 Various analytical researches concluded that the designs of blob geometry, which are based on several parameters according to external forces, for example, have new products with informal and unfamiliar compositions that produce eye-catching-influences especially in the urban context and skylines [7]. BMW Bubble Pavilion in Germany,‘figure 14’, is generated by an unfamiliar design process depending on a virtual prototype. Its generative three-dimensional model is powered by 3DStudioMax started by two various water drops laid on a horizontal plane, then they are getting touched, merged, and finally frozen [7]. Figure 14. Blob form of BMW Bubble Pavilion in Germany [7]. The available solutions for the structures of blob architecture are numerous and various, but the grid-shell structures with metal, glass, or plastic claddings are the most sufficient and applicable techniques for such a form of geometries. Another example of blob form is the grid-shell roof of the Zlote Tarasy complex building ‘figure 15’ [27], it consists of a rippled geometrically complex surface, the steel elements of its grid-shell were assembled with triangular panels of glass which cover the internal spaces with transparency for lighting and shading that are required for the main courtyard. The formal potentiality of the blob- surface makes the roof touches the ground at the front side, forming the main entrance to the complex. Figure 15. Blob grid-shell form of Zlote Tarasy Complex Building in Warsaw [27]. Guggenheim Museum ‘figure 16’ [28], is considered according to analysts and specialists, is a mixture form that is created from folded geometries (Foldism) and blob geometries (Blobism). Its exception came from the absence of straight lines and flat surfaces on its structure, which is covered by polished titanium panels according to the architect’s concept, Frank Gehry [7]. 8 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 Figure 16. Mixing between Folded and blob in Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao [28]. 4.3 Formlessness Geometries Formlessness geometries can be distinguished after reviewing the definition of ‘form’. Form relates to shape, has a visual appearance with the configuration of an object. It has framed, systematic and geometric regulations that are potentiated by mathematics. The architectural form is applied to organized rules which drive this form in an ordered or in a systematic frame. For an obvious example, designing houses was dependent on a very simple cube, or other basic geometric forms, which was represented by six sides included with its plan side. While dealing with formlessness geometries drives this form release from the ordered or systematic familiar frame but the expressive appearance and a foggy system. In other words, straight lines or corners will be absent. Therefore, formlessness geometries can be considered as an advanced and developed geometry of the de-construction movement which has been changed the forms, spaces, and the overall definition of geometry. So, de-constructive geometries were a starting point for formlessness and the special example of this movement is the Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp ‘Figure 6’. Nature, with its great formless and disordered sources, is inspired by several recent architects, it is interpreted as being free- guided, just like splitting a fluid over the ground with no order or guide to pouring [29]. Frank Gehry’s example of The Experience Music in Seattle, Washington 1996 ‘figure 17’ [30] contains a cluster of six bulging units which are cladded and assembled with different materials and various colors. The surfaces with curvatures and folds have quite finished metal skin with the impression of flexibility and plasticity [31]. Figure 17. Project of the Experience Music in Seattle [30]. 5. Conclusion This paper addresses a topic of free-form geometries in contemporary architecture, which tries to release from the Euclidean principles, by distinguishing remarkable global examples. Analyzing the geometrical implementation of these examples can be considered as principal clarification for this contemporary style. Thus, dimensional rules, as a result of the geometrical analysis, will help to suggest few extensions with new applications to obtain an infinite number of potentialities according to their assemblage of geometrical components. After revealing the main concepts of free-form geometry and highlighting them with elected remarkable global examples, the following conclusions were drawn: 9 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 • Dealing with the geometry of buildings starts with the ability to imagine the links between the geometry of existing buildings with the basic simple shapes. Then, it can choose pieces from these basic shapes to create complicated geometries. • Dimensional rules had a great role in the complicated geometries through their guidance of basic pieces, curved lines, or both, taking into consideration the cutting and joining techniques. • Dimensional rules of folded geometries represented by enabling a flat two-dimensional surface to transform into a three-dimensional geometry through folding techniques to produce a self- supported system with repeating approximate prototypes of polygonal forms. The final folded geometries are highly inspired due to the dynamic behavior that ranges between two- and three- dimensionality, the surface continuity, and the variety of expressions. • Blobs geometries have free-form, irregular, and unfamiliar compositions that consist of plane surfaces. Dimensional rules enable surfaces to transform into blob geometry, according to several parameters such as external forces, with the assistance of grid-shell potentialities. • Formlessness geometries, which have been changed the total definition of geometry, are inspired by the nature as a great source because of unfamiliar order or free-guided flow. 6. References [1] Ching F 1996 Architecture: Form, space, and order second ed. New Jersey John Wiley and Sons [2] Allen D Mar 2003 The Surface of Fuller and Sadao US Pavilion at Montreal Expo 67 Architectural Design 162 51-55 [3] Pottmann H 2007 Architectural Geometry Bentley Institute Press 1st edition [4] Mungan I 1988 Domes From Antiquity To The Present proceeding of the IASS-MSU international symposium 251-252 [5] Jiang Y 2019 Globalization National Identity and the Transformation and Renovation of Museums in France and Mainland China KnE Social Sciences 14-25 [6] Article 85985 2020 denver botanic gardens science pyramid [online] Available at: <https://www.buildingenclosureonline.com/> [Accessed July 2020] [7] Biondi E 2006 When The Architecture Comes From a Water Drop The Blob Structures Politecnico Di Torino 10-15 [8] Callens S J and Zadpoor A A 2018 From flat sheets to curved geometries: Origami and kirigami approaches Materials Today 21 241-264 [9] Taffur S 2010 propuestas in_consultas Retrieved from Entrevista W James (Jimy) Alcock Premio Nacional de Arquitectura 1993 Venezuela Arquitecto venezolano Karina Lyn Entre Rayas [10] Plunkett J W, Mueller C T 2015 Thin Concrete Shells at MIT Kresge Auditorium and the 1954 Conference In Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on Construction History. Chicago. [11] Kaimakliotis D and Lau B 2011 The poetics of contemplative light in the church of Notre-Dame- du-Haut designed by Le Corbusier PLEA [12] Outmoune N and Arrouf A 2019 July The design process at Le Corbusier, case of the Ronchamp chapel In Proceedings of the Design Society: International Conference on Engineering Design Cambridge University Press 1 1275-1282 [13] Kiser C 2004 Arcspace Corporation Retrieved May 29 2012 from Arcspace web site http://www.arcspace.com/architects/calatrava [14] Sprague T 2012 Hyperbolic Paraboloid and Northwest Modernism arch [be]log [15] Mościcka A, Pokonieczny K, Wilbik A, Jakub W J 2019 Transport accessibility of warsaw: A case study Sustainability 11 5536 [16] Rey J R 2013 The disappearance of the structural analysis barrier the Sydney Opera House from a contemporary perspective Structures and Architecture Concepts Applications and Challenges Taylor and Francis Group 10 S TEPS 2020 IOP Publishing I OP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1058 (2021) 012043 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1058/1/012043 [17] Whitehead R 2014 Saarinen’s shells: The evolution of engineering influence. In Proceedings of IASS Annual Symposia International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) 2014 1-8 [18] Stoller E 1999 The TWA Terminal The Building Block Series Princeton Architectural Press 1st edition [19] Mendoza M, Chilton J C 2008 Learning from the shell builder: Felix Candela International Symposium IASS-SLTE 2008 New Materials and Technologies New Designs and Innovations - a Sustainable Approach to Architectural and Structural Design [20] Burger N 2006 An Examination of The Xochimilco Shell Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Princeton University Princeton NJ USA [21] Elizah N 2011 Amazing Architecture Retrieved from 15 (More!) World‘s Weirdest Buildings [22] Azzam M 2020 Twenty-two Architectural magazine no. 85th March 2020 A monthly Arabic- language architectural magazine published on the twenty-second of every month that contains translated projects and a number of articles research papers and interviews [23] Tachi T 2010 Freeform rigid-foldable structure using bidirectionally flat-foldable planar quadrilateral mesh Advances in architectural geometry 14 203-215 [24] BANGHAY S 2000 From Virtual to Physical Reality with Paper Folding Computational Geometry Theory and Applications 15 161-74 [25] Bacinoğlu Z, Piskorec L, Kotnik T 2019 CURVED IT A design tool to integrate making with curved folding into digital design process ITUAZ 16 [26] Abdullah A, Said I, Ossen D 2013 Zaha Hadid’s techniques of architectural form-making Open Journal of Architectural Design 1 1–9 [27] Berezko O 2013 Walkways Analysis of Zlote Tarasy Mall in Warsaw Geodesy Architecture & Construction (GAC-2013) 21-23 [28] Plaza B 2006 The Return on Investment of the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 30 452-467 [29] Mostafavi D L 2002 Surface Architecture United State MIT press [30] Crowley W 2003 Experience Music Project opens at Seattle Centre 2000 http://www.historylink.org/file/5424 [31] Johnson J 2007 Frank Gehry in Pop-Up (2nd ed. 10-24) UK: Baker and Taylor Pub 11"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on the influence of a magnetic field (up to 1419 Gauss) on the combustion temperature of bioethanol-gasoline blends. The increase in combustion temperature is correlated with improved engine thermal efficiency [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Les aimants (jusqu'à 1419 Gauss) sur le bioéthanol augmentent la température de combustion, permettant une combustion plus complète."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Eastern-European Journal of Enterprise Technologies ISSN 1729-3774 1/6 ( 109 ) 2021 UDC 621 Bioethanol is a renewable energy that can DOI: 10.15587/1729-4061.2021.224235 replace gasoline, which will run out in the future. This study investigates the influence of magne- A STUDY OF BIOETHANOL tization of bioethanol fuel on the fuel combus- tion temperature in the combustion chamber of a FUEL CHARACTERISTICS IN gasoline motor. The fuel used is bioethanol with a composition of E0 (pure gasoline), E10 (10 % THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER bioethanol+90 % gasoline), E20 (20 % bioetha- nol+80 % gasoline), E30 (30 % bioethanol+70 % gasoline), E40 (40 % bioethanol+60 % gasoline). OF GASOLINE ENGINE USING The fuel passed through the magnet with a mag- netic variation of 647.15 Gauss, 847.25 Gauss, MAGNETIZATION TECHNOLOGY 1419.57 Gauss. The temperature sensor used is a K-type thermocouple. The temperature sensor Andi Ulfiana was inserted in the combustion chamber to mea- Master of Instrumentation Physics* sure the combustion chamber temperature. The thermocouple data were recorded in Microsoft Е-mail: [email protected] Excel on a computer using the LabVIEW pro- Tatun Hayatun Nufus gram via NI-USB 9213 interface. The temperature Doctor of Energy Conversion* data recorded is 400 data/second. The results Е-mail: [email protected] obtained without exposure to the magnetic field, Emir Ridwan the lowest peak temperature of 577.1998 °C at E40 Master of Mechanical Engineering* and the highest peak temperature of 582.1786 °C at E0. The higher the bioethanol content, the Е-mail: [email protected] lower the temperature of fuel combustion to the Arifia Ekayuliana low bioethanol viscosity. The increasing magnet- Master of Mechanical Engineering* ic field strength will increase the combustion tem- Е-mail: [email protected] perature; hence the fuel burned quickly and the Cecep Slamet Abadi combustion process is more perfect. The result Master of Mechanical Engineering* obtained with the magnetic field exposure, the lowest peak temperature of 577.8347 °C is at E40. Е-mail: [email protected] The highest peak temperature of 587.36 °C is at Asep Apriana E0. The use of a magnetic field in the bioethanol Master of Information Management* fuel mixture can increase the combustion tempera- Е-mail: [email protected] ture so that the fuel molecules move freely and the Iwan Susanto fuel is more easily mixed with oxygen. As more Doctor of Materials Science and Engineering, fuel is burned, the combustion of the fuel becomes complete Assistance Professor* Keywords: combustion chamber temperature, Е-mail: [email protected] bioethanol, gasoline engine, magnetic field, ther- *Department of Mechanical Engineering mocouple, LabVIEW Politeknik Negeri Jakarta Kukusan, Beji, Depok, Indonesia, 16425 Received date 23.11.2020 Copyright © 2021. Andi Ulfiana, Tatun Hayatun Nufus, Emir Ridwan, Accepted date 28.01.2021 Arifia Ekayuliana, Cecep Slamet Abadi, Asep Apriana, Iwan Susanto Published date 10.02.2021 This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) 1. Introduction an increase in the fuel combustion temperature. Increasing the fuel temperature causes increasing the combustion pres- The motorcycle is prevalent as transportation in Indone- sure, so that engine performance increases [15]. sia because of its high mobility. According to the Indonesian Central Statistics Agency, the number of motorcycles increas- es, and the latest data for 2019, the number of motorcycles 2. Literature review and problem statement reached 45 % of Indonesia’s population. Motorcycles use gasoline, which is not renewable energy, hence one day will Several researchers have investigated biofuel character- run out. Several studies were conducted to find alternative istics. They reported that adding bioethanol would improve energy. Biofuel is one of the alternative fuels that were widely engine performance. M. K. Akasyah et al. [15] reported that researched. Several studies were conducted using a bioetha- increasing the combustion temperature will increase the com- nol-gasoline blend, increasing the octane number, oxygen, and bustion pressure that caused the fuel to burn more quickly and reducing heating temperature [1, 2]. High octane numbers increase engine performance. Increasing combustion tempera- increase engine performance and reduce emissions. Fuel tem- ture caused the fuel viscosity decrease that can be easily mixed perature affects biodiesel performance and emissions [3–5]. with oxygen. Hence the fuel can burn perfectly and increase The experiment was reported for the investigation of cyclic thermal efficiency. Osman Azmi Ozsoysal [16] studied the Otto variation of combustion parameters [6, 7]. Fuel magnetization cycle model and reported that a fraction of the fuel’s chemical reduced 9 % to 30 % of fuel consumption and reduced HC and energy is not fully released inside the engine during the actual CO exhaust emissions [8–14]. The fuel magnetization causes combustion process because of the incomplete combustion. 72 Technology organic and inorganic substances Fuel Studies of fuel magnetization have been carried out. The research conducted by Chen et al. [17] reported that the mag- Thermocouple LabVIEW netization of the fuel causes increasing molecule vibration. Molecular vibrations make the atom easier to move, hence more easily mixed with oxygen and complete combustion. A study Magnet conducted by Jain and Deshmukh using 1,000–1,800 Gauss of magnetic field on a 5 HP diesel engine with variations in load caused a change in fuel molecules motion and decreased NI-USB 9213 10–30 % of the fuel consumption [8]. Previous studies were conducted to determine the ef- fect of magnetization on the biofuel using the permanent magnet. Unfortunately, vibration and heat can reduce Combustion the magnetic field strength of a permanent magnet. The Chamber Fig. 1. Flowchart of temperature measurement in the way to overcome that disadvantage is by using an elec- combustion chamber tromagnet with a constant magnetic field as long as the current source is available. All the studies suggest that it is advisable to conduct a study on gasoline using a 5. Results of investigating the influence of magnetic field bioethanol-gasoline blend on a gasoline engine and inves- exposure on bioethanol fuel characteristics tigated the effect of magnetization on combustion cham- ber temperature using electromagnets. The bioethanol 5. 1. Combustion temperature of gasoline and bioeth- mixture in gasoline can reach up to 40 %, which is higher anol mixture than in the previous study, which only reached 25 % [18]. Fig. 2 demonstrates the characteristic of heat energy of fuel based on the cycles time: a – combustion temperature of a different mixture of bioethanol-gasoline; b – four-stroke 3. The aim and objectives of the study engine process in one cycle occurs in four-piston steps (fuel intake, compression, power stroke, and exhaust). The study aims to investigate the influence of magnetic field exposure on bioethanol fuel characteristics. 588 To achieve this aim, the following objectives are accom- 584 plished: – to explore the combustion temperature of gasoline and 580 bioethanol mixture; 576 – to explore the combustion temperature of gasoline and bioethanol mixture using the electromagnetic field. 572 568 4. Material and method to study bioethanol fuel 564 characteristics in the combustion chamber of gasoline 0 0,0125 0,025 0,0375 0,05 engine using magnetization technology Fig. 1 shows the flowchart of temperature measurement in the combustion chamber. The gasoline motor used in this research was four-stroke, air-cool, 9.5:1 compression ratio, TCI (Transistorized Controlled Ignition) injection system, 125 cc cylinder volume, 9.6 N∙m of the maximum torque at 5,500 r/min, and 7 kW of the maximum engine power at 8,000 r/min. The fuel used is a mixture of bioethanol and gasoline with the composition of E0 (pure gasoline), E10 (10 % bioethanol+90 % gasoline), E20 (20 % bioetha- nol+80 % gasoline), E30 (30 % bioethanol+70 % gasoline), E40 (40 % bioethanol+60 % gasoline). The magnetization equipment was installed in the fuel line between the fuel tank and the combustion chamber. The fuel passed through the magnet with the magnetic variations in 647.15 Gauss, 847.25 Gauss, 1419.57 Gauss. The temperature sensor used is a K-type thermocouple. The temperature sensor was inserted in the combustion chamber to measure the com- bustion chamber temperature. The thermocouple data were recorded in Microsoft Excel on a computer using the Lab- VIEW program via NI-USB 9213 interface. The temperature b data recorded is 400 data/second. The resulting data plotted in the graph were then analyzed to find the combustion tem- Fig. 2. Characteristic of heat energy of fuel based on the cycles perature for various fuel types. The combustion temperature time: a – Combustion Temperature at Different Fuel; is compared between the fuel with and without magnets. b – T-S Diagram 73 )Co( erutarepmeT E0 E10 E20 E30 E40 Time (second) a T 3 T3 Qin Wout T4 4 2 T2 Win T1 1 Qout S TDC BDC Eastern-European Journal of Enterprise Technologies ISSN 1729-3774 1/6 ( 109 ) 2021 The engine cycle occurs in 0.05 seconds shown in Fig. 2, a, starting from the crank angle po- sition of 0° at 0 seconds when the piston is at the top dead cen- ter (TDC), then the suction step where the air and fuel mixture flows into the combustion cham- ber when the piston moves to the bottom dead center (BDC), the crank angle position is 180° at 0.0125 seconds. Furthermore, the compression step occurs when the piston moves up towards the top dead center (TDC) at the crank angle of 360° at 0.025 seconds, where the air and fuel mixture in the combustion chamber is pressed adiabatically so that the tempera- ture and pressure increase. Simul- taneously, the spark plugs spark so that the fuel and air mixture ignites, causing the gas tempera- ture and pressure to increase. The high temperature and pressure gas push the piston to the bottom dead center (BDC) at a crank angle of 540° at 0.0375 sec- onds. Furthermore, the exhaust step occurs when the piston moves up towards the top dead center (TDC) at the crank an- gle position of 720° at 0.05 sec- onds. The fuel combustion in one cycle is shown in Table 1. Table 1 Engine Cycle Crank Time Process angle (seconds) (degree) Start 0 0 Suction 180 0.0125 Compression 360 0.025 Power 540 0.0375 Exhaust 720 0.05 5. 2. Combustion temperature of gasoline and bioeth- 588 anol mixture using the electromagnetic field 586 Fig. 3 shows the combustion temperature on various types of magnet and fuel for: a – E0, b – E10, c – E20, 584 d – E30, e – E40. The curve also demonstrated combustion 582 temperature on the cycle time that increasing a magnetic 580 field will increase the combustion temperature. 578 The curve of pure gasoline and a mixture of bioethanol fuel demonstrates cycles time and temperature. The black, 576 0 647,15 847,25 1419,57 red, green, and blue colors of the curve are related to differ- ent magnetization. Meanwhile, E0, E10, E20, E30, and E40 are associated with fuel composition. Fig. 4 displays the peak temperature combustion at dif- ferent magnetic field strengths. The solution of E0, E10, E20, E30, and E40 exhibited a different color on the curve. 74 )Co( erutarepmeT 588 584 580 576 572 568 564 0 0,0125 0,025 0,0375 0,05 Magnetic Intensity (Gauss) E0 E10 E20 E30 E40 )C°( erutarepmeT 588 E0 584 580 576 no magnet 572 647.15 Gaus 847.25 Gauss 568 1419.57 Gauss 564 0 0,0125 0,025 0,0375 0,05 Time (second) )C°( erutarepmeT E10 no magnet 647.15 Gaus 847.25 Gauss 1419.57 Gauss Time (second) 588 584 580 576 572 568 564 0 0,0125 0,025 0,0375 0,05 )C°( erutarepmeT 588 E20 584 580 576 572 no magnet 647.15 Gaus 568 847.25 Gauss 1419.57 Gauss 564 0 0,0125 0,025 0,0375 0,05 Time (second) )C°( erutarepmeT E30 no magnet 647.15 Gaus 847.25 Gauss 1419.57 Gauss Time (second) 588 584 580 576 572 568 564 0 0,0125 0,025 0,0375 0,05 )C°( erutarepmeT a b c d E40 no magnet 647.15 Gaus 847.25 Gauss 1419.57 Gauss Time (second) e Fig. 3. Combustion temperature on various types of magnet and fuel for: a – E0; b – E10; c – E20; d – E30; e – E40 Fig. 4. Peak temperature combustion at the different magnetic field strength Technology organic and inorganic substances The increasing magnetic field strength will increase the work for de-clustering of the molecule. Therefore, the fuel combustion temperature; hence the fuel burned quickly and was easy to oxidize and burn [8]. Moreover, the magnetic the combustion process was more perfect. The lowest peak field can attract and stretch the bonds between molecules in temperature of 577.8347 °C is at E40. The highest peak tem- hydrocarbon fuels, even though those bonds are not separat- perature of 587.36 °C is at E0. ed from each other, but bonding strain in the structure will weaken those bonds. The oxygen will easily attract hydrogen and carbon atoms to speed up the reaction during the com- 6. Discussion of experimental results bustion process. Previous studies on the magnetization of bioethanol in Measuring and storing data were carried out using the the diesel engine using a permanent magnet have been done. LabVIEW program, and the result data can be further The present study is the magnetization of bioethanol in the analyzed. Fig. 2 demonstrated that the increase in bioeth- gasoline engine using the electromagnet, which has a con- anol composition influenced the reduction of combustion stant magnetic field as long as the current source is available. temperature. The peak temperatures in a mixture of bioeth- This study’s limitation is that bioethanol is made from cassa- anol-gasoline E0, E10, E20, E30, and E40 are respectively va peel, which may not be available in all countries. Another 582.2 °C, 580.3 °C, 579.6 °C, 578.9 °C, and 577.2 °C. These issue in this study was creating a hole in the combustion peak temperatures were located in point 3 at the T-S diagram chamber for inserting the thermocouple, which keeps it no shown in Fig. 2, b. Based on the peak temperature result, the leakage during generating pressure. The second difficulty use of a magnetic field in the fuel can increase the combus- was measuring both pressure and temperature at the same tion temperature by an average of 5.3 °C for pure gasoline time. It is caused by the difficulty of making two holes in and 2.4 °C for bioethanol mixture. However, the increasing the combustion chamber for inserting the temperature and bioethanol content in gasoline fuel decreases the combustion pressure sensor. We suggest that further research should temperature, which influences engine performance [1–3, 17]. be done on bioethanol gasoline’s optimum composition for Low combustion temperature is related to higher bioethanol better diesel engine performance, which is necessary to per- content in the bioethanol-gasoline mixture, caused by the low form the work effectively, and the effect of the magnetization bioethanol viscosity. It will affect the fuel to burn at a low mechanism on the equipment system. In addition, the effect temperature. The viscosity is described as the resistance of the of magnetization on exhaust gas emissions can be an inter- liquid fuel flow [15]. The fuel’s high viscosity complicates en- esting study in the future. gine burner ignition, fuel flowing, and atomization [2], hence high temperature is needed for the combustion process. The more bioethanol in the gasoline-bioethanol blend decreases 7. Conclusions the oil viscosity. The increasing the acid number related to the bioethanol is more reactive than gasoline, which enhanc- 1. The bioethanol mixture in gasoline can reach up to es fuel oxidation [2]. Mahabadipour et al. reported that the 40 %, which is higher than in the previous study, which only four-stroke engine cycle starts at the crank angle of 0° at the reached 25 %. The combustion temperature was obtained to top dead center (TDC), compression TDC at the crank angle be 577.2 °C, 578.9 °C, 579.4 °C, 580.2 °C, and 582.1 °C for of 360° and ends at 720° [19]. The previous research using fuel mixture (E40, E30, E20, E10), and pure gasoline (E0), Jatropha oil magnetized in a diesel engine reported increasing respectively. the magnetic field strength, leading to the higher power of the 2. The use of a magnetic field in the bioethanol fuel mix- diesel engine. The magnetic field causes the fuel molecules ture can increase the combustion temperature of 5.3 °C for to move freely, making it easier to burn and the combustion pure gasoline and 2.4 °C for bioethanol mixture on average. process more completely perfect so that the engine power will This is caused by the fact that the fuel molecules move freely, be greater [20]. are more easily mixed with oxygen and quickly burned as Based on Fig. 3, the magnetic field generates unstable well, and the combustion of the fuel becomes complete. fuel molecules, increasing vibration and reducing the at- traction between atoms that influence the fuel molecules mixing easier with oxygen. It also causes more fuel burned Acknowledgments during the fuel combustion process. However, the higher the bioethanol content, the lower the combustion temperature. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Evaluation of the effect of a magnetic field (up to 1500 Gauss) on the combustion of LPG and gasoline/bioethanol blends, aiming for improved efficiency by optimizing the fuel mixture and increasing flame temperature [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est appliqué pour améliorer la combustion des carburants gazeux et liquides mélangés (GPL/Essence)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "The Effect of Magnetic Intensity on the Characteristics of a Mixed LPG and Gasoline + Bioethanol Engine Tatun Hayatun Nufus1 a, Dianta Mustofa Kamal2 b and Candra Damis Widiawati3 c 1Program Study of Energy Conversion Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Jl. G. A. Siwabessy, 16425, Indonesia 2Master in Applied Engineering Energy Manufacturing Technology, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, 16425, Indonesia 3Program Study of Electrical Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Jl. G. A. Siwabessy, 16425, Indonesia Keywords: Bioethanol, LPG, Torque, Exhaust Emissions. Abstract: LPG fuel has a high calorific value, is widely available in the market and has low exhaust emissions of CO, CO2 and HC. However, NOx levels are high due to high combustion temperatures so that engine performance decreases. To overcome this, this machine is equipped with magnets and LPG fuel combined with a mixture of bioethanol-gasoline. The purpose of this study was to analyze the magnetic field strength of the engine performance using a mixture of LPG and bioethanol-gasoline. The object of this research is a gasoline engine. The composition of the bioethanol-gasoline fuel is (10:90, 15:85, 20:80). The magnet used has a magnetic intensity of 1500 Gauss. The independent variable is the variation of the fuel mixture and magnetic field, while the fixed variable is engine performance (exhaust emissions, power and torque). As a result, the average engine power increases by 8-16%, engine torque increases by 5-15% and exhaust emissions of HC, NOx and CO are reduced by 47%, 44% and 62%, respectively. In the future, LPG and gasoline-bioethanol mixtures can be used in vehicles as an alternative to electric vehicles. The drawback, the aesthetics of this LPG-fueled vehicle is less attractive. 1 INTRODUCTION Kul and Ciniviz, 2020). The disadvantage of LPG is that it produces high levels of NOx because it has a fairly high combustion temperature (Dhande, Sinaga Several research results show that the use of a and Dahe, 2021). To overcome this deficiency, one magnetic field in the engine can improve of them is mixing LPG with bioethanol. In certain combustion efficiency and reduce emissions of compositions, the addition of bioethanol to the combustion products (Cetin, 2011). Increased engine has been proven to not cause technical combustion efficiency can maintain energy security problems and is very environmentally friendly because it can save the amount of fuel used. (Silitonga et al., 2018). The combustion temperature Reducing emissions can make combustion more of bioethanol is low so that it can neutralize NOx environmentally friendly. In addition to the use of formed from LPG gas. On the other hand, the magnets in the engine, the use of alternative fuels performance of engines fueled by bioethanol is such as LPG and bioethanol is one of the efforts to lower than that of engines fueled by LPG because improve combustion quality and environmentally bioethanol has a low calorific value. friendly exhaust emissions. The description above shows the lack of these The selection of LPG fuel as one of the objects two fuels, namely that they have not been able to of research is because LPG exhaust emissions are produce optimum engine performance, therefore the environmentally friendly, abundant in market presence of a magnetic field is very necessary, availability and relatively cheap prices. The use of because the magnetic field through the cluster- LPG in engines can provide engine life up to twice decluster effect is proven to improve the quality of that of gasoline engines and is relatively safe (Sayin a https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5360-361X b https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9336-8936 c https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7452-1074 630 Nufus,T.,Kamal,D.andWidiawati,C. TheEffectofMagneticIntensityontheCharacteristicsofaMixedLPGandGasoline+BioethanolEngine. DOI:10.5220/0011860100003575 InProceedingsofthe5thInternationalConferenceonAppliedScienceandTechnologyonEngineeringScience(iCAST-ES2022),pages630-637 ISBN:978-989-758-619-4;ISSN:2975-8246 Copyright©2023bySCITEPRESS–ScienceandTechnologyPublications,Lda.UnderCClicense(CCBY-NC-ND4.0) TheEffectofMagneticIntensityontheCharacteristicsofaMixedLPGandGasoline+BioethanolEngine combustion which in turn increases engine emission concentrations in the engine exhaust gases performance. In addition, mixing the two fuels is decreased (TH Nufus et al., 2020). carried out with the aim of improving engine Automobile fuel system created with the concept performance, so the purpose of this study is to of dual fuel, which allows the car can be operated analyze the effect of magnetic fields on engine with gasoline or LPG and bioethanol mixture performance using a mixture of LPG and bioethanol. alternately. The result is the lowest CO emission is In the future, this research will be used as an engine obtained at 30% gas valve opening and 750 rpm model with maximum performance and minimum engine speed. The lowest HC emission is obtained at exhaust emissions using environmentally friendly 50% gas valve opening and 3000 rpm engine speed. fuels. Optimum torque is obtained at 50% gas valve opening and 3000 rpm engine speed. While the bioethanol valve opening has no significant effect 2 LITERATURE REVIEW (Nibin, Raj and Geo, 2021). The present investigation was conducted on a 4- cylinder diesel engine fueled with either pilot diesel, Excellent fuel structure for internal combustion or pilot waste cooking oil biodiesel (WCOB), and engine is the most challenging approach to achieve fumigated liquified petroleum gas (LPG) at three good engine performance and lower gas emissions. loads. The LPG addition is expressed in terms of a Therefore, some researchers have made efforts to LPG power substitution percentage (LPSP), ranging modify the characteristics of the fuel to increase from 10 to 30% at each load. the result that both combustion efficiency and reduce pollutant products types of dual fuel operation can lead to reduction in using a magnetic field. Among the fuels structural both NOx and PM emissions, with LPG-Diesel modification method, utilizing electromagnetic field operation being more effect in reducing NOx is one of the powerful techniques that has been used emissions while LPG-WCOB operation more to produce better fuel conditioning (TH. Nufus, R. P. effective in reducing particulate emissions (Duc and A. Setiawan, W. Hermawan, 2017). Strategy Duy, 2018). facilitates the alternation of fuel properties with Diesel engine using diesel/biodiesel mixture with changes in molecular structure. Magnetic fuel liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and cooled exhaust treatment affects better atomization which reduces gas recirculation (EGR) inducted in the intake port. the amount of HC, CO and NOx. The optimal operating factors for acquiring the The study reveal that, a significant improvement largest fuel consumption time, the lowest smoke and in performance of coated engine operating on dual NOX are decided for 1500 rpm and different loads. fuel mode (LPG-biodiesel) with additive by an The results display that predictions by Taguchi increase in efficiency of 4.5% and decrease in brake method are in fair consistence with the confirmation specific fuel consumption of 4.2% at 80% of full results, and this method decreases the number of load, HC and CO emissions are reduced between 9% experimental runs in this study. The best fuel and 12% at entire load spectrum compared to consumption time, smoke, and NOX at each load is uncoated engine operating on diesel fuel. NOx acquired at a combination of B10 (A1), 40% LPG emission is drastically reduced up to 32% for dual (B3) and 20% EGR ratio (C1) (Vinoth et al., 2017). fuel with additive compared to without additive in coated engine operation and very close to diesel fuel in uncoated engine operation (Musthafa, 2019). 3 RESEARCH METHODS In this study; an experiment was carried out to examine the effects of LPG-ethanol fuel blends on the emission performance of a four cylinder SI The materials used in this study were bioethanol engine. from cassava with a content of 98% and gasoline Performance tests were conducted to determine with an octane number of 90 as a mixture of the correct air/fuel ratio (lambda = 1). Exhaust bioethanol. The fuel system is made with a dual fuel emissions were analyzed for CO, CO2, NOx, HC, concept that can be operated with gasoline or with O2 using LPG-ethanol blends with different fuel mixture of LPG and bioethanol alternately. the percentages of fuel blends at variable engine speeds test engine is a 125cc motorcycle. The engine ranging between 1000 and 5000 rpm. It was performance test is carried out using a dynamometer observed that depending on the rate of ethanol with the scheme shown in Figure 1. The parameters increase in mixture, the CO2, CO, NOx and HC measured in this test are torque, engine power at various percentages of mixtures, and exhaust 631 iCAST-ES2022-InternationalConferenceonAppliedScienceandTechnologyonEngineeringScience emissions. Measurements were made in the engine Data processing speed range of 1500-3500 RPM. The magnitude of Power (break horse power) Brake horse power is the the magnetic field used The strength of the magnetic power generated from the engine output shaft [13]. field used is 1500 Gauss. As a control is an engine bhp = . ω.T without fuel magnetization. bhp = 2π . n . T / 746 (hp) LPG Data acquisition with: Gas analyzer T = Torque (N.m) Konveter kit n = rotation of the waterbrake dynamometer shaft Sensor Flow Termocouple type K Data acquisition (rps) magnet Fuel consumption is the amount of fuel used by the engine for a certain unit of time. While sfc (specific fuel consumption) is the amount of engine fuel consumption during a certain unit of time to Fuel pump Engine Dynamometer Fuel tank produce effective power. If in the test data is Figure 1: Gasoline engine performance testing installation. obtained regarding the use of fuel m (kg) in s (seconds) and the power produced is bhp (hp), then The tools and materials used in this study are the fuel consumption per hour is: Power (end specified in Tables 1 and 2. The composition of a horsepower), Brake horsepower is the power mixture of gasoline and bioethanol E0, E10, E15 and generated of the engine output shaft. Specific fuel E20. other tools, namely the combustion quality consumption (specific fuel consumption) improvement device and a 12 volt battery voltage SFC= (3600. mbb)/bhp (kg/kW.hr) source. Motorcycle performance testing using a with: dynamometer connected to data acquisition. The mbb = fuel consumption per unit time (kg/hour) research begins with the calibration of the required s = fuel consumption time (seconds) equipment, inspection of diesel engine components sfc = specific fuel consumption (kg/kW.hour) such as: lubricating oil, lubricating oil filter, fuel filter. Parameters observed are Torque, Power and Table 2: Properties of gasoline and bioethanol (Silitonga fuel consumption. The test starts by starting the et al., 2018). engine at 1000 rpm and then holding it for ± 10 Fuel Type Gasoline Bioethanol minutes to get a normal engine working temperature. After the machine is operating normally, data Formula (liquid) C H C H OH 8 18 2 5 retrieval begins. Data collection is done by looking Molecular weight at the measuring instrument and taking notes on the 11.15 46.07 (g/mol) note sheet. Density (kg/m3) 765 785 Table 1: Engine Specification (TH Nufus et al., 2020). Viscosity (cSt) 9.792 6.891 Heat of vaporization Parameter Value 305 840 (kJ/kg) Diameter x Stroke 52.4 x 57.9mm Specific heat (kJ/kgK) 2.4 1.7 liquid Cylinder Volume 125 cc Specific heat (kJ/kgK) Compression ratio 9.5 : 1 vapour 2.5 1.93 Maximum Power 7 kW / 8000 rpm Lower heating value 44000 26900 Maximum Torque 9.6 Nm / 5500 rpm Stoichiometric air-fuel 14.6 9 ratio by mass Engine oil 0.84 liter Research octane 92 108.6 Transmission number CVT Outomatic System Motor octane number 85 89.7 dry, Centrifugal Tipe Kopling Enthalphy of formation Automatic (MJ/kmol) 259.28 224.10 Ignation System TCI/ Fuel Injection liquid 632 TheEffectofMagneticIntensityontheCharacteristicsofaMixedLPGandGasoline+BioethanolEngine 4 RESEARCH RESULT Figure 2 presents a graph of the relationship between torque and engine torque, it appears that the increase in torque is proportional to the increase in engine speed until it reaches the maximum value so that the amount of fuel entering the combustion chamber increases as a result of which the fuel energy is converted into the mechanical energy (torque) generated through the combustion process is getting bigger. After reaching the maximum value, the torque produced by the engine decreases because the time available for combustion at high rpm is very short. However, in the graph above, there is no visible decrease in torque, this is because the engine speed has not reached a critical or maximum speed due to the limited capabilities of the testing equipment in the laboratory. The torque generated by the engine with the magnetized fuel is higher than that of the unmagnetized fuel. For E0 fuel (100% gasoline) there is an increase of around 6-15%. For E10 fuel, the increase in torque is around 5-11%, for E15 fuel, the torque increase is around 6-12%, for E20 fuel, the torque increase is around 5-10%. The increase in torque due to fuel magnetization is due to the magnetic field affecting the molecular structure of the hydrocarbons contained in the fuel causing the breakdown of the hydrocarbon chain into smaller parts or the fuel molecules changing from cluster to Figure 2: Torque testing result: a – E0; b – E10; c – E15; de cluster. In addition, the arrangement of the fuel d – E20, e – E25. atoms is parallel to the direction of the given external magnetic field or the fuel molecules are Figure 3 presents a graph of the relationship neatly arranged, so that it will be easier to react with between power and engine torque, it appears that the oxygen obtained from the outside air and produce a increase in power is proportional to the increase in more complete combustion. Complete combustion engine speed until it reaches the maximum value so will result in increased torque. that the amount of fuel that enters the combustion chamber increases as a result of which the fuel energy is converted into The mechanical energy (power) produced through the combustion process is greater. After reaching the maximum value, the power produced by the engine decreases because the time available for combustion at high rpm is very short. However, in the graph above, there is no visible decrease in power, this is because the engine speed has not reached a critical or maximum speed due to the limited capabilities of the testing equipment in the laboratory. Figure 3 shows the power generated by an engine with a magnetized fuel being higher than that of an unmagnetized fuel. For E0 fuel (100% gasoline) there is an increase in power ranging from 8-17%. The increase in E10 fuel is around 6-10%, E15 fuel increases in power by 5- 13%, and E20 fuel has an increase in power of 5 - 10%. 633 10 8 6 4 2 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )PH( rewoP 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 E20 tanpa magnet dengan magnet rpm Figure 3: Power testing result: a – E0; b – E10; c – E15; d – E20. The increase in power due to fuel magnetization is due to the magnetic field affecting the molecular structure of the hydrocarbons contained in the fuel causing the breakdown of the hydrocarbon chain into smaller parts or the fuel molecule changing from cluster to de cluster. In addition, the arrangement of the fuel atoms is parallel to the direction of the given external magnetic field or the fuel molecules are neatly arranged, so that it will be easier to react with oxygen obtained from the outside air and produce a more complete combustion. )mpp( CH LPG tanpa magnet magnet RPM 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( CH E0 tanpa magnet magnet RPM 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( CH E10 no magnet magnet RPM 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( CH E15 no magnet magnet RPM 800 600 400 200 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( CH iCAST-ES2022-InternationalConferenceonAppliedScienceandTechnologyonEngineeringScience E20 no magnet magnet RPM Figure 4: Emission HC testing result: a – LNG; b – E0; c – E10; d – E15; e – E20. 634 Complete combustion will result in increased torque. Based on the description above, the largest 1000 increase in torque is experienced by gasoline fuel 800 compared to other fuels mixed with bioethanol, 600 considering that bioethanol has lower energy than 400 gasoline, however, bioethanol has a higher octane 200 value than gasoline, while a mixture of gasoline and Bioethanol which experienced the largest increase 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 was E15, the same as torque.We strongly encourage authors to use this document for the preparation of the camera-ready. Please follow the instructions closely in order to make the volume look as uniform as possible (Lee and Park, 2020). Figure 4 shows the results of the HC emission test, it appears that the HC value in an LPG-fueled engine is smaller than that of gasoline. This is because LPG is an environmentally friendly gas and the difference is around 9.43-22.04%. On the other hand, an LPG-fueled engine when compared to a mixture of gasoline and bioethanol, the HC level is lower in a mixture of gasoline + bioethanol, this is because the molecular bonds of bioethanol contain oxygen which causes the combustion to become more complete so that HC exhaust emissions are reduced, the difference is around 22-46 %. The higher the bioethanol content, the lower the HC emission level. Likewise, if the fuel, either LPG, gasoline or bioethanol, is passed through a magnetic field, the HC content will be even smaller, this is due to the cluster-decluster effect which is reduced by up to 47%. Air consists of 80% by volume of nitrogen and 20% by volume of oxygen. At room temperature, there is little tendency for nitrogen and oxygen to react with each other. Nitrogen contained in the combustion air can be oxidized and form toxic NOx, if the combustion process occurs at a high enough temperature. Figure 5. Showing the results of the NOx emission test, it appears that the NOx value in the LPG-fueled engine is smaller than that of gasoline. This is because LPG is an environmentally friendly gas and the difference is around 10-34%. On the other hand, an LPG-fueled engine when compared to a mixture of gasoline and bioethanol, the NOx level is lower in a gasoline + bioethanol mixture, this is because the molecular bonds of bioethanol contain oxygen which causes the combustion to become more complete so that NOx exhaust emissions are reduced, the diffe- rence is around 9-24 %. The higher the bioethanol content, the lower the NOx emission level. Likewise, if this fuel is passed through a magnetic field, the NOx content will be even smaller, this is due to the cluster-decluster effect, which reduces to 44.61%. )mpp( OC E10 no magnet magnet RPM 400 300 200 100 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( xON LPG tanpa magnet magnet RPM 400 300 200 100 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( xON E0 tanpa magnet magnet RPM 300 200 100 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( xON E20 no magnet magnet RPM 400 300 200 100 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( xON TheEffectofMagneticIntensityontheCharacteristicsofaMixedLPGandGasoline+BioethanolEngine E10 no magnet magnet RPM Figure 5: Emission NOx testing result: a – LNG; b – E0; c – E10; d – E15; e – E20. 635 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( OC LPG tanpa magnet magnet RPM 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( OC E0 tanpa magnet magnet RPM 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( OC E15 no magnet magnet RPM 800 600 400 200 0 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 )mpp( OC iCAST-ES2022-InternationalConferenceonAppliedScienceandTechnologyonEngineeringScience which causes the combustion to become more complete so that CO exhaust emissions are reduced, the difference is around 6-47 %. The higher the bioethanol content, the lower the CO emission level. Likewise, if this fuel is passed through a magnetic field, the HC content will be even smaller, this is due to the cluster-decluster effect which is reduced by up to 62%. In addition, LPG's carbon-hydrogen ratio is lower thangasoline and LPG gas state actually burns more homogeneously mixture. As a result, CO and HC emissions are reduced. moreover,volumetric calorific value of LPG is lower than gasoline and reduced energy supplied contribute to the reductionNOx emission. In addition, the LPG. carbon-hydrogen ratio low fuel and LPG in a gaseous state burns effectively with a more homogeneous fuel mixture. At low speed, when the engine speed is increased, NOx Emissions are gradually increasing for gasoline and LPG due to increased of the temperature inside the cylinder; On the other hand, HC and CO. emissions reduced as high temperatures contribute to combustion process. On the other hand, at high speed, restrictions in the air line increased dramatically. This causes a reduction in of the volumetric efficiency, so that the combustion temperature reduced due to a decrease in the air-fuel mixture quantity. As a result, when the engine speed overtakes the value of speed, NOx emissions are reduced but HC and CO. emissions slightly increased. The magnetic field used in the fuel, gas E20 emissions reduced to lesser, and the value keeps no magnet magnet decreasing with increasing engine speed as shown on picture. 5. It is well known that hydrocarbon molecules is a diamagnetic molecule. So, the presence of magnets the field on the hydrocarbon molecule can interfere and affect H-C bond. It can pull and stretch the bond between molecules, even though the bonds between the H–C atoms are not separate from each other. Bond strength will weaken RPM slightly due to the stretching of the bond so Figure 6: Emission CO testing result: a – LNG; b – E0; that,hydrogen and carbon atoms will be more easily c – E10; d – E15; e – E20. attracted into oxygen in the combustion process (Sayin Kul and Ciniviz, 2020). Next up, gasoline Figure 6. Showing the results of the CO emission fuel is made up of molecules that are bonded to each test, it appears that the value of CO in the LPG- other long hydrocarbon chains. For this reaction to fueled engine is smaller than that of gasoline. This is take place simultaneously in the combustion because LPG is an environmentally friendly gas and chamber, the first thing that all you have to do is the difference is 18-44%. On the other hand, an break the chemical bonds in the hydrocarbons [16]. LPG-fueled engine when compared to a mixture of Therefore, sparks are needed by spark plugs as a gasoline and bioethanol, the CO content is lower in a spark plug external energy source to break chemical gasoline + bioethanol mixture, this is because the bonds. molecular bonds of bioethanol contain oxygen 636 TheEffectofMagneticIntensityontheCharacteristicsofaMixedLPGandGasoline+BioethanolEngine 5 CONCLUSION combustion analysis, engine performance and exhaust emissions of a SI engine’, Fuel. Elsevier, 277(May), p. 118237. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118237. At low to medium speed there is an increase in Silitonga, A. S. et al. (2018) ‘Evaluation of the engine torque and power generated by the engine from all performance and exhaust emissions of biodiesel- types of mixed fuel tested compared to gasoline fuel. bioethanol-diesel blends using kernel-based extreme The greatest torque and power are obtained in mixed learning machine’, Energy. Elsevier Ltd, 159, pp. fuels with a percentage of 15% bioethanol. The 1075–1087. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2018.06.202. performance of gasoline engines (motorcycles) with TH. Nufus, R. P. A. Setiawan, W. Hermawan, A. H. T. (2017) ‘The Effect Of Electro Magnetic Field Intensity a mixture of gasoline-bioethanol fuel (E0, E10, E15, To Biodiesel Characteristics’, Jurnal Pendidikan E20) and being magnetized causes Fisika Indonesia, 13(2), pp. 79–87. doi: 10.15294/jp a. The average engine power increased by 8-16%, fi.v13i2.10152. TH Nufus et al. (2020) ‘Two wheeled vehicles E20 fuel b. Engine torque increased by 5-15% magnetization study on exhaust gas emissions’, International Journal of Mechanical and Production c. HC emission levels reduced by up to 47% Engineering Research and Development, 10(2), pp. d. NOx emission levels reduced by up to 44 .61% 201–212. doi: 10.24247/ijmperdapr20218. Vinoth, T. et al. (2017) ‘Experimental Investigation on e. CO emission levels reduced by up to 62% LPG + Diesel Fuelled Engine with DEE Ignition Improver’, Materials Today: Proceedings. Elsevier Ltd, 4(8), pp. 9126–9132. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.20 17.07.268. REFERENCES Cetin, M. (2011) ‘The emission of characteristics LPG ethanol blend as a fuel in a SI Engine’, Energy Education Science and Technology Part A: Energy Science and Research, 28(1), pp. 151–160. Dhande, D. Y., Sinaga, N. and Dahe, K. B. (2021) ‘Study on combustion, performance and exhaust emissions of bioethanol-gasoline blended spark ignition engine’, Heliyon. Elsevier Ltd, 7(3), p. e06380. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06380. Duc, K. N. and Duy, V. N. (2018) ‘Study on performance enhancement and emission reduction of used fuel- injected motorcycles using bi-fuel gasoline-LPG’, Energy for Sustainable Development. International Energy Initiative, 43, pp. 60–67. doi: 10.1016/j.esd.20 17.12.005. Lee, Z. and Park, S. (2020) ‘Particulate and gaseous emissions from a direct-injection spark ignition engine fueled with bioethanol and gasoline blends at ultra- high injection pressure’, Renewable Energy. Elsevier B.V., 149, pp. 80–90. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2019.12.0 50. Musthafa, M. M. (2019) ‘A comparative study on coated and uncoated diesel engine performance and emissions running on dual fuel (LPG – biodiesel) with and without additive’, Industrial Crops and Products. Elsevier, 128(x), pp. 194–198. doi: 10.1016/j.ind crop.2018.11.012. Nibin, M., Raj, J. B. and Geo, V. E. (2021) ‘Experimental studies to improve the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of wheat germ oil fuelled CI engine using bioethanol injection in PCCI mode’, Fuel. Elsevier Ltd, 285(June 2020), p. 119196. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119196. Sayin Kul, B. and Ciniviz, M. (2020) ‘Assessment of waste bread bioethanol-gasoline blends in respect to 637"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Strengthening the magnetic field exposure on low-octane fuel in a two-stroke engine reduces fuel consumption.", "fr_vulgarise": "Des scientifiques ont exploré l'idée de \"booster\" l'essence de faible qualité avec des aimants. En soumettant l'essence à des champs magnétiques (jusqu'à 1600 Gauss) sur un petit moteur, ils ont constaté que plus l'aimant était fort, plus le moteur était économe en carburant. Pourquoi ? Les chercheurs pensent que l'aimant rend les molécules d'essence plus faciles à décomposer, un peu comme si elles étaient pré-cuites avant d'entrer dans le moteur. Cela permet à l'oxygène de les brûler plus efficacement. La preuve ? Ils ont mesuré qu'il restait moins d'oxygène dans les gaz d'échappement. Cette méthode démontre que les aimants permanents peuvent améliorer l'efficacité énergétique et réduire la pollution, sans nécessiter d'électronique complexe ou de carburant coûteux."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Référence sur les améliorateurs de combustion dans les moteurs Diesel."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "L'étude visait à optimiser la conception d'un électroaimant pour un moteur à essence."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Les tests visaient à déterminer l'effet d'un dispositif magnétique sur l'échappement d'une moto."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Les aimants faibles (< 1600 Gauss) réduisent la consommation des petits moteurs 2T en modifiant les molécules pour une meilleure réaction avec l'oxygène."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant améliore l'efficacité des moteurs Diesel."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Theoretical study on the potential of magnetic ionization to reduce exhaust gases and consumption by improving combustion efficiency [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'ionisation magnétique du carburant améliore l'efficacité et réduit la pollution."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 IMPROVING THE FUEL ECONOMY AND REDUCING THE EMISSION OF FOUR  STROKE DIESEL ENGINE BY THE PROCESS OF FUEL IONIZATION Punitharani K1, R. Haresh2, R. Jaiphin Prabhu3, M.K Murugan4 1Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil nadu, India. 2,3,4UG student, Department of Mechanical Engineering, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil nadu, India. -----------------------------------------------------------------------***---------------------------------------------------------------------- Abstract—Vehicles on road produces large amount of CO, HC ionization is a new technology similar to the others which and NO etc. as an exhaust emission. These are produced as a helps in achieving complete combustion. x result of incomplete combustion of fuels in IC engine. The emission control methods like exhaust gas recirculation In this thesis a detailed discussion on the magnetic fuel which reduces the formation of NO and the catalytic ionization technology in achieving complete combustion, x converter is a device placed in the exhaust pipe, which purpose of using this device, advantages of this technique are converts hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and NO into less discussed in here. x harmful gases by using a combination of platinum, palladium and rhodium as catalysts. In addition to these methods the authors incorporated a novel method named magnetic fuel ionization which was proved to be promising in enhancing the performance and reducing emission levels in diesel engines. So, the electro-magnetic field is used to ionize the fuel in this thesis. Two-third of the heat is wasted as exhaust gas and in this thesis a turbine is used for waste heat recovery. The current required for ionizing the fuel is generated by a turbine and is stored in a 12 V battery. Ionizing the fuel favors complete combustion in diesel engine. Thus, NO x emission is reduced and fuel economy is improved. In this work, study of electromagnetic circuit and electricity Fig.1 BS IV and VI emission limits for compression generation from turbine, followed by fabrication of ignition vehicles [12] electromagnetic circuit and turbine is done. Then the experiment is carried out using the setup which in-turn reduces emission and improves fuel economy. Index Terms—: Fuel ionization, Waste heat recovery, Emission reduction, Turbine. 1. INTRODUCTION Today’s hydrocarbon fuels leave a natural deposit of carbon residue that clogs carburetor, fuel injector, loss of horse power and greatly decreased mileage on cars are very noticeable. The emissions from this growing number of vehicles not only contribute to climate change but also affect people’s health adversely. In our country prominent Fig.2 General energy distribution [1] measures are being taken continuously to monitor the emissions from exhaust such as BS II, BS III, and BS IV. The Normally internal combustion engines, mostly emissions of these exhaust gases are mainly due to the reciprocating internal combustion engines, produce incomplete combustion in the combustion chamber. To moderately high pollution levels, because of incomplete achieve complete combustion and to reduce emission combustion of carbonaceous fuel, leading to carbon are said researchers have found various methods such as MPFI, EGR, to infiltrate deeply into human lungs. In diesel engines, the PCV and Catalytic convertor. In this study magnetic fuel fuel contains sulphur producing sulphur oxides in the © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1628 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 exhaust, leading to acid rain. The high temperature of gasoline and Diesel with gases and, hence it must be combustion creates larger proportions of nitrogen oxides considered in the future for transport purpose. (NO), and are demonstrated to be harmful to both animal and plant health. The emission control methods like exhaust gas Sachin Kumar Kore et al in 2015 [2] conducted a study to recirculation(EGR) which decreases the formation of NO and understand the performance of electromagnetic field which x the catalytic converter is a device placed in the exhaust pipe, will ensure complete combustion of air-fuel mixture and which converts carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and NO into emission of IC engine. The efficiency of engine increases by x less harmful gases by using a combination of palladium, adding magnetic field in the path of fuel line. Hence the platinum and rhodium as catalysts. In consideration of the resultant fuel burns more completely and produces higher above essential problems in diesel engines, a new technique engine output and improves fuel economy (increases mileage named magnetic fuel ionization was evidenced to be from 10-30%). encouraging in improving the performance and reducing the emission levels in the diesel engines. Shweta Jain et al in 2012 [4] analyzed that large amount of emission gases were produced because of incomplete Nowadays technology is growing at a very faster rate. The combustion and gives lower efficiency in diesel engines. By conventional energy resources like gasoline, Diesel etc. are on improving fuel turbulence, the fuel is pumped and burned an edge of annihilation. So researchers are moving towards much more clearly and the premature production of sludge is the use of non-conventional energy sources and it also prevented. 30% extra life for catalytic convertors is provided. requires certain kind of energy to convert it into alternative It increases mileage about 10-40%. By achieving correct fuel form. In this thesis we are utilizing the kinetic energy of burning parameters through proper magnetic means we can exhaust gases of the vehicle which is lost as waste heat. assume that it releases lowest possible level of toxic emissions. 2. OBJECTIVES Piyush M Patel et al in 2014 [3] conducted an experiment To reduce the emission of exhaust gases such as NO x , CO, to analyse the performance and emission of single cylinder HC four stroke diesel engines under the power of producing the effect of magnetic field. It is clear from the experiment result By the process of magnetic fuel ionization the exhaust gas that in both with and without Magnet Fuel Energizer brake emissions such as particulate matter, NO , CO can be reduced. x thermal efficiency, indicated power are similar but indicated power gets improved at lower load condition. Specific fuel To increase the fuel economy consumption is decreased due to the fuel consumption reduction at higher load. The experiment results shows that When the fuel is ionized by the magnetic field, the molecules the magnetic effect on reduction of fuel consumption was up are realigned before entering into the combustion chamber. to 8% at higher load condition. The emission of CO gets Therefore, the fuel does not escape as flue gases. By this reduced at higher load. The effect on NO emissions reduces technique the fuel economy can be increased. x up to 27.7%. To utilize the waste heat rejected by the automobile into Y. Al Ali et al in 2012 [5] conducted an experiment to electricity using a turbine setup in the exhaust manifold reduce the level of atmospheric pollutions caused by vehicle engine emissions by fuel ionization. Emissions of CO and HC In automobile maximum amount of heat is rejected as waste are reduced by 70% and increase of fuel economy by 18%. in exhaust gas, a turbine setup is kept near the exhaust so that The Magnetic device is either installed onto the fuel line or the turbine is rotated by the exhaust gases which converts inside the fuel tank. mechanical energy into electric energy and it is stored in a battery. Farrag A.El Fatih et al in 2010 [6] investigated the effect of magnetic field on internal combustion engines, concentrated 3. LITERATURE SURVEY on engine performance parameters such as fuel consumption The electric Hussain H. Al-Kayiem et al in 2017 [1] and exhaust emissions. The fuel is subjected to a permanent conducted a survey of fuel magnetization in internal magnet mount on fuel inlet lines. The experiments were combustion engines to reduce the emissions and to refine conducted at different idling engine speeds in a SI engine. The their fuel consumption and their performance. Fuel magnetic effect on fuel consumption reduction was upto 15% consumption in the engine (upto 18% in gasoline and 14% in and CO reduction is upto 7%. No emission reduction was upto diesel) is decreased because of magnetic treatment of the fuel. 30%. The magnetic treatment decreased the emission of HC and CO2 by 70%, NO by 68% in gasoline engine. Thus, it is found x that the magnetic field represents as a good alternative for © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1629 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 Vijay Kumar et al in 2015 [8] used the power from vehicle adjacent the fuel line. The fuel is in the liquid state when it is exhaust to generate the electricity. Two-thirds of the energy in the fuel tank. The fuel molecules will only combust when from combustion in a vehicle is lost as waste heat, of which they are vaporized and mixed with the air. Magnetic field 40% is in the form of hot exhaust gas. They placed a turbine helps to ionize the fuel. The molecules of hydrogen and in the path of exhaust in the silencer. They also placed an carbon flowing through a magnetic field change their engine in the chassis of the vehicle. The turbine is connected orientation in the direction opposite to the magnetic field. to a dynamo, which is used to generate power. Depending This results in changes of molecule configuration and upon the airflow the turbine will start rotating, and then the weakens the intermolecular force between the molecules. The dynamo will also starts to rotate. The generated power is magnetic field disperses the molecules into more tiny stored to the battery. The battery power can be consumed for particles and making the fuel less viscous. Every individual the users comfort. It would also help to recognize the molecule consists of many atoms made up of several improvement in performance and emissions of the engine if electrons along with neutrons revolving around their nucleus. these technologies were adopted by the automotive During the combustion process, the fuel is not mixed with manufacturers. oxygen vigorously, and the molecules are not realigned. The process of realignment along with ionization of the fuel is Impha.Y.D et al in 2017 [9] modified a stationary diesel accomplished by applying a magnetic field. Magnetic field engine for producing power using turbine. Substantial applied at the fuel line atomize the fuel and which get stick to thermal energy is available from the exhaust gas in modern oxygen and increases air fuel mixing ratio. automotive engines. Two-thirds of that thermal energy is lost. The nozzle is connected to the exhaust silencer of the engine. When the engine is started, exhaust gas starts flowing through the nozzle. The nozzle is place so that the gases fall directly on the turbine blades. The turbine which is coupled to a dynamo starts rotating and power is generated in the dynamo. The power generated may be stored in a battery of further use. Waste heat recovery entails capturing and reusing the waste heat from internal combustion engine and using it for heating or generating mechanical or electrical work. Shaikh Mobin.A et al in 2017 [11] made a model which produced electric power by using exhaust gas of vehicle specially two wheeler. All forms of energies are required for Fig.3 Molecular arrangement of fuel with magnetic doing various mechanical operations, but now there is large field [4] problem of electricity due to low availability energy resources. In the model, by using kinetic energy of exhaust According to Van der Waals force, there exists a strong gas the runner rotates which attach to large gear by using binding between oxygen and hydrocarbons in oxides of this shaft which further attach to small gear, placed on dynamo magnetic field, which helps in the complete combustion of finally dynamo produces electric power. By using this waste fuel inside the combustion chamber. This results in improved gas of vehicle this model can work better for the electric fuel economy and hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and power generation. This set up is mainly useful for villages. It nitrogen emissions from the exhaust are reduced. The fuel can be used as power source at night when output power ionization also aids to dissolve the carbon build up in fuel produced by set up is stored in battery. This set up is easy to injector, carburetor and combustion chamber, thus keeping handle and cheaper. the engine in clear condition. According to the equipment of combustion, the magnetic field density which is supposed to 4. PRINCIPLE AND WORKING OF ELECTROMAGNETIC be passed onto the fuel fluctuates as well as the rate of SETUP combustion. The main aim of the magnetic fuel conditioner is to offer better molecular attraction in diesel and petroleum Magnetic fuel conditioner based fuel so that re-polymerization is more effective. An electromagnetic fuel conditioner is a device which is An electromagnetic coil is an electrical conductor such as a used to arrange the fuel molecules and to alter the atomic wire which is in the shape of a spiral, coil or a helix. Greater structure so that complete combustion takes place in engine. the turns of wire, the stronger the field will be formed. On the In a magnetic fuel conditioner the magnet for producing the contrary, due to Faraday’s law of induction, a change in magnetic field is oriented so that its north pole is located external magnetic flux induces a voltage in a conductor such spaced apart from the fuel line and its south pole is located as wire. © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1630 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 The primary benefit of an electromagnet over a permanent Total Exhaust gas, F = F + F eg a magnet is that the magnetic field can be rapidly changed by regulating the amount of electric current in the winding. = 16.25kg/hr However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, Molecular weight of exhaust gas, MW = 28.75 g/mol an electromagnet needs an uninterrupted supply of current to eg sustain the magnetic field. Exhaust gas volume flow, V = 5. CALCULATION eg a) Determination of magnetic field of electromagnetic = 129.87 m3/hr circuit: Exhaust gas velocity, U = Current supplied to the coil, I = 7.2 A Length for which the coil is made as a solenoid, L = 70mm U = 22.68 m/s Relative permeability, k = 0.99 c) Determination of power generated by turbine: Permeability of free space, µ 0 = 4π* 10-7 T/Am At Engine speed of 1500 rpm, To find the number of turns of coil, For a turbine speed of 1400 rpm, N = (Final wounded radius – unwounded radius) * (L/d) To determine Impulse force acting on the turbine, Where wire diameter, d = 1mm Flow rate, Q = A*V in m3/s N = (20-5)*(70/1) Where, A is area of the outlet in m2 N = 1050 Turns V is the velocity of the exhaust gas in m/s d is the diameter at outlet in m which is 0.03m Magnetic field strength around a solenoid, B = Q = = 0.016 m3/s But, = k µ 0 Mass flow rate, m = ρ*Q = Where, ρ is the density of exhaust gas in kg/m3 which is 0.696 kg/m3. = 0.1343 T m = 0.696*0.016 = 0.0111 kg/s B = 1343 Gauss (Since 1T = 10000 Gauss) Impulse force, F = m*V b) Determination of theoretical exhaust gas velocity: F = 0.0111 * 22.68 = 0.2525 N Power of the engine, P = 3.5 kW Torque, T = F*R Nm Lower Heating Value of the fuel, LHV = 46,500 kJ/kg Where, R is distance from centre of shaft to the point Efficiency of the engine, = 40% where exhaust gas hit the blades in m. Fuel consumption, F = * 3600 T = 0.2525 * 0.073 T = 0.0184 Nm = 0.67 kg/hr Air flow, F a = F * (Air-Fuel Ratio) Power generated, P = Watts = 15.58 kg/hr © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1631 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 Where, N is speed of turbine in rpm Table 1 Engine Specification T is torque in Nm No. of cylinders 1 No. of strokes 4 Cylinder diameter 87.5 mm P = Stroke length 110 mm Fuel Diesel = 2.696 W Power 3.5 kW Speed 1500 rpm 6. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP Compression ratio 16:1 The important components involved in this experimental After modification the engine is shown as fig. 6. Here, setup are, the electromagnetic setup is placed before the fuel filter and it is powered by a 12 V battery. Thus the fuel passes through  Electromagnetic circuit the electromagnetic coil. The current from the battery is given  Engine Setup to the electromagnetic coil, thus a magnetic field is produced.  Turbine Setup Hence as the fuel passes through the magnetic field, the fuel Electromagnetic circuit: molecules gets ionised. As a result of magnetic field north and South Pole appears, so that carbon and hydrogen in fuel gets separated and aligned. Carbon ions gets accumulated near one of the magnetic pole whereas the hydrogen ions gets accumulated at the other end of the magnetic pole. Thus the oxygen will react more readily with the fuel molecules. Hence it improves combustion efficiency and it favours complete combustion. Fig. 5 Schematic representation of electromagnetic device Fig. 4 Electromagnetic coil Electromagnetic coil An electromagnetic coil is an electrical conductor such as a wire in the shape of a spiral coil or helix. The more turns of wire, the stronger the field produced. Conversely, a changing external magnetic flux induces a voltage in a conductor such as wire, due to Faraday’s law of induction. Engine setup: The experiments were done on the four stroke diesel engine. The specification of the engine is given below as on the table 1 Fig. 6 Engine with electromagnetic coil setup © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1632 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 Turbine setup: To find out the rpm at which the turbine is rotating, tachometer is required. Also to find out the voltage produced Gas turbine engines derive their power from burning fuel in by the rotation of turbine, a multimeter is used. Thus the rpm a combustion chamber and using the fast flowing combustion of the turbine and the voltage produced by the turbine is gases to drive a turbine in much the same way as the high measured. pressure steam drives a steam turbine. A simple gas turbine is comprised of three main sections a compressor, a combustor, and a power turbine. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator. The sub components in the turbine setup are  Frame  Turbine  Shaft  Bearings Fabricated setup: Fig. 9 Experimental setup 7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS a) Result data for performance on diesel engine Before ionization For loads of 0kg, 3kg, 6kg, 9kg the table is shown below, Table 2 Performance parameters before ionization Fig. 5.9 Top View Load BP IP BTH ITHE ME Fuel SFC (kg) (kW) (kW) E (%) (%) Flow (kg/kW (%) (kg/h) h) 0 -0.04 1.93 -0.90 47.51 -1.89 0.35 0.00 3 0.86 3.78 12.37 54.16 22.84 0.60 0.69 6 1.62 4.32 18.54 49.53 37.43 0.75 0.46 9 2.44 5.03 23.34 48.14 48.49 0.90 0.37 Fig. 8 Top View © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1633 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 After ionization Brake power For loads of 0kg, 3kg, 6kg, 9kg the table is shown below, Table 3 Performance parameters after ionization Load BP IP BTHE ITHE ME Fuel SFC (kg) (kW) (kW) (%) (%) (%) Flow (kg/k (kg/h) Wh) 0 -0.05 1.94 -1.13 47.7 -2.37 0.35 0.00 1 3 0.84 3.58 13.10 55.9 23.4 0.55 0.65 5 2 6 1.58 4.21 20.93 55.7 37.5 0.65 0.41 2 6 9 2.46 4.96 24.94 50.2 49.6 0.85 0.34 7 1 Fig. 11 Brake power Vs. Load Where, BP is the brake power, FP is the friction power, IP is From the above fig. 11, it is evident that the brake power the indicated power, BTHE is the brake thermal efficiency, increases by 4.88% at 25% load and decreases as load ITHE is the indicated thermal efficiency, ME is the mechanical increases. efficiency, SFC is the specific fuel consumption and AFR is the air fuel ratio. Mechanical efficiency b) Performance comparison From the below fig. 12, it is evident that the Mechanical efficiency increases after the introduction of electromagnetic Specific fuel consumption circuit and a maximum increase of 9.59% occurs at 25% load. Fig. 10 Specific Fuel Consumption Vs. Load Fig. 12 Mechanical Efficiency Vs. Load The above fig. 10 indicates that the specific fuel Brake thermal efficiency consumption decreases after the use of electromagnetic circuit in the engine and a maximum decrease of 10.95% occurs at 3kg load (25% load) at 1350 Gauss. Fig. 13 Brake Thermal Efficiency Vs. Load © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1634 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 The above fig. 13, indicates that Brake thermal efficiency of The above fig. 14, indicates that NO emission is largely the engine increases after the addition of electromagnetic reduced by the addition of electromagnetic circuit at all loads circuit up to 70% load and decreases beyond that. The and no emission is found at 0% load. maximum increase in Brake Thermal Efficiency is 10.12% at CO emission 50% load. The below fig. 15, shows that CO emission is increased at c) Emission results 0% load and as load increases the emission gets reduced and maximum reduction of 23.08% is found at 75% load. Table 4 Emission results before magnetic fuel ionization Load NO HC CO CO 2 (kg) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (% vol) 0 570 87 1000 5.19 3 512 67 1600 4.54 6 902 73 1100 5.96 9 1162 101 1300 7.625 Table 5 Emission results after magnetic fuel ionization Load NO HC CO CO 2 (kg) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (% vol) Fig. 15 CO Emission Vs. Load 0 0 113 1300 1.94 HC Emission 3 232 98 1600 4.4 6 571 88 1000 5.18 9 1000 125 1100 7.37 Table 6 Electricity generated by the turbine Pressure(bar) RPM Voltage (volts) 3 350 4.4 4 500 6.8 5 755 9.6 6 1400 11.3 d) Emission comparison NO emission Fig. 16 HC Emission Vs. Load The above fig. 16, indicates that HC emissions increases at all loads after the addition of electromagnetic circuit in the engine. Fig. 14 NO Emission Vs. Load © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1635 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 CO Emission Where, BP is the Brake Power 2 HLCW is the Heat Lost to Cooling Water HLEG is the Heat Lost to Exhaust Gas UA is the Unaccounted Loss From the above two graphs, it implies that the heat lost to Cooling water is more after ionization due to the application of the magnetic field for a long time. Because of that unaccounted loss is reduced. Next, Heat lost to brake power is slightly increased by 11.9% after the introduction of magnetic field. e) Combustion parameters Fig. 17 CO Emission Vs. Load 2 Before ionisation From the above fig. 17, it is evident that the CO emission is 2 reduced after the ionization of the fuel and a maximum reduction of 62.62% is observed at 0% load. e) Heat balance chart Before ionization Fig. 20 Pressure Vs. crank angle diagram before ionization Fig. 18 Heat balance chart before ionization After ionization Fig. 21 Net heat release before ionization Fig. 19 Heat Balance chart after ionization © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1636 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 After ionisation graphs are shown. From the use of this setup, NO emission is x reduced by 100% at 0% load, CO emission is reduced by 23.08% at 75% load and CO emission is reduced by 62.62% 2 at 0% load while HC emission is increased. Also Specific Fuel Consumption is reduced by 10.95% at 3kg load. Electricity generated from exhaust gas using turbine is around 3 W. SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK: Further, in this work some case studies may be taken by changing the location of electromagnetic circuit. It can also be placed in fuel tank and also before injector. Length of the electromagnetic circuit can also be altered to produce higher magnetic flux. REFERENCES [1] Hasanain A. Abdul-Wahhab, Hussain H. Al-Kayiem, A. Fig. 22 Pressure Vs. crank angle diagram after ionization Rashid A. Aziz, Mohammad S. Nasif, “Survey of invest fuel magnetization in developing internal combustion engine characteristics” Renewable and Sustainable Energy, 2017, pp: 1392-1399. [2] Nitin Karande, Sachin kumar Kore, Akram Momin, Ranjit Akkiwate, Sharada P.K, Sandip K. Kumbhar, ”Experimental study the effect of electromagnetic field on performance of IC engine” International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology, 2015, pp: 27-34. [3] Piyush M Patel, Prof. Gaurav P Rathod ,Prof. Tushar M Patel, “Effect of magnetic field on performance and emission of single cylinder four stroke diesel engine” IOSR Journal of Engineering, 2014, pp: 28-34. [4] Shweta Jain, Prof. Dr. Suhas Deshmukh,”Experimental Fig. 23 Pressure Vs. crank angle diagram before Investigation of Magnetic Fuel conditioner (M.F.C) in IC ionization engine” International Organization of Scientific Research Journal of Engineering, 2012, pp: 27-35. From the fig. 20 and fig. 22, it is evident that the cylinder pressure is increased by 66.7% after ionization. This is due to [5] Y. Al Ali, M.Hrairi, I.Al Kattan,”Potential for improving maximum combustion occurring inside the cylinder after vehicle fuel efficiency and reducing the environmental ionization. Increase in cylinder pressure increases the power pollution via fuel ionization” International Journal of output. Environment Science and Technology, 2012, pp: 495- 502. From the fig. 21 and fig. 23, it is observed that the net heat release from the engine is increased by 20% after ionization. [6] Farrag A. El Fatih, Gad M. Saber,”Effect of fuel It is due to the fact that increase in pressure increases heat magnetism on engine performance and emissions” release. The increase in pressure is due to the fact that the Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 2010, fuel is burned efficiently, leaving very few unburnt fuel. pp: 6354-6358. 8. CONCULSION [7] Vivek Ugare, Ashwin Dhoble, Sandeep Lutade, Krunal Mudafale,“Performance of internal combustion (CI) Thus, fabrication of electromagnetic circuit is completed engine under the influence of strong permanent and the experiments were carried out on a four stroke diesel magnetic field” International Organization of Scientific engine. The experiments carried out were performance Research Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, parameters calculation and exhaust gas analysis. The results 2014, pp: 11-17. are compared with and without the use of setup and the © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1637 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (IRJET) E-ISSN: 2395-0056 VOLUME: 07 ISSUE: 01 | JAN 2020 WWW.IRJET.NET P-ISSN: 2395-0072 [8] S. Vijaya Kumar, Amit Kumar Singh, Athul Sabu, Mohamed Farhan.P, “Generation of Electricity by using Exhaust from Bike’’ International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol. 4, Special Issue 6, 2015, pp: 1877-1884. [9] Impha Y D, Mahammad Yunus C, Ajaygan K, Mustaqeem Raza, Mohammed Imran, Harsha Raj K , “Power Generation from Exhaust Gas of an IC Engine” International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol. 6, Issue 6, 2017, pp: 216-225. [10] Kranthi Kumar Guduru, Yakoob Kol ipak, Shanker. B, N. Suresh, “Power Generation by Exhaust Gases On Diesel Engine”, International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol.7, Issue.5, 2015, pp: 06-13. [11] Shaikh Mobin A, Shaikh Saif A, Shaikh Najim N, Pathan Umar Farooq O,Pathan Farhan A, “Utilization of exhaust gas of vehicle for electricity generation”, International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology , Vol. 4 Issue 3, 2017, pp: 1809-1816. [12] www.theicct.org/india Bharat stage VI emission standards © 2020, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.34 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1638"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Comparative study of the efficiency of different magnetic materials (Neodymium, Ferrite, AlNiCo) on a Diesel engine running on biodiesel, aiming for increased power output.", "fr_vulgarise": "La comparaison entre différents types d'aimants (Néodyme, Ferrite, AlNiCo) a montré que le Néodyme était le plus efficace pour augmenter la puissance du moteur au biodiesel."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "International Journal of Marine Engineering Innovation and Research, Vol. 5(2), Jun. 2020. 117-121 (pISSN: 2541-5972, eISSN: 2548-1479) 117 The Effect of Using Various Magnetic Materials on Diesel Engines using Biodiesel Fuel Aguk Zuhdi M.F.1, Adhi Iswantoro2, Hafiz N. H. Perdana3 (Received: 01 August 2019 / Revised: 18 June 2020 / Accepted: 28 June 2020) Abstract⎯ one of method to improve engine performance and reduce fuel consumption is to use exposure to magnetic fields in the fuel lines. Several studies have proven that magnetic field exposure can improve diesel engine performance. This research aims to test the performance of a diesel engine using fuels that are given a magnetic field from 3 types of permanent magnets, namely magnets made from Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB), Aluminum Nickel Cobalt (AlNiCo), and Ferrite (Fe). Performance tests on the Yanmar TF85MH diesel engine include power and torque. The fuel used in this research is Biodiesel B20. The results showed that neodymium magnets (NdFeB) are the best magnets of the 3 types of magnets tested with an average increase in power of 2.30%, an average increase in torque of 2.35%. Keywords⎯biodiesel B20, diesel engine, magnet, power, torque. loading, thermal efficiency increased by 2%, NOx I. INTRODUCTION1 emissions reduced by an average of 27.7% at all loading levels, HC emissions decreased by an average of 30 % at D all loading levels, CO emissions are reduced at low and iesel fuel is a fuel produced from fossils or high loading, and CO2 emissions are reduced by an average rate of 9.72% at all loading levels [4]. microorganisms that have been buried for millions of Neodymium magnets (NdFeB) are the most powerful years. Diesel fuel contributes 80% to the world's energy permanent magnetic materials available today. The needs [1]. Indonesia's oil and gas reserves over the past NdFeB magnet has the highest energy product ten years have tended to decline in Petroleum Reserves approaching 52 MGOe. NdFeB is more expensive per from 8.21 billion barrels in 2008 down to around 7.5 weight as compared to Ferrite or AlNiCo but produces billion barrels in 2018. Reserve to Production (calculated the highest amount of flux per unit mass or volume. The against Proven Reserves) is in the range of 10-11 years advantage of NdFeB magnets is that the energy products [2]. Therefore, a solution is needed to minimize the are very high, have very high coercivity, and have good consumption of fuel, one of which is by using a temperature resistance. The disadvantages of NdFeB permanent magnetic field in the fuel channel. magnets are lower mechanical strength, and it has low According to Jain in his research entitled corrosion resistance when it is not coated or not properly \"Experimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel coated [5]. Conditioners (MFC) in I.C. Engine \", using MFC can AlNiCo magnets consist of aluminum (Al), nickel enhance the internal energy of the fuel to cause particular (Ni), and cobalt (Co) alloys with small amounts of other changes at the molecular level which results in complete elements added to increase their magnetic properties. combustion. The fuel produced burns more completely, The magnetic strength of AlNiCo can be reduced due to resulting in higher engine performance, better fuel collisions with other objects. The advantages of AlNiCo economy, and a reduced amount of HC, CO, NOx in the magnets are high corrosion resistance, high mechanical exhaust. MFC increases vehicle mileage by 10% to 40%, strength, and it has very high-temperature resistance. The reduces hydrocarbon emissions and other pollutants, disadvantages are higher costs, low coercivity, and low prevents clogging of diesel engines, and reduces engine energy products [5]. maintenance costs [3]. Other research was also conducted by Patel with the title \"Effect of magnetic fields on performance and II. METHOD emission of single cylinder four stroke diesel engines\". The method used in this research is an experiment to This research is about the effect of Ferrite (Fe) obtain results. The following are the steps in an magnetized material on thermal efficiency, fuel experiment. consumption, hydrocarbon emissions (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and carbon A. Design Experiments dioxide (CO2). The results showed that diesel engine At this steps the design of the biodiesel fuel B20 fuel consumption was reduced at low loading and high system modeling will be carried out, with exposure to the magnetic field by referring to theories of the magnetic field to biodiesel B20. This design experiments has the Aguk Zuhdi M.F., Department of Marine Engineering, Institut following variables: Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, 60111, Indonesia, E-mail: Fixed variable: [email protected] 1. Engine speed (1800, 1900, 2000, 2100, and Adhi Iswantoro, Department of Marine Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, 60111, Indonesia, E-mail: 2200 RPM). [email protected] 2. The level of engine load (1 kw, 1.5 kw, 2 kw, Hafiz N.H. Perdana, Department of Marine Engineering, Institut 2.5 kw, 3 kw, 3.5 kw and 4 kw). Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, 60111, Indonesia, E-mail: [email protected] International Journal of Marine Engineering Innovation and Research, Vol. 5(2), Jun. 2020. 117-121 (pISSN: 2541-5972, eISSN: 2548-1479) 118 3. Types of magnetic fields: Aluminum Nickel condition, basic performance, full load to determine the Cobalt (AlNiCo), Neodymium Iron Boron initial condition of the diesel motor before conducting (NdFeB), and Ferrit (Fe). research. The diesel engine used in data retrieval is the YANMAR Diesel Engine with TF 85 MH-type with a Control variables: capacity of 493 cc. The engine set up is shown in figure 1. The fuel temperature is the same (ambient 1 below. temperature ~ 30C). 2. The same volume of fuel tested (20 ml). C. Data Analysis 3. Magnetic dimensions are the same (Diameter 10 In the analysis of the data proved one hypothesis, mm and Length 10 mm). permanent smagnetic material that has a higher magnetic field intensity will have a greater influence on the Dependent variables: performance of diesel engines. 1. Engine power. The results of the analysis will be in the form of a 2. Engine torque. graph comparing the level of difference in power and torqueof diesel engines that use 3 types of magnets with B. Engine Set-up different materials and without using magnets. In the preparation of the test the initial checking and calibration on the engine setup is first about the physical Figure. 1. Engine setup. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION fuel variables, which is 4.169 Kw at 2200 RPM. For variable fuels with the influence of Ferrite magnets, In this part, will be discussed about the results of AlNiCo and without magnets have the highest power of experiments and data of experimental displayed in 4,147 KW, 4,155 KW, and 4,072 KW at 2200 RPM. graphs & tables and then analyzed. Under full load conditions, fuels with Neodymium A. Power at Full Load condition at Constant Speed magnetic field effects have the greatest power among all fuel variables. The data shown in figure 2. The results are that fuels with the influence of neodymium magnets have the highest power value of all Figure. 2. Power analysis at full load per RPM. B. Torque at Full Load condition at Constant Speed International Journal of Marine Engineering Innovation and Research, Vol. 5(2), Jun. 2020. 117-121 (pISSN: 2541-5972, eISSN: 2548-1479) 119 The results are that a fuel with Neodymium magnetic of magnets have the highest torque of 19,198 Nm, influence has the highest torque value of all fuel 19,440 Nm, and 19,067 Nm at 2000 RPM. Under full variables, which is 19.667 Nm at 2000 RPM. For fuel load conditions, fuels with Neodymium magnetic field variables with the influence of Ferrite magnets, with the effects have torque the biggest among all fuel variables. influence of AlNiCo magnets, and without the influence The data shown in figure 3. Figure. 3. Torque analysis at full load per RPM. value of the power of each RPM, table 2 shows a C. Comparative Analysis of Diesel Engine Power On comparison of the level of increase in diesel engine Each Magnet Type power per RPM of each magnet, and table 3 shows the At this step, an analysis of the average value of the average value of the overall increase in power of each power of each RPM is carried out to determine how magnet. much increased power is given by the magnetic fields of 3 different types of material. Table 1 shows the average TABLE. 1. POWER AVERAGE AT CONSTANT SPEED Power Average (kW) RPM Non-Mag Neody Ferrit AlNiCo 1800 2,242 2,329 2,279 2,323 1900 2,519 2,593 2,545 2,570 2000 2,822 2,891 2,843 2,878 2100 2,783 2,813 2,790 2,808 2200 2,709 2,741 2,718 2,734 TABLE. 2. PERCENTAGE OF INCREASED POWER TO BIODIESEL WITHOUT MAGNETS Power Average (%) RPM Neody Ferrit AlNiCo 1800 3,89% 1,65% 3,63% 1900 2,91% 1,00% 2,01% 2000 2,42% 0,73% 1,98% 2100 1,10% 0,25% 0,91% 2200 1,18% 0,32% 0,90% TABLE. 3. TOTAL AVERAGE OF POWER INCREASE Total Power Average (%) RPM Neody Ferrit AlNiCo 2200 2,30% 0,79% 1,88% In table 3, the Neodymium magnetic field produces the among the 3 types of magnets. Neodymium magnetic average value of the greatest overall increase in power fields produce an average increase in overall power value International Journal of Marine Engineering Innovation and Research, Vol. 5(2), Jun. 2020. 117-121 (pISSN: 2541-5972, eISSN: 2548-1479) 120 of 2.30%, AlNiCo magnetic fields produce an average D. Comparative Analysis of the Torque of Diesel increase in overall power value of 1.88%, and Ferrit Engine on Each Magnet Type magnetic fields produce an average increase in overall At this stage, the average value of the torque per RPM power value of 0.79 %. The magnetic fields can change is analyzed to find out how much the increase in torque the order of hydrocarbon molecules from the state of is given by the magnetic fields of 3 different types of \"para\" to \"ortho\" [6-7]. material. Table 4 shows the average value of torque for Under ortho conditions, intermolecular strength each RPM, table 5. shows a comparison of the rate of decreases and widens the distance between hydrogen increase in the torque of a diesel engine per RPM of each atoms. This hydrogen fuel earnestly locks in with oxygen magnet, and table 6. shows the average value of the and produces better combustion in the combustion increase in overall torque of each magnet. chamber, so that power increases [3]. TABLE. 4. TORQUE AVERAGE AT CONSTANT SPEED Torque Average (Nm) RPM Non-Mag Neody Ferrit AlNiCo 1800 11,879 12,346 12,082 12,316 1900 12,648 13,029 12,780 12,908 2000 13,461 13,793 13,566 13,738 2100 12,642 12,784 12,677 12,760 2200 11,751 11,896 11,797 11,862 TABLE. 5. PERCENTAGE OF INCREASED TORQUE TO BIODIESEL WITHOUT MAGNETS Torque Average (%) RPM Neody Ferrit AlNiCo 1800 3,93% 1,70% 3,67% 1900 3,01% 1,05% 2,06% 2000 2,47% 0,78% 2,06% 2100 1,13% 0,28% 0,93% 2200 1,23% 0,39% 0,94% TABLE. 6. TOTAL AVERAGE OF TORQUE INCREASE Total Torque Average (%) RPM Neody Ferrit AlNiCo 2200 2,35% 0,84% 1,93% In table 6, the Neodymium magnetic field produces the fields can change the order of hydrocarbon molecules average value of the greatest overall increase in power from the state of \"para\" to \"ortho\" [6-7]. among the 3 types of magnets. Neodymium magnetic Under ortho conditions intermolecular strength fields produce an average value of an increase in overall decreases and widens the space between hydrogen torque of 2.35%, an AlNiCo magnetic field produces an atoms. This hydrogen fuel earnestly locks in with oxygen average value of an increase in overall torque of 1.93%, and produces better combustion in the combustion and a Ferrit magnetic field produces an average value of chamber, so torque increases [3]. an increase in overall torque of 0.84 %. The magnetic IV. CONCLUSION REFERENCES Based on the results of calculations and analyzes that [1] Huang, D., Zhou, H., Lin, L. (2012). Biodiesel: An Alternative to have been carried out related to the influence of the Conventional Fuel. International Conference on Future Energy, Environment, and Materials magnetic field on biodiesel B20 fuel on the performance [2] ESDM, 2018 “Laporan Tahunan Capaian Pembangunan Tahun of diesel engines, it can be concluded that: 2018”, Halaman 18. migas.esdm.go.id Neodymium magnets (NdFeB) are permanent [3] Shweta Jain, Prof. Dr. Suhas Deshmukh,2012 Experimental magnets that improve the performance of diesel engines Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C. engine, ISSN: 2250-3021 Volume 2, Issue 7 (July 2012), PP 27- best among the 3 tested magnets. Neodymium magnets 31 produce an overall average power increase of 2.30% and [4] Patel, M. Piyush; Rathod, Gaurav P.; Patel, Tushar M. (2014). an overall average torque increase of 2.35%. \"Effect of Magnetic Field on Performance and Emission of Single Four Stroke Diesel Engine\". IOSR Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) Vol.04 Issue 5. International Journal of Marine Engineering Innovation and Research, Vol. 5(2), Jun. 2020. 117-121 (pISSN: 2541-5972, eISSN: 2548-1479) 121 [5] Magcraft, 2007 \"Permanent Magnet Selection and Design and diesel–biodiesel blends. Bioresource Technology, 97(3), Handbook\" Version 1, Revision 04, Page 3-5. 372–378. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2005.03.013 [6] Ali S. Faris, Saadi K. Al-Naseri, Nather Jamal, Raed Isse, Mezher Abed, Zainab Fouad, Akeel Kazim, Nihad Reheem, Ali Chaloob, Hazim Mohammad, Hayder Jasim, Jaafar Sadeq, Ali Salim, Aws Abas, \"Effects of Magnetic Field on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust, Emissions in Two-Stroke Engine\", Energy Procedia 18 ( 2012 ) 327 – 338 [7] Nabi, M. N., Akhter, M. S., & Zaglul Shahadat, M. M. (2006). Improvement of engine emissions with conventional diesel fuel"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Conference context on advanced materials, related to improving the thermal efficiency of combustion engines [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Contexte sur les technologies d'amélioration de l'efficacité thermique des moteurs."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering PAPER • OPEN ACCESS You may also like Magnetization of Biodiesel (Cooking Oil Waste) to -Droplet Combustion Characteristic of Biodiesel Produced from Waste Cooking Oil Temperature and Pressure Combustion in Diesel Mega Nur Sasongko Engine -Comparison of properties of ternary fuel blends of diesel-octanol with biodiesel Sidharth and Naveen Kumar To cite this article: T H Nufus et al 2020 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 924 012030 -Investigation on Performance and Emission of Pongamia Biodiesel Using Diethyl Ether and Zinc Oxide as Additive in Diesel Engine K Rajesh, P K Devan, B Lokesh et al. View the article online for updates and enhancements. This content was downloaded from IP address 79.93.83.165 on 02/10/2025 at 22:03 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Technology IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering924 (2020) 012030 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012030 Magnetization of Biodiesel (Cooking Oil Waste) to Temperature and Pressure Combustion in Diesel Engine T H Nufus1, S Lestari2, A Ulfiana1*, and M Manawan1 1Mechanical Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Prof. Dr. G.A Siwabessy Street, Kampus UI, Depok, Jawa Barat 16424, Indonesia. 2Electrical Engineering Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Prof. Dr. G.A Siwabessy Street, Kampus UI, Depok, Jawa Barat 16424, Indonesia. *[email protected] Abstract. Research related to the provision of magnetic field strength in the flow of fuel that can cause more complete combustion has been reported by many researchers and most of these observations were carried out by measuring machine performance using a dynamometer. Given the dynamometer prices are very expensive then another way to prove the occurrence of complete combustion is through the combustion chamber indicator. The hypothesis is the greater magnetic field passed by fuel, the more perfect the combustion is. In addition, the combustion chamber temperature also increases and thermal efficiency increases. The fuel used is biodiesel derived from cooking oil waste, biodiesel 100% (denoted as B0), a blend of biodiesel (20%)-diesel (80%) (denoted as B20), a blend of biodiesel (40%)-diesel (60%) (denoted as B40), a blend of biodiesel (30%)-diesel (30%) (denoted as B70), and diesel 100% (denoted as B100). The magnetic field used is 500 Gauss, 900 Gauss and 1500 Gauss. Measurement of combustion temperature is using R type temperature sensor, which is connected to the NI USB interface to computer and LabVIEW for data acquisition. 13 HP capacity of diesel engine was used. The results obtained is 13 % temperature increase in the combustion chamber of the engine and 7 - 12% thermal efficiency increase equipped with a magnet compared to a non-magnetic engine. Keywords: cooking oil waste, temperature, magnetic field, engine performance. 1. Introduction Fuel oil is a non-renewable energy source that will eventually run out in the future. Efforts to overcome this situation are by saving fuel use or finding alternative energy sources. Several studies have been carried out in order to save energy through increasing combustion efficiency, including mixing additives in fuels which increase octane and cetane values, effective combustion processes and increased engine power [1]. Fuel magnetization, by installing a permanent magnet on the fuel line to the combustion chamber, decrease 9% to 30% of fuel consumption, reduced 5% to 32% of HC exhaust emissions and reduce 5 to 34.3% of CO exhaust emissions [2-9]. However, both emissions produce chemical additives that contain metal elements that are harmful for human health. Other studies tried using installed electromagnetic fields on gasoline or diesel engines to minimize fuel consumption by 12.8% to 30% and reduce levels of HC exhaust emissions by 44-58% and CO decrease by 35-80% [10-12]. This electromagnetic field does not contain harmful element and safe to used in diesel engine vehicles [7,8,13,14]. ContentfromthisworkmaybeusedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0licence.Anyfurtherdistribution ofthisworkmustmaintainattributiontotheauthor(s )andthetitleofthework,journalcitationandDOI. P ublishedunderlicencebyIOPPublishingLtd 1 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Technology IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering924 (2020) 012030 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012030 The hypothesis is based on the theory of electric magnets by Bio-Savart, where when the magnetic field is given to a substance, its atoms will be oriented parallel to the direction of the magnetic field, and the vibration produced by this electromagnetic field causes wide distance between molecules hence fuel and oxygen will react easily, therefore a more perfect combustion occurs. The purpose of this study is to analyze the effect of temperature and pressure on a diesel engine performance. 2. Experimental Methods 2.1. Materials The data was obtained by direct observation and measurement in the field. The experiment was conducted in the Energy Conversion and Heavy Equipment Laboratory, Jakarta State Polytechnic, on June 2018-August 2018. Instruments were calibrated and installed as shown in Figure 1. A 3-cylinder generator (Perkin 403D-15) with a power of 13.5 HP. The independent variables in this test are fuel composition (B0, B10, B30, B50, and B100 type) and variations in electromagnetic field (500 Gauss, 900 Gauss and 1500 Gauss). The dependent variable for this performance test is fuel consumption, temperature, and combustion chamber pressure. Figure 1. Flowchart of the generator set testing with load bank. 2.2. Sample preparation The magnitude of fuel consumption, temperature, pressure and exhaust emissions was observed. Diesel engine rotation was measured with a Digital Tachometer. Temperature and pressure sensors were positioned to insert into the combustion chamber. Data result from temperature and pressure sensors were stored in data bases through NI USB 6009 and NI USB 9213 interface. The results were displayed on a laptop equipped with LabVIEW program. The test was started by turning on Perkin P135-4 diesel engine at 1550 rpm and left for ± 10 minutes to get the engine's normal working temperature. Fuel consumption is calculated based on the difference in the fuel level on measuring cup that connected to the fuel tank, per time unit. Measurement and recording of fuel consumption was carried out five times, on each time fuel and electromagnetic field changes. The temperature and pressure of the combustion chamber are observed through a pressure sensor capable of measuring up to 750 Psi and a R type temperature sensor capable of measuring up to 1750oC. Both sensors are connected to the data logger for pressure and temperature on each NI USB 6009 and NI USB 9213 interface. The data sampling is 400 data/second. The results of temperature (T) and pressure measurement data are used to calculate the thermal efficiency of the engine using Equation (1). 2 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Technology IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering924 (2020) 012030 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012030 1 T −T Η = 1 − ( 4 1) (1) th k T −T 3 2 where : η is thermal efficiency; T is temperature at point 1 (K); T is temperature at point 2 (K); T is th 1 2 3 temperature at point 3 (K); T is temperature at point 4 (K); Cp is heat capacity at constant pressure 4 (kJ/kg.K); Cv is heat capacity at constant volume (kJ/kg.K); k = (Cp/Cv) is specific heat ratio. Thermal efficiency is the amount of utilization of heat energy stored in fuel to be converted into effective power by an internal combustion motor. Thermal efficiency is calculated using P-V and T-S diagrams. (a) (b) Figure 2. (a) P–V and (b) T–S Diagram. Fuel condition data results were compared before and after magnetization. The data then processed quantitatively in the form of several graphs, namely the graph of thermal efficiency of the load, graph of the temperature of the combustion chamber against time, and graph of combustion pressure against time. 3. Results and discussion Diesel engine performance is indicated by fuel consumption, specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency and exhaust emissions. Therefore, research data leads to these indicators. Every data is presented and analyzed in graphical form. Pressure and Temperature in the combustion chamber will make an oxidation reaction between fuel and air (oxygen) which produce heat. The fuel will burn perfectly when there is sufficient oxygen supply (O ). The amount of oxygen reaches 20.9% of the air, 2 79% is nitrogen (N ) and the rest are other elements such as argon, helium, neon, krypton, carbon 2 dioxide, hydrogen, xenon, and others. Complete combustion of hydrocarbon compounds will form carbon dioxide and water vapor, while incomplete combustion forms carbon monoxide. Figure 3. Relationship between pressure in the combustion chamber and time at 2200 rpm. 3 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Technology IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering924 (2020) 012030 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012030 The measurement of combustion chamber pressure was done to calculate thermal efficiency which is one of the engine performance indicators. Figure 3 shows the relationship between pressure in a combustion chamber and time for diesel fuel without magnetization. The graph data is obtained at 2200 rpm engine speed or equal to 36.67 rps, considering that 1 combustion cycle = 2 revolutions, for the engine speed of 2200 rpm there are 19 cycles in one second, hence the time of each cycle is 0.05 seconds and pressure of 525 Psi. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Figure 4. Relationship between pressure in the combustion chamber and the crank shaft angle on various types of fuel (a) B0 (b) B10 (c) B20 (d) B40 & (e) B100. 4 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Technology IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering924 (2020) 012030 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012030 Figure 4 shows the relationship between pressure in the combustion chamber and the crank shaft angle on various types of fuel. This graph is obtained by converting Figure 3, which is on the x-axis from time to angle of the crank shaft. It shows that the greater the magnetic field exerted on the fuel the greater pressure that occurs in the combustion chamber. This is caused by the magnetized fuel causing the fuel molecule to vibrate and becomes unstable. This has an effect on the reduced attraction between the atoms causes the molecular affinity energy to be smaller, then the fuel molecule is more and easier to react with oxygen, and finally the combustion process becomes more homogeneous and the fuel burns more as a result the pressure becomes greater. More bioethanol mixture in gasoline causes the pressure to decrease, because although bioethanol has a high octane value, the power produced by the engine is getting smaller. At the compression pressure there is a slight turn. This shows that at the time of the spraying of fuel has a lower pressure than the compressed air so that the pressure at that time did not rise and the time is very fast Figure 5 presents a graph of the relationship between temperature in the combustion chamber and time, the same as in Figure 2 that the graph is obtained at engine speed of 2200 rpm or equal to 36.67 rps, given that 1 combustion cycle = 2 cycles, so for 2200 rpm engine speed there are 19 cycles in one second, and each cycle takes about 0.05 seconds and a temperature of 10500C. Figure 5. Relationship between temperature in the combustion chamber and time. Figure 6 presents a graph of the relationship between the temperature in the combustion chamber and the crank shaft angle, this graph is obtained by converting Figure 5 is on the x-axis of time into the crank shaft angle. The greater the magnetic field applied to the fuel, the greater the temperature that occurs in the combustion chamber. This is caused by the magnetized fuel which causes the fuel molecule to vibrate more and becomes unstable, this has an effect on the reduced force attraction between atoms which results in smaller energy affinity of molecules, and more fuel molecules and easier to react with oxygen, finally the combustion process becomes more homogeneous and more fuel is burned and the pressure becomes greater. More bioethanol mixture in gasoline causes the temperature to decrease, because although bioethanol has a high octane value, the power produced by the engine is smaller. 5 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Technology IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering924 (2020) 012030 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012030 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Figure 6. Relationship between temperature in the combustion chamber and crank shaft angle with fuel variation, (a) B0 (b) B10 (c) B20 (d) B40 and (e) B100. Figure 7 present a graph of the relationship between pressure and temperature with respect to crank shaft angle. The temperature value is determined with the help of the intersection of the temperature graph with respect to time and dashed lines. One cycle has 4 steps, therefore one cycle in Figure 7 is divided by 4 equal dashes line hence the T1(ᵒC) value is the lowest temperature because air from outside enters the combustion chamber. Under these conditions both temperature and pressure are at the lowest value. T2 (ᵒC) is the compression temperature where all valves are closed, so T2> T1. Furthermore T3 (ᵒC) is the combustion temperature at the pressure and the temperature is at the highest position and T4 (ᵒC) is the exhaust temperature, where at this position the pressure will start to fall, while the temperature is higher than the temperature T1. Furthermore, the value of k is calculated using equation (1). 6 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Technology IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering924 (2020) 012030 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012030 (a) (c) (b) Figure 7. (a) Graph of 1 diesel cycle expressed by (a) pressure with respect to crank angle (b) temperature with respect to crank angle and (c) PV & TS graphs. Figure 8 shows the relationship between thermal efficiency and the types of fuels that are magnetized and non-magnetized. The magnetized fuel has a higher thermal efficiency than non- magnetized fuel. Fuel magnetization functions to break down clumping fuel molecules into non- clumping and polarize fuel molecules. This has the effect of mixing the fuel and air more homogeneously therefore the fuel that burns more and combustion becomes perfect, and thermal efficiency increases. Figure 8. Relationship between thermal efficiency with fuels. The increase of the percentage of biodiesel mixture in diesel fuel causes a decrease in the value of thermal efficiency. The decrease in the value of thermal efficiency due to the high viscosity value of biodiesel makes its ability to form a homogeneous mixtures with air to be low. This causes 7 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Technology IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering924 (2020) 012030 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012030 combustion to be less perfect and thermal efficiency becomes lower. The increased in thermal efficiency ranges from 7 to 12% The addition of the percentage of biodiesel mixture in diesel fuel causes a decrease in the value of thermal efficiency. The decrease in the value of thermal efficiency due to the high value of biodiesel viscosity makes its ability to form a homogeneous mixture with air to be low. This causes combustion to be less than perfect and the thermal efficiency becomes lower. The increase in thermal efficiency ranges from 9.2-18.3%. The results of the thermal efficiency calculation are shown in Figure 8. 4. Conclusion Fuel magnetization causes an increase in temperature and pressure in the combustion chamber increase by 13% and in thermal efficiency by of 7 to 12%. In conclusion, fuel magnetization increase engine performance. Acknowledgment This research was supported by the Ministry of Research and Technology of Indonesia and Jakarta State Polytechnic References [1] Fayyazbakhsh A and Pirouzfar V 2016 Investigating the influence of additives-fuel on diesel engine performance and emissions: Analytical modeling and experimental validation FUEL 171 167-177 [2] Govindasamy P and Dhandapani S 2007 Experimental investigation of cyclic variation of combustion parameters in catalytically activated and magnetically energised two-stroke SI engine Journal of Energy & Environment 6 (4) pp 561-569 [3] Faris AS et al 2012 Effects of magnetic field on fuel consumption and exhaust emissions in two- stroke engine Elsevier Energy Procedia 18 pp 327–338 [4] Jain S and Deshmukh S 2012 Experimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner in I.C. Engine IOSR Journal of Engineering 2 (7) pp 27-31 [5] Singh AK and Solank RM 2013 Investigation of fuel saving in annealing lehr through magnetic material fuel sarver International Journal of Science and Research 6 (14) pp 178-180 [6] Patel P et al 2014 Effect of magnetic field on performance and emission of single cylinder four stroke diesel engine Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) 4 (5) pp. 28-34 [7] Kumar PV et al 2014 Experimental study of a novel magnetic fuel ionization method in four stroke diesel engines International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Research, 3 (1) [8] Kolhe AV et al 2014 Performance and combustion characteristic of DI diesel engine fueled with jatropha methyl esters and its blends Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering 8 (1) pp 7-12 [9] Chaware K 2015 Review on effect of fuel magnetism by varying intensity on performance and emission of single cylinder four stroke diesel engine International Journal of Engineering Research 3 pp 174-178 [10] Okoronkwo C et al 2010 The effect of electromagnetic flux density on the ionization and the combustion of fuel American Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 1 (3) pp 527-534 [11] Habbo AR et al 2011 Effect of magnetizing the fuel on the performance of an S.I. engine”. Journal Al Rafidain Engineering 6 (19) pp 84-90 [12] Siregar H and Nainggolan R 2012 Electromagnetic fuel saver for enhanching the performance of the diesel engine Global Journal of Research in Engineering Mechanical and Mechanics Engineering. Global Journal Inc (USA) 12 (6) pp 1-4 [13] Gaikwad DR and Dange HM 2014 Experimental investigation of four stroke si engine using oxyrich air energizer for improving its performance International of Technology Enhancement Enginnering Research 2 (7) pp 2347-2354. 8 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Technology IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering924 (2020) 012030 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012030 [14] Salih AM and Al-Rawaf MA 2015 The effect of increasing of diesel fuel temperature upon the engine performance by using two magnetic fields International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science 4 (3) pp 170-185 9"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Contextual research on the effect of electromagnetic flux density in the fuel ionization process, a key factor in MHD technologies [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le champ électromagnétique est utilisé pour ioniser le carburant et améliorer la combustion."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "p-ISSN 1693-1246 Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika Indonesia 16 (1) (2020) 57-62 e-ISSN 2355-3812 DOI: 10.15294/jpfi.v16i1.17491 June 2020 http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/jpfi Impact of Magnetic Field Strengthening on Combustion Performance of Low-Octane Fuel in Two-Stroke Engine N. A. Wibowo1,3*, S. M. Utami1, C. A. Riyanto2,3, A. Setiawan1,3 1Department of Physics, Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana, Indonesia 2Department of Chemistry, Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana, Indonesia 3Study Center for Multidisciplinary Applied Research and Technology, Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana, Indonesia Received: 30 January 2020. Accepted: 26 March 2020. Published: 30 June 2020 ABSTRACT The impacts of strengthening magnetic field exposure on combustion performance of low-octane fuel have been examined experimentally. The combustion test was carried out using a 2-stroke 49 cc engine where the fuel was magnetized using a low magnetic field (<2 kG). Moreover, the molecular behavior of magnetized fuel was also characterized through spectrum tests using NIR and UV-Vis spectrophotometers. The result of this study indicates an exponential decrease of magnetized fuel consumption against the strengthening of magnetic field exposure. This exponential decrease of consumption can be related to the Arrhenius principle. In addition, the decrease of oxygen in the exhaust gas along with the strengthening of the magnetic field also confirms the increase of combustion reactions. Meanwhile, the increase of magnetized fuel absorption against ultraviolet and near-infrared lights along with the increase of the magnetic field intensity indicates a bond weakening, accompanied by the increase of molecular vibrational energy. Keywords: Combustion; Fuel; Magnetic; NIR; UV-Vis INTRODUCTION of magnetized fuel (Okoronkwo et al, 2010). The use of magnetized fuel has been believed Although diversification of the driving to increase engine combustion performance, energy sources of motor vehicles has been observed from the reduced fuel consumption. proposed, such as the use of electric batteries, This is based on several previous studies (Faris fossil fuel has still been the main energy used. et al., 2012; Mane & Sawant, 2015; Vivek, Nik- Considering the limited supply of non-rene- hil, & Lutade, 2013), which stated that by using wable fossil fuel sources, various efforts have fuel exposed to strong magnetic fields (>2 kG), been made to make the use of this fuel type combustion performance on the engine would more efficient. In his writing published in SAE increase. However, technically, the use of lar- International, Abdel-Rehim & Attia (2014) sta- ge magnetic fields is not relevant enough to be ted that efficiency of fuel consumption and level applied to motor vehicles. In addition to having of pollutants in exhaust gas were determined an impact on the performance of other electro- by the completion level of combustion process nic instruments, it also requires enormous po- in an engine. Therefore, an effort to improve wer to generate such a strong field. combustion performance is an urgent issue The significance of the impacts of because it is not only related to the limited mi- magnetic field exposure on combustion per- neral resources, but also to the environmental formance is influenced by several aspects, pollution. namely type and volume of machine (Jain & Various methods have been carried out Deshmukh, 2012), workload or engine rota- to optimize combustion performance. One of tion (Faris et al., 2012), duration of exposure the promising methods in reducing exhaust gas (Abdel-Rehim & Attia, 2014), and type of fuel emission as well as fuel consumption is the use (Abdel-Rehim & Attia, 2014; Tao & Xu, 2006). Although some experiments have proven the *Correspondence Address: Jl. Diponegoro 52-60 Salatiga 50711 impacts of exposure, the fundamental reason E-mail: [email protected] that causes the use of fuel exposed to the field 58 Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika Indonesia 16 (1) (2020) 57-62 to increase the completion level of combustion tic fields. Neodymium N35 permanent magnet has not been yet known with certainty. There- was used as the source of magnetic field. This fore, research to obtain information related to type of magnet was chosen because its field the physical characteristics of fuel after being intensity is quite large. In the distance range of exposed to magnetic fields, both its energy and 1.5-16 cm, the field intensity is in the range of molecular motion, has become particularly im- 6-1600 Gauss. To measure the intensity of this portant to be conducted to provide fundamental magnetic field, a DX-103 Gaussmeter magne- knowledge more comprehensively. tic sensor was used with a sensitivity level of The molecular physical characteristics 0.1 Gauss. The experimental scheme is shown of a liquid, whose main constituent molecules in Figure 1. are hydrocarbons (HC), such as fuel, can be Characterization of molecular physical identified using spectrum measuring devices properties of magnetized fuel was carried out such as UV-Vis (Ultraviolet-Visible) (Silva et through spectrum investigations. To observe al., 2015) and NIR (Near-Infrared) spectropho- the existence of molecular vibrational motion, tometers. These two spectrophotometers have an NIR spectrophotometer was used. To inves- advantages in terms of ease of sample prepa- tigate the molecular binding energy, a UV-Vis ration and speed of analysis (Lachenal & Oza- spectrophotometer was used. ki, 1999; Pasquini, 2003; Silva et al., 2015). At the combustion performance test sta- The first objective of this study is to de- ge, the magnetized fuel in a closed oil tank was termine the impacts of strengthening of the flowed through a plastic hose to a test engine magnetic field exposure (<2 kG) on the comp- whose workload had been set. The engine letion level of combustion of low-octane fuel. workload was measured by its rotation speed. Considering that the exhaust gas content also In this study, four different levels of workload indicates the completion level of combustion were used. The combustion performance exa- (Chalid et al., 2005), the measurement of the mination was carried out by observing the fuel completion level of combustion is not only vie- consumption level and O content in the ex- 2 wed from the amount of fuel consumption, but haust gas. The O content in the exhaust gas 2 also from the oxygen (O ) content in the ex- was measured in real-time using a sensor con- 2 haust gas. In this study, O is a gas element nected to the data acquisition and a computer 2 which was measured directly because of its through the interface and control devices. important contribution in the combustion pro- cess (Schell, Schram, & Ross, 1988). The se- cond objective of this study is to examine the impacts of strengthening of the magnetic field exposure on the molecular characteristics of fuel through observation of the fuel absorbance or transmittance level in the spectrum of UV-Vis and NIR rays. METHOD In this study, a 2-stroke engine with a cy- linder capacity of 49 cc was used as a testing engine. This type of machine was chosen due Image captions: to its simpler working system (only 2 steps) that 1. Rubber cover 8. Exhaust gas tube 2. Oil tank (1 mm scale) 9. Multi-sensor allows a faster combustion process with more 3. Fuel 10. Data acquisition fuel consumption. The fuel used a premium 4. Neodymium N35 magnet 11. Interface and control 5. Plastic hose 12. Computer equipped with data type of low-octane fuel mixed with 2-stroke en- 6. 2-stroke 49 CC engine control and processing software 7. Gas drain gine oil with a ratio of 20:1. The changes in fuel Figure 1. Experimental scheme consumption levels are expected to be more observable at short burning time intervals (in RESULT AND DISCUSSION minute order) by combining the use of simple engine and low-octane fuel. Fuel is mainly composed of the HC chain. To observe the impacts of strengthening Naturally, HC molecules experience inter-mole- of the magnetic field exposure, the fuel was cular interactions in the form of attraction. This magnetized with various intensities of magne- N. A. Wibowo, S. M. Utami, C. A. Riyanto, A. Setiawan - Impact of Magnetic Field 59 interaction has an impact on the cluster forma- ity, which is influenced by binding energy (Faris tion of relatively strong HC molecules, which is et al., 2012), to decrease after being exposed often called clustering (Hamdhani et al., 2016). to magnetic fields. The high absorbance, which An understanding of the molecular energy in- indicates higher vibrational frequency, refers volved and its modification is important in an to lower molecular bonds, so that the energy effort to optimize the combustion reaction. needed to break the inter-atomic bonds is also lower. The increase of fuel absorbance inten- Spectrum Test sity along with the strengthening of magnetic field exposure indicates the weakening of mo- lecular binding power (Nufus et al., 2017b). Every time electromagnetic wave hits a compound, the energy carried by this wave has an opportunity to excite electrons in the com- pound to the energy level above. If the amount of energy carried by this wave is equivalent to the energy gap, then the electrons will absorb the electromagnetic wave with the correspond- ing wavelength. The energy carried by the electromagnetic wave in the UV-Visible spec- trum is high enough so that the absorbance Figure 2. Spectrum curves of fuel transmit- in this spectrum can be related to orbital elec- tance scanned with NIR spectroscopy tronic transitions from ground state to excited state (Schmid, 2001). In the UV-Visible spec- Figure 2 shows the spectrum cur- trum range, the absorbance of organic matter ves of fuel transmittance, scanned with NIR is dominated by electronic transitions of energy spectrophotometer, of the fuel exposed to mag- levels of π (bonding) to the level above π* (non- netic fields. At three different levels of magnetic bonding) (Antosiewicz & Shugar, 2016; Clark, field intensity, the spectrum curves of fuel show 2016; Shah et al., 2015). The higher the absor- similar shapes. This indicates that the magnetic bance is, the greater the chance of excitation of field exposure to the given range does not mo- π→π*is. This electronic excitation plays a dify the chemical structure of the fuel. However, big role in the process of molecular radicaliza- there is a difference in the level of transmittan- tion as a consequence of the bond weakening ce at high energy (8800 – 10000 cm-1). Trans- between C atoms. Thus, the HC molecules re- mittance in the range of this wave numbers is act more easily with O . In other words, absor- 2 related to molecular vibrations of HC (Yu et bance intensity level of UV-Vis light is related al., 2018). When the magnetic field exposure to molecular binding power. (Faris et al., 2012) is stronger, the transmittance intensity decrea- Figure 3 (a) shows the intensity of mag- ses. This decrease is caused by the increasing netized fuel absorbance scanned using a UV- number of electromagnetic waves absorbed by Vis spectrophotometer. Within the given spec- the HC molecules. The relation between trans- trum range, there are four absorbance peaks. It mittance (T) and absorbance (A) is expressed is observed that in the wavelength range of 290 in the following Beer-Lambert equation: – 390 nm (UV), the absorbance level of magne- A = −logT (1) tized fuel changes against the intensity of the inducing magnetic field. This indicates an im- The absorbed electromagnetic energy is pact of the intensity of magnetic field exposure used to increase the molecular vibrational ener- on the characteristics of fuel absorption in UV. gy. This increase of vibrational energy indicates The absorption level of UV from magnetized the occurrence of polarization and adjustments fuel increases along with the strengthening of in dipole moments due to displacement and al- the magnetic field intensity. This result is in line terations of the magnetic moment orientation of with previous studies (Faris et al., 2012). It is the HC molecules. also shown in Figure 3 (b) that the absorbance The vibrational frequency of HC mol- intensity of each peak also increases along ecules determines the amount of molecular with the strengthening of the magnetic field. binding energy. The higher the frequency is, the This pattern of increase is confirmed by the weaker the bond gets. This causes fuel viscos- absorbance spectrum examination previously performed by Nufus with FTIR spectrophotom- 60 Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika Indonesia 16 (1) (2020) 57-62 eter in the magnetic field exposure range of 0 The impact of strengthening of magnetic – 1500 Gauss (Nufus et al., 2017a). field exposure on fuel consumption is presented in Figure 4. Fuel consumption decreases along with the magnetic field strengthening. This re- sult is in line with the research conducted by Guo (n.d), where at field exposure of <2 kG, the decline rate of viscosity increases dramatically. As discussed earlier, fuel viscosity is related to molecular bonds and affects combustion per- formance. The decrease of fuel consumption occurs because the energy of the HC molecu- les in the fuel experiences an increase in the form of magnetic energy. This increase of ener- gy narrows the energy gap, making it easier to excite molecules at higher energy level and cause the weakening of molecular bonds. This increase of molecular energy occurs because of changes in the magnetic moment orientati- on. Figure 3. (a) Absorbance spectrum of UV-Vis from magnetized fuel, (b). Absorbance intensity Figure 4. Impact of strengthening of magnetic of the peaks field exposure on fuel consumption Combustion Efficiency Test Molecular magnetic energy exposed to In general, combustion process is an in- external magnetic field is expressed by Equa- teraction between HC molecules of fuel and O tion 3: 2 with the following chemical equation: (Schell et (3) al., 1988) CH +2O →CO + 2H O with μ and H respectively are vectors 4 2 2 2 (2) of magnetic moments and external magnetic field. When the direction of the magnetic mo- The heat generated by the reaction is ments changes due to external magnetic field used to drive the motor. Naturally, the interac- exposure, the energy difference can be calcu- tion between O and C atom in HC molecules 2 lated using the following equation: faces problems due to the inter-molecular HC bonds (molecular clustering). Theoretically, if (4) the inter-molecular HC bond is weakened, the distance between molecules will extend and O This energy difference will reach its max- 2 will reach the C atom more easily and react, imum value if the directions of μ and μ are 1 2 so that the combustion process will be more opposite to each other. The increase of energy, optimal. The optimum combustion process will followed by the weakening of molecular bonds, improve engine performance, thus making the will extend the distance between molecules, fuel consumption more efficient. thus increasing the probability of HC molecules N. A. Wibowo, S. M. Utami, C. A. Riyanto, A. Setiawan - Impact of Magnetic Field 61 to react with O . In sum, exposure to magnetic 2 field causes de-clustering of HC molecules. The physical behavior of magnetized HC mol- ecules is illustrated in Figure 5. Figure 6. Impact of strengthening of magnetic field exposure on O content in exhaust gas Figure 5. Physical behavior of magnetized HC 2 emission molecules From Figure 6, it is also observed that It is also observed from Figure 4 that the O emission will decrease when the engine magnetized fuel consumption decreases expo- 2 load increases. This result is supported by Tao nentially against the increase of magnetic field (2006) who, in his research, found that oil vis- intensity. This exponential decrease of con- cosity will decrease as the engine rotates fas- sumption can be explained using the following ter. This decrease in viscosity indicates a bond Arrhenius principle: weakening between molecules, which results  −E  in an increase of reaction between the HC mo- N ~exp  k T  lecules and O . B (5) 2 with N, E, k , and T respectively are the B CONCLUSION number of molecules, energy gap, Boltzman constant, and absolute temperature (Nufus et The impacts of strengthening of magnetic al., 2017a). At fixed temperature and increa- field exposure on low-octane fuel on the comp- sing magnetic energy, the energy gap will dec- letion level of combustion engine of a 2-stroke rease so that the number of reacting molecules engine with cylinder of 49 cc have been stu- increases. Drastic decrease of fuel consumpti- died. The result of this study indicates that st- on occurs at low magnetic field exposure and rengthening of the magnetic field exposure can starts to slope slightly on larger magnetic field. improve the completion level of combustion This shows that at larger magnetic field expos- process by increasing the chance of reaction ure, the magnetic moment is almost saturated between hydrocarbon molecules and oxygen. so that the molecular magnetic energy approa- The increase of reaction between hydrocarbon ches its maximum value. molecules and oxygen arises because of the Figure 6 shows the amount of O in 2 bond weakening, accompanied by the increase the exhaust gas at various magnetic field in- of molecular vibrational energy. tensities with four different engine loads. The Based on the investigation resuts and amount of O in the exhaust gas decreases 2 characterization carried out, it is necessary to along with the strengthening of the magnetic optimize the design of magnetic field sources, field. According to the basic reaction of com- both in terms of geometry and source type bustion (Equation 2), this decrease indicates (using permanent magnets or coils). Optimi- the increased amount of O that reacts with the 2 zing the placement of magnetic resources in HC molecules. This result also confirms other the system also needs to be done for it to be results previously described in this paper (Figu- technically applied. In addition, further studies res 2, 3, and 4) that strengthening of the mag- are needed regarding the long-term impacts of netic field exposure increases the completion magnetic field exposure on combustion perfor- level of combustion. mance. 62 Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika Indonesia 16 (1) (2020) 57-62 REFERENCES donesia, 13(2), 119–126. doi:10.15294/jpfi. v13i2.9477 Abdel-Rehim, A. A., & Attia, A. A. A. (2014). Nufus, T. H., Setiawan, R. P. A., Hermawan, W., & Does Magnetic Fuel Treatment Affect En- Tambunan, A. H. (2017b). Characterization gine’s Performance? (SAE Technical Pa- of Biodiesel Fuel and its Blend after Elec- per). Warrendale, PA: SAE International. tromagnetic Exposure. Cogent Engineering, doi:/10.4271/2014-01-1398 4(1), 1362839. doi:10.1080/23311916.2017. Antosiewicz, J. M., & Shugar, D. (2016). UV–Vis 1362839 Spectroscopy of Tyrosine Side-Groups in Okoronkwo C. A., Nwachukwu, C.C., Ngozi –Olehi Studies of Protein Structure. Part 1: Basic L.C., & Igbokwe, J.O. (2010). 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Experimental study of premixed combustion of vegetable oil under the influence of an N45 magnet (11,000 Gauss), analyzing the impact of field orientation on flame geometry and stability [189, Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'orientation du champ magnétique (11000 Gauss) influence directement la qualité de la flamme des biocarburants lourds."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Hindawi Journal of Combustion Volume 2020, Article ID 2145353, 11 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2145353 Research Article The Role of Magnetic Field Orientation in Vegetable Oil Premixed Combustion Dony Perdana ,1,2 Lilis Yuliati,1 Nurkholis Hamidi ,1 and I. N. G. Wardana 1 1Departmentof MechanicalEngineering,BrawijayaUniversity,JalanMayjend Haryono167,Malang65145, Indonesia 2Departmentof MechanicalEngineeringMaarif,Hasyim LatifUniversity,Sidoarjo61257,Indonesia CorrespondenceshouldbeaddressedtoDonyPerdana;[email protected];[email protected] Received 6 September 2019; Accepted 6 January 2020; Published 28 January 2020 AcademicEditor:BruceChehroudi Copyright©2020DonyPerdanaetal.ThisisanopenaccessarticledistributedundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense, whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited. Thisstudyobservedtheinfluenceofmagneticfieldorientationonthepremixedcombustionofvegetableoil.Theresultsshowthat themagneticfieldincreasedthelaminarburningvelocitybecausethespinofelectronbecamemoreenergeticandchangesthespin ofhydrogenprotonfromparatoortho.Theincreaseofflamespeedbecamelargeronvegetableoilwithstrongerelectricpoles.The attractionmagneticfieldgivesthestrongesteffectagainsttheincreaseofflamespeedandmakesflamestabilitylimitwidertoward leanequivalenceratio.ThisisbecauseO withtheparamagneticnatureispumpedmorecrossingflamefromthesouthpole(S)to 2 northpole(N)whereastheheatenergycarriedbyH Ofromthereactionproductwiththediamagneticnatureispumpedmore 2 crossing flame in the N pole to the S pole. This made the combustion close to Lewis number equal to unity, whereas in the repulsion magnetic poles, S-S, more O is pumped into the flame while more heat is pumped out of the flame, and thus, 2 combustionintheflameisleanerandreactionsarenotoptimal.Conversely,atN-Npoles,moreheatcarriedbyH Owaspumped 2 intotheflamewhilemoreO waspumpedoutoftheflame.Asaresult,combustionintheflameisricherandthereactionisalso 2 not optimal.Asaconsequence,the velocityofthe laminarflame atthe repellingpoles islower thanthatofattracting poles. 1.Introduction low volatility which can cause large deposits on the engine and injectors and stick to the piston rings [8, 9]. Such Oilisthelargestsourceofenergyconsumedbytheworld’s problems have been explained in the literature such as population,surpassingnaturalgas,coal,nuclearenergy,and clogged filters and deposits in combustion chambers [10]. renewable materials. Due to the reduction in petroleum Various solutions are proposed: resources coupled with increased energy consumption and (i) Mixing vegetable oil with diesel oil in different thenegativeenvironmentalimpactoftheuseoffossilfuels, proportions there has been a shift towards alternative, renewable, sus- tainable, efficient, cost-effective, and pollution-reducing (ii) Heating vegetable oil energy sources [1, 2]. On the other hand, engineers and (iii) Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) researchers have been struggling to improve engine per- (iv) Modifying the combustion chamber (piston, in- formance through improved combustion processes to im- jector, etc.) prove efficiency and reduce emissions. There are many studies on the characteristics of vege- Anumberofvegetableoilssuchascarameloil,rapeseed table oil combustion or its derivatives and its use in diesel oil,ricebranoil,cottonseedoil,sunfloweroil,andcastoroil enginehasbeencarriedoutforfourdecades.Thesestudies havebeeninvestigatedasdieselenginefuels[11–13].Studies have shown vegetable oil behavior is similar to diesel oil haveshown,overashortperiodoftime,vegetableoilworks behavior [3–7]. However, the use of pure vegetable oil for satisfactorilyonunmodifieddieselengines.Vegetableoilhas diesel engines is still problematic due to high viscosity and ahighviscosityduetomolecularweightandlargemolecular 2 JournalofCombustion structure [14]. The viscosity of liquid fuels influences the combustion stability in a magnetic field which strongly flow properties as well as spray atomization, evaporation, supports the combustion process of vegetable oil in the andformationofair/fuelmixtures.Higherviscosityalsohas engine to be more efficient. an adverse effect on the combustion of vegetable oils on Thepurposeofthispaperistorevealtheroleofmagnetic dieselengines,fuelpumps,andinjectors.Vegetableoilshave fieldsinpremixedcombustioninvariousorientationsofthe a higher percentage of oxygen, density, and viscosity. magnetic field in pure vegetable oil fuels with various Vegetableoilmustbeheatedbeforeitisusedincombustion equivalence ratios. [15].Experimentalresultshaveshownthatpurejatrophaoil whichisheatedhascombustioncharacteristicsthatareclose 2.Literature Review and Problem Statement to diesel fuel [16]. Because of the shortcomings experienced when using Manystudieshaveshownthatmagneticfieldhasapositive vegetableoils,someresearchershavefocusedandworkedon effect on the process of combustion, and thus, it would applyingmagneticfieldstodieselenginestoreducepollution repair the system performance. Combustion engines rep- emissions and save fuel. The effect of the magnetic field resentthemainsectionofhydrocarbonfuelconsumption. increasesengineefficiencyand reducespollutionemissions Generally, fuel for internal combustion engines is hydro- caused by increases in fuel atomization [17]. Previously, carbon molecule substance. Every molecule consists of a severalstudieshaveevaluatedtheeffectofmagneticfieldson number of hydrogen and carbon atoms. Hydrogen atom the performance of diesel engines and gasoline engines in has one proton with one electron orbiting around the termsofpollutionandenergyemissions[18–22],whileother proton, whereas carbon atom has a nucleus with six pollution control devices are placed in further combustion electrons orbiting around the nucleus. Ionization and re- areas, using magnetic fields placed in the fuel lines before organizationareachievedthroughtheuseofthemagnetic combustion. The content value of NOx, HC, and CO , re- field[28].Magneticfieldisusedtoionizefueltobebaited 2 spectively, decreased by 8%, 27.7%, 30%, and 9.99% infuel to combustion devices, ensuring that the combustion is consumption, when using a 2000gauss magnetic field on a perfect, saving fuel and maximizing efficiency. four-cylinder one-stroke diesel engine [22]. The use of a Themagneticfieldtendstobreakthehydrocarbonfuel 5000gauss magnetic field achieved a reduction in HC and moleculesgivingrisetoshortermoleculesleadingtobetter COemissionsof12%,22%,and7%infuelconsumption,but combustion.Magneticfieldtendstoinducefuelmolecules an increase in NOX and CO of 19% and 7%, respectively to improve the mixing of oxygen with fuel [19]. Magnetic 2 [23]. The increase of the magnetic field up to 9000 gauss field induces electron that tends to make molecules have reducesCOandHCto30%and40%,respectively,andfuel positive and negative electrical charges. Therefore, mag- consumptiontoaround9to14%,however,CO increasesup neticorientationcouldorganizethechargethatallowsfast 2 to10%[19].Amagneticfieldwithanintensityof1000gauss binding with oxygen. As a result, combustion of hydro- on a compression engine affects fuel ionization, thereby carbon fuels becomes more complete and faster [29]. reducing pollution emissions and increasing thermal effi- Liquidfuelsconsistofchemicalcompoundsofcarbonand ciency caused by increased combustion efficiency [24]. The hydrogenatoms.Averystablefuelstructuredoesnotallow effect of the magnetic field on the performance of a four- oxygenatomstopenetrateintotheinteriorduringtheair- stroke one-cylinder compression ignition engine was ob- fuel mixing process. Therefore, there is an incomplete served by installing a 5000gauss intensity magnet on the combustion process [30]. outersurfaceofthefuelpipe.Theresultsshowthatmagnetic Hydrogen atoms in fuel are arranged in two forms of fields reduce HC and CO emissions but increase CO and paraandorthoisomers.Effectivearrangementofhydrogen 2 NOX[25].Themagnetismountedonafuelpipewhichhas atoms leads to efficient combustion. The ortho state of an intensity of 2000gauss reducing fuel consumption and hydrogen atom is developed by placing a strong magnetic emissions (CO , CO, NOX, and HC) [21]. The role of the fieldintothefuellines[31].Intheparastate,therotationof 2 magnetic field intensity of 1000–4000gauss in the effec- one atom relative to the other is in the opposite direction, tiveness of a single-cylinder compression ignition engine whereasintheorthostate,therotationofoneatomrelative was observed experimentally. Magnets are placed on the totheotherisinthesamedirection.Usually,thefuelisinthe outersurfaceofthefuelpipe.Thebestresultswereobtained para state; however, the magnetic field converts it into the on3000 gausswherethere is adecreaseinconsumptionof orthostate[18].Whenastrongmagneticfieldisappliedto fuel,exhaustgastemperature,andCO ,CO,HC,andNOX the fuel, the hydrocarbon changes its orientation and 2 emissions[26].Combustionofdieselfuelisamajordriverin changes from the para state to the ortho state [19]. Ortho industrial furnaces and is likely to remain the same for the causesaconsiderablereductioninintermolecularforcesthat foreseeablefuture.Maintainingtheuseofthesefuelsisvery increase the space between hydrogen. Consequently, more important to increase fuel consumption and pollution oxygen penetrates into the fuel resulting in complete emission character [27]. combustionofthefuelinthecombustionchamber[21].Fuel Fromallofthesestudies,thestabilityofcombustionthat molecule decomposes to be smaller and easily combined really determines engine performance has not been dis- with oxygen [31]. Positive ionization allows hydrocarbon cussed. Therefore, further research is needed especially re- fuels to attract and bind negatively charged oxygen and garding the role of the magnetic field in stabilizing the cause more complete carbon/oxygen bonding and efficient combustion process. This research provides data on combustion[32].Thisresultsinbetterfuelatomizationand JournalofCombustion 3 betterfuel-airmixing.Fuel-saving,betterfueleconomy,and 8 reduction of exhaust emissions such as hydrocarbons, 7a 7b carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide could be acquired 6 9 under the influence of the magnetic field [33]. 5 The stability of the premixed flame in high-speed flow has become an important discourse of observation in the 4a 4b 10 study of combustion for several decades. The stability of flameisagreatissuewhenalternativeorrenewableenergyis used in many applications such as in internal combustion engine, gas turbine, and industrial oil burner. Special at- tention needs to be given on the study of alternative fuel 3a 3b influencedbythemagneticfieldforimprovingcombustion reaction and flame stability. In this study, the premixed combustion process and premixed flame stability are ob- 2 11 servedunderfourmagneticfieldorientations.Thetransport of oxygen and heat energy brings by H O, and the spin of 2 1 electron and hydrogen proton under various magnetic orientations and their impact on flame speed and stability Figure1:ExperimentalApparatus:(1)Stove;(2)boiler;(3)valve; are discussed. (4)flowcontrol;(5)burnertypecylinder;(6)high-speedcamera; (7) permanent magnet; (8) flame; (9) thermocouple; (10) data logger; (11)compressor. 3.Materials, Methods, and Model of Research Vegetableoiltestedincludescoconutoilandjatrophaoil.All formedattherimofthenozzlewasrecordeduntiltheflame vegetableoilswereobtainedfromcommercialproducts.The goesoutusingahigh-speedcamera(6)withaspeedof320 compositionoffattyacids,physicalproperties,glycerol,sap, fps.ThermocoupleofKtype(9)wasconnectedtothedata and water from vegetable oils has been shown in our pre- logger to recordthe measured temperature intocomputer vious research [34]. memory (10) by placing the sensor in the reaction zone Theexperimentalequipmentisshownschematicallyin position with a distance of 2mm above the end of the Figure1.Vegetableoilof600mlwasfedintotheboiler(2) burner as in Figure 3. and then was heated with a gas stove (1) to evaporate at 320°Candthepressureof3barwaskeptconstant.Thefuel inletvalve(3a)wasopenedandtheairinletvalve(3b)was 4.The Results of the Investigation of the closed. The next process was the air inlet valve (3b) was Magnetic Field Orientation Influence on openedslightlyandthedifferenceinwaterlevelwasnoted Vegetable Oil Premixed Combustion on the flow control (4b). The water level difference in the fuelflowcontrol(4a)wasrecordedandkeptconstant.With 4.1. Stability and Characteristics of Flame on Various agradualincreaseintheairinletvalveopening,eachwater Equivalence Ratios and Orientations of Magnetic Fields. level difference in the airflow controls was recorded. The Figures 4and5show apremixedflame from coconutand vegetable oil vapor from the boiler is mixed with air from jatropha oil. Coconut oil can burn at an equivalence ratio the compressor (11) in the burner chamber (5). The re- thatisleanerthanjatrophaoil.Premixedcoconutoilflames actant mixture then flew into the nozzle with an inner liftoffandthenblewoffatanequivalenceratiobelow0.83 diameterof6mm,andthen,theflamewasignitedatthetip whilepremixedjatrophaoilflamesliftoffandthenblewoff of the nozzle to form a diffusion flame. By increasing the below0.85.Thisshowsthatcoconutoilismoredifficultto amount of air in the mixture, the flame would gradually evaporatethanjatrophaoilbecausethepoleofcoconutoil change to a premixed flame. The flame was then given ismorestrongerthanthatofjatropha,soitrequiresmore magnetic field from magnetic bar (7a and 7b) each with airtoburn[35,36].Weakerpolarjatrophaismorevolatile, north (N) and south (S) pole. The orientation of the sothecombustionreactionbecamefasterandthelaminar magneticbarswaschangedinfourconditions,namely,S-S, flame speed was slightly higher than that of coconut. As N-N,S-N,andN-SasshowninFigure2.Themagneticbars seenfromFigures4and5,reactionzonesonjatrophaflame were each made of N45 grade nickel plated neodymium were thicker than reaction zones on coconut flames. This permanent magnet witha magnetic field intensity of1.1T indicates the diffusion speed of fuel in jatropha flame is (11000gauss)withdimensionsof40mm×25mm×10mm. faster thanthereactionspeed.Thishappenedbecauseata The magnetic bars were placed on a holder made of alu- weaker electric pole the fuel molecule was freer to move. minumplatesandtightenedbyboltsandnutssothatitcan Conversely, in coconut molecules, it was more difficult to be removed and reassembled to change the direction of move because the stronger electric pole molecular attrac- the S-S, N-N, S-N, and N-S magnetic fields as shown in tionswerestrongersothereactionspeedwasfasterdueto Figure2.In12mmgapbetweenthetwomagnets,aburner strongerpolarity.Givingthemagneticfieldtotheflameasa (5)withadiameterof6mmandalengthof200mmmade wholeincreasedthecombustionreactionwhichcanbeseen of stainless steel pipe was placed. Premixed flame (8) from the reaction zone which was getting thinner and the N S S N S N N S N S N S S N S N (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure2:Magneticfieldorientation.(a)Spolefromthetwomagnetsisfacinginsidetheflame(S-S).(b)Npolefromthetwomagnetsis facinginsidetheflame(N-N).(c)SleftmagnetpoleisfacinginsidetheflamewhereasNrightmagnetpoleisfacinginsidetheflame(S-N). (d) Nleftmagnetpole isfacing inside theflamewhereasS right magnetpole isfacing insidethe flame(N-S). in jatropha from 0.85 to 0.79. In addition, the secondary flamebecamethinnerwhichindicatesthatthecombustion reaction in the reaction zone becomes stronger. This happenedbecauseO waspumpedacrosstheflamefromS 2 toNpoleswhileH Oasaheatsourcewaspumpedacross 2 the flame from N poles to S. This cross heat and mass transfer makes a maximum reaction. But if seen from Figures4(d),4(e),and5(d),N-Spolesprovidedastronger effect possibly due to the influence of the global magnetic orientation. Thermocouple sensor 4.2. Speed of Premixed Combustion on Various Equivalence RatiosandOrientationsofMagneticField. Figures 6 and 7 show the laminar burning velocity of the coconut oil and 6 mm jatrophaoilestimatedfromFigures4and5.Themaximum laminar burning velocity occurs at an equivalence ratio slightly above one. Jatropha’s maximum burning velocity occurs in a mixture richer than that of coconut. This is flame getting shorter. This happened because the magnet becausetheelectricpoleofjatrophaisweaker,soitismore madetheelectronsinthereactantsbecomemoreenergetic volatile,butitselectricpolewasweakerattractingO while 2 due to the spin of electrons that were accelerated by the theelectricpoleofcoconutisstrongersoitwasdifficultto magneticfield.Atthesametime,thehydrogenprotonspin evaporate but attracts strongerO . Because itwas difficult 2 tendstochangefromtheparatoorthostate.Themagnetic toevaporate,theburningvelocityofcoconutflamewithout field gives a stronger effect on the coconut because the magnetsislowerthanthatofjatropha.Theburningvelocity coconuthasastrongerelectricpolethanjatropha[36].The decreased when the fuel-air mixture got richer or leaner. orientation of the magnetic field has the same trend of Coconutismorestableinleanermixesbecauseofitsability influence both on coconut oil and on jatropha oil. The to attract stronger O . Giving a magnetic field makes the 2 magnetic fields of S-S and N-N fields do not change the laminar burning velocity increase because the electrons stability of the flame. From the image of flame, it can be becomemoreenergeticandprotonspintendstochangeto seenthatattheS-Spole(Figures4(b)and5(b)),theflame theorthostate.Agreaterincreaseoccursincoconutflame becameclearerorleaner,whereasatN-Npole(Figures4(c) because of its stronger electric pole compared to jatropha and 5(c)) the flame was thicker or richer. This happened oil.Magneticfieldsmakelaminarburningvelocityincrease becauseoxygenthatwasparamagnetic wouldmoveinthe greaterinleanermixtureregionsandtendtobecomemore orientationofthefieldwhileH Oproductsthatcarryheat stabletowardsleanermixtureregionatattractingmagnetic 2 were diamagnetic which tend to move against the orien- pole (N-S and S-N). This shows that magnets help pump tationofthemagneticfield.AtS-Spole,theorientationof oxygenthatisparamagneticandcontroltheheatcarriedby themagneticfieldexitedthepole,pushingO intotheflame more diamagnetic H O to the flame. The difference in 2 2 while H O, which carries heat energy, being pulled out of orientation of the magnetic poles has a different effect on 2 theflame.Conversely,atN-Npole,themagneticfieldlines thespeedofcombustion.Asexplainedbefore,therepelling enteredthemagnetmakingO drawnoutoftheflamewhile magnetic poles exert a smaller effect than the attraction 2 H Owhichcarriesheatwaspushedintotheflame.Bothof magnetic poles. The repelling magnetic pole in N-N pro- 2 these events made chemical reactions not optimal. The duced a higher burning velocity than S-S because N-N orientation of magneticfield S-N and N-S gave a stronger pumpsmoreheatthatH ObroughttotheflamewhileS-S 2 effect. The flame became more stable towards leaner removes H Owhich carriesthe heatofthe productout of 2 equivalenceratio,from0.83to0.74incoconutflamewhile the flame. As a result, the combustion reaction becomes mm 2 4 JournalofCombustion Figure3: Thermocouplepositions. JournalofCombustion 5 0.83 0.86 0.9 0.94 1 1.1 1.15 0.83 0.86 0.9 0.94 1 1.1 1.15 (a) (b) 0.83 0.86 0.9 0.94 1 1.1 1.15 0.74 0.77 0.8 0.83 0.86 0.9 0.94 1 1.1 1.15 (c) (d) 0.74 0.77 0.8 0.83 0.86 0.9 0.94 1 1.1 1.15 (e) Figure4:Stabilityandshapeoftheflameofcoconutoilatequivalenceratio:(a)withoutmagnet;(b)magnetS-S;(c)magnetN-N;(d) magnet S-N;(e)magnet N-S. 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.97 1.01 1.04 1.08 1.13 (a) 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.97 1.01 1.04 1.08 1.13 (b) 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.97 1.01 1.04 1.08 1.13 (c) Figure5: Continued. 0.79 0.81 0.83 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.97 1.01 1.04 1.08 1.13 (d) 0.79 0.81 0.83 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.97 1.01 1.04 1.08 1.13 (e) Figure 5: Stability and shape of the flame of jatropha oil at equivalence ratio: (a) without magnet; (b) magnet S-S; (c) magnet N-N; (d) magnetS-N; (e)magnet N-S. 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 Without magnet Magnet N-N Magnet N-S Magnet S-S Magnet S-N faster at N-N pole. Changes in the burning velocity due to changing trend of laminar burning velocity because the changesinthedirectionofthemagneticpolesonthecoconut burning velocity shows the rate of the combustion reac- arelarger,indicatingthattheheatoftheproductinH Othatis tionthatistherateofheatrelease.Althoughthemagnetic 2 pumpedbyamagnetbecomesanimportantfactorinburning field increased the temperature of the flame, a higher coconuttoovercomestrongerintermolecularattractionsdueto increaseinflamespeedonthecoconutresultedinalower stronger electric pole for the evaporation process. temperatureincrease.Thismayoccurbecausesomeofthe heat was taken to vaporize the coconut which was more difficulttoevaporateduetostrongermolecularattractions 4.3. Temperature at Various Equivalence Ratios and the due to stronger polarity. In addition, the lower heating Orientations of Magnetic Field. Figures 8 and 9 show the valueofcoconutbecauseofitsshortercarbonchainisalso flametemperaturefrompremixedcombustionofcoconut a factor [34]. The decrease in temperature to leaner oilandjatrophaoil.Itisseenthatthetrendoftemperature mixture region was steeper in jatropha, which indicates changes with the equivalence ratio followed by the that jatropha flame is less stable in leaner mixture than )ces/mc( yticolev gninrub ranimaL 7.0 527.0 57.0 577.0 8.0 528.0 58.0 578.0 9.0 529.0 59.0 579.0 1 520.1 50.1 570.1 1.1 521.1 51.1 571.1 2.1 6 JournalofCombustion Equivalence ratio Figure6:Laminarburningvelocityofcoconutoilversusequivalenceratioatvariousmagneticfieldorientationsandwithoutmagneticfield. 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 Without magnet Magnet N-N Magnet N-S Magnet S-S Magnet S-N coconut flame. This shows that the polarity of the mol- 5.Discussion ecule is very influential in helping the magnetic field in stabilizing combustion. From some previous research results, it is known that the magnetic field has a major role in the combustion reaction process[18,19,21,29–32].Thefirstmagneticfieldstrength 4.4. Flame Height at Various Equivalence Ratios and the affects the magnetic poles of electrons in molecular bonds, OrientationofMagneticField. Figures 10 and 11 show the whichmeansthattheyaffectthespinelectronsinmolecules. height of flame from premixed combustion of coconut oil With a faster spinning electron due to the magnetic field, andjatrophaoilatvariousorientationsofthemagneticfield. electrons become more energetic. This is evident from the Jatropha flame is higher than coconut oil flame. This in- increaseinlaminarburningvelocityfromburningcoconut dicatesthatjatrophaflameislessstablethancoconutflame oil and jatropha (Figures 4–7). The second role is that the becausethehigheroneshowsthattheflametendstobeless magnetic field can change the spin of hydrogen protons in stablebecauseithasalongerstretch.Magneticfieldshavea the fuel from para to ortho [18, 19, 21, 29–32]. Higher greater influence on shortening flame on jatropha. This polarityincoconutattractsstrongerelectrons,soitbecomes happened because the magnet makes electrons more ener- less mobile in coconut oil [36], and thus, the spin of hy- getic,andthus,theincreaseinthespeedofthereactioncan drogenispara.Bygivingamagneticfield,theprotonspinon offsetthediffusionrateofthejatrophamolecule(Figure5). coconutcanchangefromparatoorthowithweakerbonds, )ces/mc( yticolev gninrub ranimaL 7.0 527.0 57.0 577.0 8.0 528.0 58.0 578.0 9.0 529.0 59.0 579.0 1 520.1 50.1 570.1 1.1 521.1 51.1 571.1 2.1 Equivalence ratio Figure7:Laminarburningvelocityofjatrophaoilversusequivalenceratioatvariousmagneticfieldorientationsandwithoutmagneticfield. Without magnet Magnet N-N Magnet N-S Magnet S-S Magnet S-N 7.0 527.0 57.0 577.0 8.0 528.0 58.0 578.0 9.0 529.0 59.0 579.0 1 520.1 50.1 570.1 1.1 521.1 51.1 571.1 2.1 800 775 750 725 700 675 650 625 600 575 550 525 500 475 450 425 400 Equivalence ratio )C°( erutarepmeT JournalofCombustion 7 Figure8:Flametemperatureofcoconutoil versusequivalence ratioatvariousmagneticfieldorientations andwithoutmagneticfield. Without magnet Magnet N-N Magnet N-S Magnet S-S Magnet S-N andthus,thecombustionreactioncantakeplacefaster.The oxygenandrejectdiamagneticmoleculeswhichinthiscase changefromparatoorthoismoreevidentincoconutwhere areproductsintheformofH Owhichcarriesheatasshown 2 laminar burning velocity increases higher because of its in Figure 12. strongerelectricpolaritythanjatropha(Figures4–7)[19].In Thecombustionprocessisdeterminedby threefactors, jatropha, this occurrence appears in the thickness of the namely,airorO ,fuel,andheat.Thefuelhereiscoconutoil 2 flamefromthickertothinner(Figure5).Thickflameisasa and jatropha oil while heat is carried by H O. Control of 2 result of the Damkohler number principle which has a these three components, namely, the withdrawal of O , 2 shorter reactant diffusion time and a longer reaction time. rejection of H O, and changes in the spin of electrons and 2 Jatrophamoleculeismorediffusivebecauseitislesspolar,so protons will determine the combustion process whether it the diffusion time is shorter. By changing the proton spin becomesstable,efficient,andlowemissionorviceversa.The intoorthoandenergizingelectronspininjatrophaoildueto change of proton spin from para to ortho and the electron the magnetic field, the reaction time is shorter, so the re- spin kinetic energy are determined by the strength of the actionzoneisthinning.Thethirdroleofmagnetsistoattract magneticfieldwhilethetransferofheatandmassofthefuel paramagneticmoleculeswhichinthecaseofcombustionare isdeterminedbytheorientationofthemagneticpoles.The 7.0 527.0 57.0 577.0 8.0 528.0 58.0 578.0 9.0 529.0 59.0 579.0 1 520.1 50.1 570.1 1.1 521.1 51.1 571.1 2.1 800 775 750 725 700 675 650 625 600 575 550 525 500 475 450 425 400 Equivalence ratio )C°( erutarepmeT Figure9: Flame temperatureofjatrophaoil versusequivalence ratioat variousmagneticfieldorientationandwithoutmagneticfield. Without magnet Magnet N-N Magnet N-S Magnet S-S Magnet S-N 7.0 527.0 57.0 577.0 8.0 528.0 58.0 578.0 9.0 529.0 59.0 579.0 1 520.1 50.1 570.1 1.1 521.1 51.1 571.1 2.1 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 Equivalence ratio )mm( thgieh emalF 8 JournalofCombustion Figure10:Flame height ofcoconutoil versusequivalence ratioatvariousmagneticfieldorientations andwithoutmagneticfield. Without magnet Magnet N-N Magnet N-S Magnet S-S Magnet S-N rightcombinationofthesetwowilldeterminethequalityof The orientation of magnetic poles plays a role in the combustion. transportofO andtheheattransportcarriedbyH Ointhe 2 2 reactionproductwhichlargelydeterminesthestabilityand accomplishment of combustion. 6.Conclusion The precise combination of field strength and direction ofthemagneticfielddeterminesthequalityofcombustion. An experimental study has been carried out on premixed combustion of coconut oil and jatropha oil. The premixed Data Availability combustion process is observed from combustion in a cylinder type Bunsen burner given a magnetic field in the Thedatausedtosupportthefindingofthisstudyhavebeen directionofthemagneticfield(N-S,S-N,N-N,andS-S).The deposited in https://figshare.com/authors/Dony_Perdana/ main conclusions of this study are as follows. 7364801. The strength of the magnetic field increases the laminar burningvelocityofvegetableoilthroughitsroleinincreasing Conflicts of Interest thespinelectronandchangesinthehydrogenprotonspinin thefuel.Thisroleismoreclearlyseeninmorepolarbiofuels The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest becauseelectronsaremorestronglyboundtofuelmolecules. regarding the publication of this paper. 7.0 527.0 57.0 577.0 8.0 528.0 58.0 578.0 9.0 529.0 59.0 579.0 1 520.1 50.1 570.1 1.1 521.1 51.1 571.1 2.1 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 Equivalence ratio )mm( thgieh emalF JournalofCombustion 9 Figure11:Flame heightof jatrophaoil versusequivalence ratioatvariousmagneticfieldorientation andwithoutmagneticfield. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "L'amélioration du mélange air-carburant réduit les polluants comme le CO et le NOx."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Abstract The present study aims to explore the effect of fuel ionisation on engine performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a twin cylinder compression ignition (CI) engine running on biofuel. Wheat germ oil (WGO) and pine oil (PO) have been identified as diesel fuel surrogates with high and low viscosities, respectively. High viscosity biofuels result in incomplete combustion due to poor atomisation and evaporation which ultimately leads to insufficient air-fuel mixing to form a combustible mixture. Consequently, engines running on this type of fuel suffer from lower brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and higher soot emission. In contrast, low viscosity biofuels exhibit superior combustion characteristics however they have a low cetane number which causes longer ignition delay and therefore higher NO emission. To overcome the limitations of both fuels, a fuel ionisation filter (FIF) with a permanent magnet is installed upstream of the fuel pump which electrochemically ionises the fuel molecules and aids in quick dispersion of the ions. The engine used in this investigation is a twin cylinder tractor engine that runs at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The engine was initially run on diesel to warm-up before switching to WGO and PO, this was mainly due to poor cold start performance characteristics of both fuels. At 100% load, BTE for WGO is reduced by 4% compared to diesel and improved by 7% with FIF. In contrast, BTE for PO is 4% higher compared to diesel, however, FIF has minimal effect on BTE when running on PO. Although, smoke, HC and CO emissions were higher for WGO compared to diesel, they were lower with FIF due to improved combustion. These emissions were consistently lower for PO due to superior combustion performance, mainly attributed to low viscosity of the fuel. However, NO emission for PO (1610 ppm) is higher compared to diesel (1580 ppm) at 100% load and reduced with FIF (1415 ppm). NO emission is reduced by approximately 12% for PO + FIF compared to PO. The results suggest that FIF has the potential to improve diesel combustion performance and reduce NO emission produced by CI engines running on high and low viscosity biofuels, respectively.", "fr_vulgarise": null}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study using a 2500 Gauss magnet on an Otto engine, optimizing the placement relative to the intake. Maximum torque of 51.31 Nm was obtained, highlighting the impact of magnetic field location on volumetric efficiency.", "fr_vulgarise": "L'étude a confirmé que le placement de l'aimant de 2500 Gauss affecte grandement l'efficacité et le couple."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "IOP Série Conférence: Materials Science and Engineering PPAAPPIIEERR •• AACCCCÈÈSS OOUUVVEERRTT L'utilisation des dispositifs magnétiques pour améliorer les performances et réduire les émissions de gaz de moteur Otto PPPPPPoooooouuuuuurrrrrr cccccciiiiiitttttteeeeeerrrrrr cccccceeeeeetttttt aaaaaarrrrrrttttttiiiiiicccccclllllleeeeee:::::: MMMMMM HHHHHHaaaaaazzzzzzwwwwwwiiiiii eeeeeetttttt aaaaaallllll 222222000000111111999999 IIIIIIOOOOOOPPPPPP CCCCCCoooooonnnnnnffffff...... SSSSSSeeeeeerrrrrr MMMMMMaaaaaatttttteeeeeerrrrrr...... SSSSSScccccciiiiii...... EEEEEEnnnnnngggggg...... 555555000000555555 000000111111222222000000555555111111 VVVoooiiirrr llleee aaarrrtttiiicccllleee eeennn llliiigggnnneee pppooouuurrr llleeesss mmmiiissseeesss ààà jjjooouuurrr eeettt aaammméééllliiiooorrraaatttiiiooonnnsss... Ce contenu a été téléchargé à partir de l'adresse IP 77.153.191.88 sur 10/08/2019 à 07:02 1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: IOP Publishing MMMaaattteeerrriiiaaalllsss SSSccciiieeennnccceee aaannnddd EEEnnngggiiinnneeeeeerrriiinnnggg 555000555 ((( 222000111999))) 000111222000555111 doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 uuuuuuuuuuuuutttttttttttttiiiiiiiiiiiiillllllllllllliiiiiiiiiiiiisssssssssssssaaaaaaaaaaaaatttttttttttttiiiiiiiiiiiiiooooooooooooonnnnnnnnnnnnn dddddddddddddeeeeeeeeeeeeesssssssssssss mmmmmmmmmmmmm aaaaaaaaaaaaagggggggggggggnnnnnnnnnnnnnééééééééééééétttttttttttttiiiiiiiiiiiiiqqqqqqqqqqqqquuuuuuuuuuuuueeeeeeeeeeeeesssssssssssss rrrrrrrrrrrrrééééééééééééé ppppppppppppppppppppppppppaaaaaaaaaaaaarrrrrrrrrrrrreeeeeeeeeeeeeiiiiiiiiiiiiilllllllllllllsssssssssssss ttttttttttttt ooooooooooooo jjjjjjjjjjjjjeeeeeeeeeeeee mmmmmmmmmmmmmPPPPPPPPPPPPPrrrrrrrrrrrrrooooooooooooovvvvvvvvvvvvveeeeeeeeeeeee ttttttttttttt iiiiiiiiiiiiilllllllllllll ppppppppppppp eeeeeeeeeeeeerrrrrrrrrrrrrfffffffffffffooooooooooooorrrrrrrrrrrrrmmmmmmmmmmmmmaaaaaaaaaaaaannnnnnnnnnnnnccccccccccccceeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeettttttttttttt rrrrrrrr ddddddddééééééééggggggggaaaaaaaaggggggggeeeeeeeerrrrrrrr gggggggg ccccccccoooooooommmmmmmmmmmmmmmmeeeeeeee eeeeeeee mmmmmmmmiiiiiiiissssssssssssssssiiiiiiiioooooooonnnnnnnnssssssss dddddddd''''''''OOOOOOOOttttttttttttttttoooooooo eeeeeeee nnnnnnnnggggggggiiiiiiiinnnnnnnneeeeeeee MMMMMMMM HHHHHHHHaaaaaaaazzzzzzzzwwwwwwwwiiiiiiii 11111111,,,,,,,, TTTTTTTTBBBBBBBB SSSSSSSSiiiiiiiittttttttoooooooorrrrrrrruuuuuuuussssssss 11111111,,,,,,,,22222222,,,,,,,, JJJJJJJJ AAAAAAAArrrrrrrrjjjjjjjjuuuuuuuunnnnnnnnaaaaaaaa 11111111 eeeeeeeetttttttt PPPPPPPP SSSSSSSSiiiiiiiinnnnnnnnaaaaaaaaggggggggaaaaaaaa 11111111 11 GGéénniiee mmééccaanniiqquuee,, UUnniivveerrssiittaass SSuummaatteerraa UUttaarraa -- MMeeddaann,, eenn IInnddoonnééssiiee 22 PPUUII EEnneerrggii BBeerrkkeellaannjjuuttaann ddaann bbiioommaattéérriiaauu,, UUSSUU -- MMeeddaann,, eenn IInnddoonnééssiiee Courriel: [email protected] AAbbssttrraaiitt.. UUttiilliissaattiioonn ddee ll''iinnssttrruummeenntt mmaaggnnééttiiqquuee eesstt uunn eeffffoorrtt ppoouurr aamméélliioorreerr llee rreennddeemmeenntt eett ddee rréédduuiirree lleess éémmiissssiioonnss dd''éécchhaappppeemmeenntt produit par le moteur Otto. Les expériences sont effectuées en faisant varier la vitesse du moteur et la variation de la distance de montage de l'instrument magnétique de la soupape d'admission lors de l'entrée de la chambre de combustion. Un instrument magnétique est installé dans le collecteur d'admission, avant de se diriger dans la chambre de combustion. Les résultats expérimentaux montrent qu'il est constaté qu'il y a une augmentation de l'efficacité thermique et la diminution de la consommation de carburant lorsque le moteur utilise instrument magnétique de 2500 gauss allant de 5,99 à 22,02%. Les émissions de gaz d'échappement produit également réduits pour les niveaux de CO et de HC environ 6-20%. 1. Introduction La source d'énergie générale dans le monde est l'énergie fossile en particulier du mazout. À l'heure actuelle, l'Indonésie est encore très dépendant de l'énergie fossile. L'énergie fossile fournit encore près de 95% des besoins énergétiques de l'Indonésie. Environ 50% de l'énergie fossile est le pétrole, et le reste est du gaz et du charbon. L'énergie fossile est l'énergie non renouvelable et se déroulera dans les prochaines années. Les données national de l'énergie 2015-2050 indique que le potentiel d'énergie fossile de l'Indonésie, y compris le pétrole, le gaz naturel et le charbon ne peut durer dix ans, 31 ans et 80 ans si aucune nouvelle réserve d'énergie fossile se trouvent [1, 2] . En plus d'être épuisé, l'énergie fossile a également un impact négatif sur l'environnement. les émissions de gaz à effet de serre provenant de la combustion des énergies fossiles ont un effet sur le réchauffement climatique qui provoque le changement climatique. La cause principale de ceci est l'imperfection de la combustion dans la chambre de combustion, en plus des pertes par frottement supportés entre les composants du moteur. La combustion incomplète aura un effet qui réduit la capacité de travail du moteur [3, 4, 5]. En outre, les résultats de la combustion incomplète de la consommation de carburant et les émissions d'échappement. Diverses améliorations de l'efficacité des moteurs à combustion ont été réalisées en ce qui concerne les apports de combustibles, telles que la technologie électronique d'injection de carburant, la combustion améliorées, telles que l'utilisation de la bougie d'allumage double, le système de régulation de la soupape de carburant avec la méthode VVT-i et VTEC, l'augmentation de la prise d'air avec l'addition de turbocompresseur ou compresseur volumétrique. Une façon d'améliorer les performances des moteurs à combustion développé aujourd'hui est le système de magnetation de carburant. Le principe de fonctionnement consiste à magnétiser l'huile combustible qui circule de la pompe à huile vers le collecteur d'admission à l'aide d'un dispositif contenant une force magnétique spécifique [6]. Ainsi, avant d'être brûlé dans la chambre de combustion, le carburant est déjà magnétisé. Les recherches menées au Laboratoire de l'énergie de l'Université de Kobe en utilisant une injection directe LLLeee cccooonnnttteeennnuuu dddeee ccceee tttrrraaavvvaaaiiilll pppeeeuuuttt êêêtttrrreee uuutttiiillliiisssééé ssseeelllooonnn llleeesss ttteeerrrmmmeeesss dddeee lllaaa CCCrrreeeaaatttiiivvveee CCCooommmmmmooonnnsss AAAttttttrrriiibbbuuutttiiiooonnn 333...000 ... TTTooouuuttteee dddiiissstttrrriiibbbuuutttiiiooonnn sssuuupppppplllééémmmeeennntttaaaiiirrreee dddeee ccceee tttrrraaavvvaaaiiilll dddoooiiittt mmmaaaiiinnnttteeennniiirrr l'attribution à l'auteur (s) et le titre de l'œuvre, la citation de revue et DOI. Publié sous licence par IOP Publishing Ltd 1 1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: IOP Publishing MMMaaattteeerrriiiaaalllsss SSSccciiieeennnccceee aaannnddd EEEnnngggiiinnneeeeeerrriiinnnggg 555000555 ((( 222000111999))) 000111222000555111 doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 type diesel Yanmar NF-19SK a montré une diminution de la consommation de carburant de 13-14% dans des conditions de charge normales en utilisant un magnétiseur [7]. 2. Étude 2.1. L'effet magnétique dans l'huile de carburant Si les atomes sont placés dans un aimant uniforme, les électrons qui entourent le noyau deviennent filé. Cette rotation provoque l'apparition d'un champ magnétique secondaire qui est opposée à la direction du champ magnétique donné. Pour les moteurs qui utilisent l'huile de carburant de sorte lorsque le carburant est encore dans le réservoir de carburant, les molécules d'hydrocarbures qui sont les principaux constituants de l'huile de combustible ont tendance à attirer les uns des autres et de former des particules en bouquets. Ce regroupement va se poursuivre, entraînant les molécules d'hydrocarbures ne pas être séparé ou il n'y a pas assez de temps pour séparer les uns des autres lors de la réaction avec de l'oxygène dans la chambre de combustion [8]. Le résultat regrettable est une imperfection de combustion pur avec la présence de contenu HC dans les gaz de combustion. La présence d'un champ magnétique suffisamment fort permanente dans la molécule d'hydrocarbure diamagnétique provoque des réactions de rejet entre les molécules d'hydrocarbure pour former une distance optimale entre les molécules d'hydrocarbures. Cela permettra d'accroître l'interaction entre les molécules d'hydrocarbures avec de l'oxygène. Les particules atomiques qui composent la molécule d'hydrocarbure seront affectés par le champ magnétique de sorte que la direction sera plus aligné ou orienté dans le cadre du champ magnétique [9]. L'utilisation d'aimants est destiné à enregistrer la consommation de carburant à travers le processus d'aimantation. Le processus d'aimantation est nécessaire pour permettre au carburant de se lier l'oxygène plus facilement au cours des processus de combustion et de réduire les hydrocarbures non brûlés alimentés par le processus de combustion [10]. FFiigguurree 11.. eeffffeett MMaaggnneettiizzaattiioonn ppoouurr llee ccaarrbbuurraanntt [[1111]] Cela est dû à la taille de la structure moléculaire du carburant va se transformer en petites liaisons dues à l'aimantation. La petite taille de ces molécules affectera directement le processus de gravure plus naturelle dans la chambre de combustion. En d'autres termes, le processus d'aimantation dans le carburant fera une combustion plus parfaite [12]. Comme le carburant passe à travers le collecteur, les forces d'aimantation à l'intérieur de l'aimant fixé sur la conduite de carburant conduit à la rupture de la liaison carbone-carbone dans le carburant en petites parties de la liaison ionique. Le pôle négatif de l'aimant va attirer les ions positifs tandis que l'ion négatif sera tenté par le pôle positif de l'aimant de sorte que des ions positifs et des ions négatifs iront régulièrement après passage à travers le champ magnétique. Ce lien petit et régulier rend l'oxygène facile à réagir avec du carburant au processus de combustion [13]. L'effet du carburant sera plus efficacement brûlé dans la chambre de combustion ou l'apparition d'une combustion complète. 2.2. Le paramètre de la performance Les principaux paramètres du moteur à combustion interne sont la puissance, la consommation de carburant spécifique et le rendement thermique [14, 15]. La vitesse du moteur et le couple affectent considérablement la puissance produite par le moteur à combustion interne. En général, il existe deux types de pouvoir, à savoir la puissance de l'arbre et la 2 1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: IOP Publishing MMMaaattteeerrriiiaaalllsss SSSccciiieeennnccceee aaannnddd EEEnnngggiiinnneeeeeerrriiinnnggg 555000555 ((( 222000111999))) 000111222000555111 doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 puissance de l'indicateur. La puissance de l'arbre ou de la puissance effective est la puissance produite par le moteur sur l'arbre de sortie qui calculé par l'équation: . 2π . N . τ W = kW (1) 60000 LLLeee pppaaarrraaammmèèètttrrreee NNN eeesssttt lllaaa vvviiittteeesssssseee ddduuu mmmooottteeeuuurrr (((rrrpppmmm))),,, eeettt ••• eeesssttt llleee cccooouuupppllleee (((NNNmmm)))... La consommation spécifique de carburant (SFC) est la quantité de carburant utilisée par le moteur par unité de puissance pour chaque heure de fonctionnement. On peut dire que la consommation de carburant spécifique est une indication de l'efficacité du moteur pour produire de l'énergie provenant de la combustion de carburant. La valeur SFC peut être déterminée à partir de: . = . 3600000 g / kWh (2) m Sfc. F W . Où mm eesstt llee ttaauuxx dd''ééccoouulleemmeenntt ddee ccaarrbbuurraanntt ((kkgg // ss)).. F L'efficacité de la thermique du moteur à combustion interne est le rapport entre l'énergie émise et l'énergie de combustion de carburant followss: . W η = (3) t . m . Q . η HV f c LLLLLLeeeeee ppppppaaaaaarrrrrraaaaaammmmmmèèèèèèttttttrrrrrreeeeee QQQQQQ HHHHHHVVVVVV eeeeeesssssstttttt llllllaaaaaa vvvvvvaaaaaalllllleeeeeeuuuuuurrrrrr ccccccaaaaaalllllloooooorrrrrriiiiiiffffffiiiiiiqqqqqquuuuuueeeeee ((((((kkkkkkJJJJJJ ////// kkkkkkgggggg)))))),,,,,, eeeeeetttttt •••••• cccccc eeeeeesssssstttttt lllllleeeeee rrrrrreeeeeennnnnnddddddeeeeeemmmmmmeeeeeennnnnntttttt ddddddeeeeee llllllaaaaaa ccccccoooooommmmmmbbbbbbuuuuuussssssttttttiiiiiioooooonnnnnn qqqqqquuuuuuiiiiii llllllaaaaaa vvvvvvaaaaaalllllleeeeeeuuuuuurrrrrr ddddddeeeeee 000000,,,,,,999999777777...... 3. Méthodologie 3.1. Matériaux Les tests sont effectués en utilisant du carburant pertalite. L'équipement de bord qui a ajouté entre le collecteur d'admission et la chambre de combustion est un instrument magnétique de 2500 gauss. La spécification principale du dispositif magnétique est le modèle de production d'Indonésie FT-15, a une force magnétique de 2500 gauss à une distance polaire de 0,75 cm et une dimension de 50 mm x 20 mm. LLL'''iiinnnssstttrrruuummmeeennnttt dddeee mmmeeesssuuurrreee uuutttiiillliiisssééé eeesssttt lll'''aaannnaaalllyyyssseeeuuurrr dddeeesss ééémmmiiissssssiiiooonnnsss (((ppprrréééccciiisssiiiooonnn ••• 999000---999888%%%)))... LLLaaa bbbooommmbbbeee cccaaalllooorrriiimmmééétttrrriiiqqquuueee eeesssttt uuutttiiillliiissséééeee pppooouuurrr cccooonnnnnnaaaîîîtttrrreee lllaaa vvvaaallleeeuuurrr calorifique du combustible. L'équipement de mesure de couple est utilisé pour mesurer le couple du moteur. (une) (B) FFiigguurree 22.. aa)) ccaalloorriimmèèttrree b) un analyseur d'émission 3 1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: IOP Publishing MMMaaattteeerrriiiaaalllsss SSSccciiieeennnccceee aaannnddd EEEnnngggiiinnneeeeeerrriiinnnggg 555000555 ((( 222000111999))) 000111222000555111 doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 TTaabblleeaauu 11.. LLaa ssppéécciiffiiccaattiioonn dduu mmootteeuurr OOttttoo tteessttéé Type de moteur TecQuipment TD4A 024 / SACT Diamètre x course 73 mm x 80,5 mm numéro de cylindre 4 Capacité 1486 cc Ratio de compression 10: 1 Puissance maximum 30 kW / 4900 rpm puissance de couple 80 Nm / 4500 rpm 3.2. schéma expérimental Le moteur Otto calibré est relié à des instruments de mesure et les instruments de support. L'instrument de support magnétique 2500 Gauss est placé entre le collecteur d'admission et la chambre de combustion, qui est modifiée à moins de 10 cm, 20 cm et 30 cm de la chambre de combustion. Ceci est fait pour déterminer l'effet de l'installation de 2500 gauss champ magnétique contre la performance du moteur Otto. jauge de l'analyseur de gaz est placé sur le tuyau d'échappement. En outre, il existe également des variations de rotation du moteur se composant de 2000 tours par minute, 2500 tours par minute, 3000 tours par minute, 3500 tours par minute et 4000 tours par minute. L'instrument de la mesure est relié à l'acquisition de données avec un système d'ordinateur pour enregistrer les conditions changeantes qui se produisent, tels que la composition des gaz d'échappement produits, la vitesse d'écoulement de carburant, le moteur produit le couple et le débit d'air nécessaire à la chambre de combustion. Un système expérimental de cette recherche peut être vu dans la figure 3. Analyseur de gaz d'échappement Ordinateur Réservoir d'essence Filtre à carburant mmeessiinn TTDD44AA 002244 La pompe à huile 4 3 2 1 Aimant 2500 gauss air Centertek rapidité manomètre Wycombe réservoir d'eau Pompe à eau FFiigguurree 33.. sscchhéémmaa eexxppéérriimmeennttaall 4. Résultats et discussions 4.1. Performances du moteur Le couple maximal a été obtenu 51,31 Nm lorsque le moteur au moyen d'un instrument magnétique 2500 gauss à une distance de 30 cm à 4000 tours par minute. Le couple minimum a été obtenu 32,12 Nm lors de l'essai sans utiliser instrument magnétique 2500 gauss à 2000 rpm. Le couple moyen généré dans ces expériences est comprise entre 41,34 Nm. Le couple généré lorsque le moteur utilise un instrument magnétique 4 1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: IOP Publishing MMMaaattteeerrriiiaaalllsss SSSccciiieeennnccceee aaannnddd EEEnnngggiiinnneeeeeerrriiinnnggg 555000555 ((( 222000111999))) 000111222000555111 doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 2500 gauss à une distance de 30 cm plus grande en raison des paramètres de couple influencés par l'énergie de combustion. L'énergie de combustion produit est plus élevée car le processus de combustion devient meilleur quand on utilise un instrument magnétique 2500 gauss. La figure 4 montre le couple moteur au cours des expériences. 60 55 50 45 40 Sans magnétique Avec 35 magnétique - 10 cm Avec magnétiques - 30 cm 30 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Vitesse du moteur (RPM) FFiigguurree 44.. LLee ccoouuppllee mmootteeuurr aauu ccoouurrss ddeess eexxppéérriieenncceess 25 20 15 dix Sans magnétique Avec magnétique - 10 cm Avec magnétiques - 30 cm 5 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Vitesse du moteur (RPM) FFiigguurree 55.. LLaa ppuuiissssaannccee dduu mmootteeuurr aauu ccoouurrss ddeess eexxppéérriieenncceess 5 )mN( elpuoC )Wk( ecnassiuP 1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: IOP Publishing MMMaaattteeerrriiiaaalllsss SSSccciiieeennnccceee aaannnddd EEEnnngggiiinnneeeeeerrriiinnnggg 555000555 ((( 222000111999))) 000111222000555111 doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 1200 1000 800 600 400 Sans magnétique Avec magnétique - 10 cm Avec magnétiques - 30 cm 200 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Vitesse du moteur (RPM) FFiigguurree 66.. llaa ccoonnssoommmmaattiioonn ssppéécciiffiiqquuee ddee ccaarrbbuurraanntt aauu ccoouurrss ddeess eexxppéérriieenncceess 25 20 15 dix Sans magnétique Avec magnétique - 10 cm Avec magnétiques - 30 cm 5 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Vitesse du moteur (RPM) FFiigguurree 77.. LL''eeffffiiccaacciittéé tthheerrmmiiqquuee aauu ccoouurrss ddeess eexxppéérriieenncceess La figure 5 montre la puissance du moteur généré au cours des expériences. D'après les données expérimentales obtenues à ce que la puissance maximale est de 21,49 kW à un régime moteur de 4000 tours par minute pour l'utilisation de dispositif magnétique 2500 gauss à une distance de 30 cm. La puissance minimale est obtenue à 6,73 kW lorsque le moteur sans l'aide d'un dispositif magnétique 2500 gauss à la vitesse du moteur de 2000 tours par minute. Augmentation de la puissance du moteur lorsque le moteur à l'aide magnétique 2500 gauss variait de 5,99 à 13,10%. Les paramètres qui influent le plus sur la puissance du moteur est le couple généré. Comme on sait que lorsque le couple devient plus important, la puissance produite est plus importante. La figure 6 représente la consommation spécifique de carburant de moteur à otto produite au cours des expériences. La valeur de SFC maximale est obtenue 1085,58 gr / kWh lorsque le moteur sans utiliser de dispositif magnétique 2500 gauss à 2000 rpm. La valeur minimale de SFC, on obtient 420,91 g / kWh à 4000 tours par minute lorsque le moteur utilise instrument magnétique de 2500 gauss à une distance de 30 cm. La valeur moyenne de la SFC résultant de l'expérience a été 676,81 g / kWh. La diminution de SFC lorsque le moteur utilise des gammes d'instruments magnétiques 2500 gauss 8,62 à 18,05%. La SFC lorsque le moteur utilise dispositif magnétique de 2500 gauss diminué. L'un d'eux a provoqué le processus de combustion résultant d'être mieux lorsque le moteur au moyen d'un dispositif magnétique 2500 gauss. Cette L'un d'eux a provoqué le processus de combustion résultant d'être mieux lorsque le moteur au moyen d'un dispositif magnétique 2500 gauss. Cette L'un d'eux a provoqué le processus de combustion résultant d'être mieux lorsque le moteur au moyen d'un dispositif magnétique 2500 gauss. Cette 6 )hWk / rg( CFS )%( euqimreht éticaciffE 1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: IOP Publishing MMMaaattteeerrriiiaaalllsss SSSccciiieeennnccceee aaannnddd EEEnnngggiiinnneeeeeerrriiinnnggg 555000555 ((( 222000111999))) 000111222000555111 doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 rend le carburant nécessaire à moins que lorsque le moteur fonctionne sans l'aide d'un dispositif magnétique de 2500 gauss pour les mêmes conditions. Le rendement thermique obtenu au cours des épreuves est représenté figure 7. Les résultats expérimentaux indiquent que le rendement thermique maximal de 20,03% lorsque le moteur en utilisant l'instrument magnétique 2500 gauss avec une distance de 30 cm à 4000 tours par minute. L'efficacité thermique minimale est 7,77% de la vitesse du moteur à 2000 tours par minute lorsque le moteur sans utiliser instrument magnétique de 2500 gauss. La valeur de l'efficacité thermique moyenne résultant des expériences a été 13,21%. L'efficacité de l'augmentation thermique lorsque le moteur Otto à l'aide magnétique 2500 gauss est comprise de 9,44 à 22,02% à partir de. Les paramètres d'efficacité thermique des moteurs à combustion influence sont la puissance, le taux circulant de carburant au cylindre et la valeur calorifique du combustible. 4.2. Les compositions des gaz d'échappement Dans cette étude, on mesure les niveaux d'émission de gaz d'échappement produits par le moteur avec et sans l'aide d'un instrument magnétique 2500 gauss. Le tableau 2 indique les niveaux d'émission des gaz d'échappement produits par les trois conditions. LLLLaaaannnngggguuuueeeetttttttteeee lllleeee 2222.... MMMMeeeeaaaassssuuuurrrreeeeMMMMeeee nnnntttt ddddeeee ddddoooonnnnnnnnééééeeeessss ddddeeee ggggaaaazzzz dddd''''éééécccchhhhaaaappppppppeeeemmmmeeeennnntttt émissions de La vitesse du moteur État (Rpm) CCOO 22 CO HHCC ((ppppmm)) OO 22 ((%%)) (%) (%) 2000 2,82 3,30 171 23,87 2500 3.11 3.38 173 23,93 sans magnétique 3000 3,50 3.42 178 24,02 3500 3,82 3,61 189 24,06 4000 4.10 4.36 192 24,09 2000 2,93 2,67 168 21,34 2500 3,23 2,72 169 22,21 Avec magnétiques 10 cm 3000 3,65 2,70 167 23,05 3500 3,95 2,80 169 21,43 4000 4.25 2,95 171 21,47 2000 2,95 2,69 165 23,34 2500 3.32 2,83 170 22,21 Avec magnétiques 30 cm 3000 3,72 2,74 169 23,05 3500 3,97 2,86 165 22,43 4000 4,31 2,93 170 22,49 Les émissions d'échappement étudiés dans le gaz d'échappement en utilisant le Sukyong SY-GA 401 mètres d'émission. Comme on sait que les émissions de monoxyde de carbone surviennent parce que, au moment du processus de combustion se produit un manque d'oxygène. Le manque d'apport d'oxygène pprroovvooqquuee uunnee ccoommbbuussttiioonn iinnccoommppllèèttee ooùù ll''aattoommee ddee CC OO mmaannqquuee 22 dddeee CCCOOO 222... EEElllllleee mmmooonnntttrrreee qqquuueee,,, sssaaannnsss lll'''aaaiiidddeee ddd'''uuunnn iiinnnssstttrrruuummmeeennnttt mmmaaagggnnnééétttiiiqqquuueee dddeee 222555000000 gggaaauuussssss,,, llleee mmmooottteeeuuurrr OOOttttttooo ppprrroooddduuuiiittt llleee pppllluuusss dddeee CCCOOO pppooouuurrr ccchhhaaaqqquuueee vvvaaarrriiiaaatttiiiooonnn dddeee lllaaa vitesse du moteur. La réduction des émissions dans les niveaux de CO se produit lorsque le moteur utilise un instrument magnétique 2500 gauss qui varie de 6 à 12% par rapport sans l'aide d'un instrument magnétique 2500 gauss. En ce qui concerne l'émission de HC, les gaz d'échappement est due à un manque d'oxygène, de sorte que le processus de combustion a lieu qu'imparfaitement parce que de nombreux atomes de carbone qui ne reçoivent pas suffisamment d'oxygène pour former du gaz de HC. A partir du résultat de mesure de l'instrument de mesure obtenu niveau de HC minimum lorsque le moteur en utilisant un dispositif magnétique 2500 gauss avec une distance de 30 cm. Les niveaux d'émission de HC maximal sont obtenus lorsque le moteur sans l'aide d'un instrument magnétique sept 1ère Conférence internationale sur le génie industriel et fabrication PIO Conf. Série: IOP Publishing MMMaaattteeerrriiiaaalllsss SSSccciiieeennnccceee aaannnddd EEEnnngggiiinnneeeeeerrriiinnnggg 555000555 ((( 222000111999))) 000111222000555111 doi: 10,1088 / 1757-899X / 505/1 / 012.051 222555000000 gggaaauuussssss pppooouuurrr ccchhhaaaqqquuueee vvvaaarrriiiaaatttiiiooonnn dddeee lllaaa vvviiittteeesssssseee ddduuu mmmooottteeeuuurrr... LLLaaa rrréééddduuuccctttiiiooonnn ddduuu CCCOOO 222 ééémmmiiissssssiiiooonnn vvvaaarrriiieee dddeee 888 ààà 222000%%% lllooorrrsssqqquuueee ààà pppaaarrrtttiiirrr dddeee lllaaa mmmaaaccchhhiiinnneee OOOttttttooo uuutttiiillliiissseee un instrument magnétique de 2500 gauss. 5. Conclusions Contrôle de la performance du moteur Otto avec un instrument de support magnétique 2500 gauss utilisant un combustible pertalite a été réalisée. Les données expérimentales indiquent qu'il y a une augmentation de puissance, diminution de la consommation spécifique de carburant et l'augmentation de l'efficacité thermique allant de 5,99 à 22,02% lorsque le moteur utilise un instrument magnétique 2500 gauss. Ceci est dû aux propriétés magnétiques de 2500 gauss qui peuvent améliorer la qualité du carburant de sorte que le processus de combustion qui se produit dans la chambre de combustion devient meilleure que sans l'aide d'un instrument magnétique. Les émissions de gaz d'échappement générés niveaux est une diminution de CO et de HC allant de 6 à 20% pendant l'utilisation de l'instrument magnétique de 2500 gauss. Remerciements Les auteurs disent merci à Universitas Sumatera Utara par subvention de recherche TALENTA en 2018. Références [1] TB Sitorus et al. 2016 International Journal of Technology 5: 910-922, ISSN 2086-9614. [2] TTBB SSiittoorruuss eett aall.. 22001188 IIOOPP CCoonnff.. SSeerr MMaatteerr.. SSccii.. EEnngg.. 330099 001122008899.. [[[333]]] YYYaaarrr AAA eeettt aaalll... 222000111888 mmmooodddèèèllleee ooorrriiieeennntttééé vvveeerrrsss llleee cccooonnntttrrrôôôllleee bbbaaasssééé ppprrreeemmmiiieeerrr ppprrriiinnnccciiipppeee ddd'''uuunnn mmmooottteeeuuurrr ààà eeesssssseeennnccceee,,, yyy cccooommmppprrriiisss dddyyynnnaaammmiiiqqquuueee ààà pppllluuusssiiieeeuuurrrsss cccyyyllliiinnndddrrreeesss... PPPrrraaatttiiiqqquuueee CCCooonnntttrrrooolll EEEnnngggiiinnneeeeeerrriiinnnggg 777000,,, 666333---777666... [[[444]]] AAArrrjjjuuunnnaaa JJJ eeettt al. 2018 IOP Conf. Ser Mater. Sci. Eng. 309 012088 [5] IIIrrrvvvaaannn eeettt aaalll... 222000111777... PPPIIIOOO CCCooonnnfff... SSSeeerrr MMMaaattteeerrr... SSSccciii... EEEnnnggg... 222000666 000111222000222888 [[[666]]] YYYaaaooo CCC eeettt aaalll... 222000111777 EEEtttuuudddeee eeexxxpppééérrriiimmmeeennntttaaallleee dddeee lll'''eeeffffffeeettt dddeeesss cccooommmpppooosssééésss aromatiques lourds sur les caractéristiques de dddeeesss pppaaarrrtttiiicccuuullleeesss uuullltttrrraaafffiiinnneeesss dddeee cccooommmbbbuuussstttiiiooonnn eeettt dddaaannnsss llleee mmmooottteeeuuurrr DDDIIISSSIII... CCCaaarrrbbbuuurrraaannnttt 222000333,,, 222999000---222999777 [[[777]]] TTTUUUHHHSSS GGGiiinnntttiiinnnggg MMMaaannniiikkk eeettt aaalll 222000111888 IIIOOOPPP CCCooonnnfff... SSSSSeeeeerrrrr MMMMMaaaaattttteeeeerrrrr..... SSSSSccccciiiii..... 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[[[[9999]]]] LLLLiiiiaaaannnngggg LLLL eeeetttt SSSSiiiiqqqqiiiinnnn CCCC 2222000011111111 AAAAmmmméééélllliiiioooorrrraaaattttiiiioooonnnn de la performance de siège de soupape de moteur de SSSyyyssstttèèèmmmeee dddeee sssooouuupppaaapppeee éééllleeeccctttrrrooommmaaagggnnnééétttiiiqqquuueee... MMMééécccaaatttrrrooonnniiiqqquuueee 222111,,, 111222333444---111222333888... [[[dddiiixxx]]] TTTBBB SSSiiitttooorrruuusss eeettt aaalll... 222000111666 TTTAAAEEE --- AAAcccttteeesss ddduuu 666eee Conférence internationale sur les tendances GGGééénnniiieee aaagggrrriiicccooollleee... [[[111111]]] PPPooolllyyyaaaccckkkooo LLL eeettt aaalll... 222000111666 AAAmmméééllliiiooorrraaatttiiiooonnn dddeee lllaaa pppeeerrrfffooorrrmmmaaannnccceee eeennnvvviiirrrooonnnnnneeemmmeeennntttaaallleee dddaaannnsss llleeesss mmmooottteeeuuurrrsss ààà essence FFFFoooorrrrmmmmaaaattttiiiioooonnnn ddddeeee mmmmééééllllaaaannnnggggeeee eeeexxxxtttteeeerrrrnnnneeee.... PPPPrrrroooocccceeeeddddiiiiaaaa IIIInnnnggggéééénnnniiiieeeerrrriiiieeee 111155550000,,,, 1111111155556666 ---- 1111111166661111.... [[[[11112222]]]] NNNNiiiiuuuu RRRR eeeetttt aaaallll.... 2222000011116666 EEEEffffffffeeeetttt ddddeeee llllaaaa pppprrrrooooppppoooorrrrttttiiiioooonnnn dddd''''hhhhyyyyddddrrrrooooggggèèèènnnneeee ssssuuuurrrr lllleeee rendement de combustion pauvre d'un SI à double carburant mmmooottteeeuuurrr uuutttiiillliiisssaaannnttt dddeee lll'''hhhyyydddrrrooogggèèènnneee ààà iiinnnjjjeeeccctttiiiooonnn dddiiirrreeecccttteee... CCCaaarrrbbbuuurrraaannnttt 111888666,,, 777999222---777999999... [[[111333]]] TTTBBB SSSiiitttooorrruuusss eeettt aaalll 222000111888 IIIOOOPPP CCCooonnnfff... SSSeeerrr MMMMMMMaaaaaaattttttteeeeeeerrrrrrr....... SSSSSSSccccccciiiiiii....... EEEEEEEnnnnnnnggggggg....... 444444422222220000000 000000011111112222222000000022222225555555 [[[[[[[11111114444444]]]]]]] AAAAAAArrrrrrriiiiiiiaaaaaaannnnnnniiiiiii FFFFFFF eeeeeeettttttt aaaaaaalllllll....... 2222222000000011111117777777 IIIIIIIOOOOOOOPPPPPPP CCCCCCCooooooonnnnnnnfffffff....... SSSSSSSeeeeeeerrrrrrr MMMMMMMaaaaaaattttttteeeeeeerrrrrrr....... SSSSSSSccccccciiiiiii....... EEEEEEEnnnnnnnggggggg....... 222222277777777777777 000000011111112222222000000044444445555555....... [[[[[[[11111115555555]]]]]]] TTTTTTTBBBBBBB SSSSSSSiiiiiiitttttttooooooorrrrrrruuuuuuusssssss eeeeeeettttttt aaaaaaalllllll....... 2222222000000011111117777777 Revue du génie et de sciences technologiques., Vol. 49, n ° 5, 657-670. 8"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Analysis of optimal magnetizer parameters for generators. The optimal result (10.05% increase in consumption time) was achieved with Ferrite C8 (3850 Gauss) in monopolar polarity, demonstrating that the repulsive configuration is more effective than the raw intensity of Neodymium N45 (13200 Gauss).", "fr_vulgarise": "L'efficacité d'un aimant dépend moins de sa force brute (Gauss) que de sa conception, de sa polarité (monopolaire/répulsive) et de son emplacement."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering PAPER • OPEN ACCESS Determining design parameter for fuel magnetizer using factorial design method To cite this article: A T Purwandari et al 2019 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 505 012066 View the article online for updates and enhancements. This content was downloaded from IP address 213.182.204.254 on 05/07/2019 at 02:00 1st International Conference on Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering505 (2019) 012066 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/505/1/012066 Determining design parameter for fuel magnetizer using factorial design method A T Purwandari1, A Suzianti2, Komarudin3 1,2,3 Industrial Engineering Department, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia Abstract. Fuel magnetizer is a magnetic device that can improve the combustion efficiency on vehicles or other combustion systems. Many studies have been studied about the effect of fuel magnetizer on fuel viscosity or combustion efficiency, fuel savings, and emissions reductions. This study aims to identify the main factors that can influence on the performance of fuel magnetizer and optimal fuel magnetizer parameters in gasoline generator set and LPG gas stove using Factorial Design method. This study used three factors with each factor consist of two levels. The result shows that the optimal parameters of fuel magnetizer in generator set are fuel magnetizer with Ferrite C8 magnet type, polarity repel each other with the liquid flows parallel to the lines of force in the magnetic field (mono-polar) with one magnet pair installed on the fuel pipe. It can increase 10.05% duration of fuel consumption. While optimal parameters of fuel magnetizer in LPG gas stove are used fuel Ferrite C8 magnet type, mono- polar polarity, and use two of magnet pairs installed on fuel pipe. It decrease 7.69% of water heating time. 1. Introduction Fossil energy such as petroleum and natural gas is widely processed as fuel which is one source of energy for human life. Fuel oil and gas are used for household needs, transportation, and the industry. The amount of energy consumption increase time by time. Increasing of energy consumption can cause in depleted energy reserves. Facing the challenges of limitation of energy sources, saving energy is one effort that can be done. Efforts to save fuel oil not only can save energy supplies, but also can improve fuel economy, because fuel prices increase time by time, according to increasing of the demand of the fuel. The effects of fuel consumptions are not only about depletion of supplies and fuel prices, but also emissions resulting from the combustion process using these fuels can create health and environmental problems. Based on several studies, a strong magnetic field can make better combustion, increase combustion efficiency, fuel savings and reduce emission. In an experiment conducted by Jalali et al. shows that magnetic fields can increase the kinetic energy of hydrocarbon molecules in fuel oil resulting in increased thermal efficiency in the combustion systems [1]. In para-hydrogen molecule, which occupies the anti-parallel rotation, the spin state of one atom relative to another is in the opposite direction, therefore it is diamagnetic. In the ortho molecule, which occupies the parallel rotational levels, the spin state of one atom relative to another is in the same direction, therefore, it is paramagnetic. When it happened, hydrogen attracts and bonds with more of the oxygen for complete ContentfromthisworkmaybeusedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0licence.Anyfurtherdistribution ofthisworkmustmaintainattributiontotheauthor(s)andthetitleofthework,journalcitationandDOI. PublishedunderlicencebyIOPPublishingLtd 1 1st International Conference on Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering505 (2019) 012066 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/505/1/012066 combustion [2]. Figure 1 is an illustration of changes in the shape of a fuel molecule before and after the magnetic field is applied. Figure 1. State of Para-hydrogen and Ortho-hydrogen [3] Factors that can affect magnetic performance to produce fuel efficiency and reduce emissions are installation position, magnetic polarity, diameter, length, magnetic flux, magnet type, and magnetic force [4]. Some experiments have been conducted using various parameters of the fuel magnetizer used to save fuel with the different benefit that have been obtained. Design of Experiment (DOE) or experimental design is a systematic route that can be followed to find solutions to industrial process problems with greater objectivity using experimental and statistical techniques [5]. It can identify the parameter setting of the product or the process that finally gets the standardization of the optimal product or process parameters. A company that manufactures fuel magnetizer, claims that by applying a magnet with a polarity configuration repelling each other will produce a larger magnet flux so that it can maximally fuel molecules. Another experiment said that the most important factors in the magnetizer technology are the magnetic field intensity and the magnetic lines flux [2]. The magnet direction must be parallel to the direction of the fuel flow which states that in order for maximum efficiency. It indicates that the magnetic pole configuration may affect the performance of the fuel magnetizer [6]. Table 1. Combustion Efficiency by Type and Magnet Intensity Magnet Parameter Combustion Efficiency Reduction of Emission (%) Break Author Engine Type Type of Magnetic Thermal Fuel Strength Saving Magnet CO HC NO CO Efficiency (Gauss) X 2 (%) (%) Single cylinder, four Patel, stroke, water Rathod, Ferrite 2000 0.01 30 27 9.72 2 8 cooled, C.I. Patel [7] Engine (Diesel) Three cylinder Tipole et al. four stroke S.I. Neodymium 3000 17.5 18.1 - 1.1 - - [8] Engine (3;4;5 pairs) (Gasoline) Single cylinder, four Kumar, stroke, water Patro & Neodymium 13000 - - - - 2 - cooled, C.I. Pudi [9] Engine (Diesel) 2 1st International Conference on Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering505 (2019) 012066 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/505/1/012066 Table 1. Combustion Efficiency by Type and Magnet Intensity (cont’) 2. Method 2.1. Experiment setup In DOE there are several methods, namely factorial design, Taguchi method, response surface method, and mixture design. To produce more objective experiments are usually used factorial design methods. The working principle of factorial design is to investigate every possible combination of all factors and levels in the experiment. The effect of a factor is defined as the response resulting from the change of that level and factor. The data collection stage in this study was conducted by experiment with 64 of total treatments that use 3 factors, each at two levels and 8 replications are used for each treatment. Factors and levels in this study obtained based on interviews conducted with the expert, which can be seen in Table 2. Table 2. Factors and Levels Levels Factors 1 2 Type of Magnet Ferrite C8 Neodymium N45 Polarity Bipolar Monopolar Number of Magnet 1 pair 2 pairs Pair The type of magnet used is Ferrite C8 with a magnetic intensity of 3850 Gauss and Neodymium N45 which has a magnetic intensity of 13200 Gauss. Ferrite magnet has black color, while Neodymium is usually coated with a silver coating as shown in Figure3. The polarity consists of two types. Monopolar means repelling each other and the flow of magnetic field parallel with fuel flow. While bipolar polarity means attract each other of magnet configuration. The experiments were carried out 3 1st International Conference on Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering505 (2019) 012066 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/505/1/012066 using two objects, these are the Excell SF2900DX generator set with gasoline engine with a maximum capacity of 2500 watt type forced water cooled 4 stroke and LPG gas stove 3 kg. The response variable in this experiment is the duration of fuel consumption for 250 ml of gasoline. While in the experiment on the gas stove the response variable is water heating time to 1000 ml of water from the temperature of 40°C-100°C. Figure 1 and 2 are a setup of both experiments performed. Experiment setting was done such as the experiments with the generator set given a load of 1100 watts and carried out blocking of the type of gasoline. While in experiments with gas stoves, room temperature is kept stable at 25°C. The run order experiment was done randomly. (a) (b) Figure 2. Permanent Magnet (a) Ferrite Magnet (b) Neodymium Magnet (a) (b) Figure 3. Object of Experiment (a) Gas Stove (b) Generator Set 2.2. Data processing 2.2.1. Analysis of Variance Data processing was done with the help of statistical software like Minitab and SPSS. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test can be conducted, as shown in table 3. If the significance value is below 0.05., there is a statistically significant difference in the mean factors to response variable. Table 3. ANOVA Test p-value Term Generator Set Gas Stove Experiment Experiment Type of Magnet 0.775 0.039 Polarity 0.000 0.000 Number of Magnet Pair 0.883 0.494 Type of Magnet*Polarity 0.237 0.784 Type of Magnet*Number of 0.775 0.296 Magnet Pair Polarity*Number of 0.037 0.220 Magnet Pair 4 1st International Conference on Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering505 (2019) 012066 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/505/1/012066 2.2.2. Main Effect In the main effect, if the line for a particular parameter is near horizontal, then the parameter has no significant effect. Figure 3 shows the main effect plots for the product parameters of two experiments. In the generator set experiment, the factor or parameter that has significant effect is polarity at monopolar level for maximum fuel consumption. While, in the gas stove experiment, the factor that has significant effect to the water heating time are polarity at monopolar level and type of magnet at Ferrite C8 level for minimum of water heating time. (a) (b) Figure 4. Main effect plot (a) fuel consumption time on generator set experiment using permanent magnet (b) water heating time on gas stove experiment using permanent magnet 2.2.3. Interaction Effect If the interaction effects are significant, it cannot be interpreted the main effects without considering the interaction effects. The interaction plot to evaluate the interactions affect the relationship between the factors and the response, as shown in figure 4. The more lines are not parallel, the greater the strength of the interaction. In this interaction plots, only the polarity and number of magnet pair of the generator set experiment that has non parallel line. It indicates that the relationship between polarity and fuel consumption time depends on the value of number of magnet pair. The optimal result is produced by polarity at monopolar level and number of magnet pair is one. While in the gas stove experiment, the interaction between factors has not significant influence to the response. (a) (b) Figure 5. Interaction plot (a) fuel consumption time on generator set experiment using permanent magnet (b) water heating time on gas stove experiment using permanent magnet In this interaction plots, only the polarity and number of magnet pair of the generator set experiment that has non parallel line. It indicates that the relationship between polarity and fuel consumption time 5 1st International Conference on Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering505 (2019) 012066 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/505/1/012066 depends on the value of number of magnet pair. The optimal result is produced by polarity at monopolar level and number of magnet pair is one. While in the gas stove experiment, the interaction between factors has not significant influence to the response. 2.2.4. Multiple Comparison Test This study also conducted to compare treatments groups to a control group with Dunnett multiple comparison test. Local control group is result of fuel consumption time measurement without apply magnetizer, while the treatment groups is combination level factor of the experiment, as shown in Table 4. The result of Dunnett test is shown in Table 5. Tabel 4. Multiple Groups of Treatment Group Number of Magnet Type Polarity of Treatment Magnet 1 Ferrite Bipolar 1 2 Neodymium Bipolar 1 3 Ferrite Monopolar 1 4 Neodymium Monopolar 1 5 Ferrite Bipolar 2 6 Neodymium Bipolar 2 7 Ferrite Monopolar 2 8 Neodymium Monopolar 2 9 Without Magnet Table 5. Dunnett Test for Generator Set Experiment Generator Set Gas Stove (I) (J) Treatment Treatment Mean Difference Mean Difference Sig. Sig. Group Group (I-J) (I-J) 1 9 -13.25 .965 -16.250* .000 2 9 25.00 .546 -10.500* .001 3 9 129.13* .000 -21.250* .000 4 9 75.50* .025 -24.125* .000 5 9 43.38 .251 -13.000* .000 6 9 29.37 .471 -12.250* .000 7 9 68.75* .045 -29.250* .000 8 9 82.75* .013 -21.375* .000 In Table 5, it is found that treatment groups that had significantly different results with group control were treatment group number 3, 4, 7, and 8, with a significance value of less than 0.05. However, the greatest mean difference was treatment group number 3. It means that by using fuel magnetizer, fuel consumption time longer 129.13 seconds or increase 10.05% of fuel consumption time than the normal condition. Meanwhile, on the gas stove experiment, it is found that all treatment groups had significantly mean difference to the control group, with a significance value of less than 0.05. However, the largest mean difference is treatment group number 7 with a time difference of 29.250 seconds. This means that by using a magnet, the time for water heating faster 29.250 seconds or 6 1st International Conference on Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering505 (2019) 012066 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/505/1/012066 decrease 7.69% of water heating time for 380.50 seconds of water heating time of normal condition (without magnet). 3. Result and Discussion Based on the results of the whole processing of these two experiments, the similarities and differences in results are obtained. The similarity between these two experiments is the polarity factor being a significant factor to the performance of the fuel magnetizer, with the optimal level being monopolar or rejecting in the direction of the magnetic force in the direction of the fuel flow. Factors that are also predicted to affect the performance of fuel magnetizer is a type of magnet with a much different magnetic intensity. Some study said that the greater intensity of the magnetic field will produce the greater the combustion efficiency, although not all literature says the same thing. However, in this experiment obtained results indicate that by using Ferrite C8 magnet with a smaller magnetic intensity. However, to determine the fuel magnetizer performance characteristics based on the intensity of the magnetic field, more levels are needed to obtain more accurate and precise. The different result also occurred on response to the number of magnet pair. If the gas stove required two pairs of magnets to produce optimal performance, the generator set required only one pair of fuel magnetizer. Differences are also found in the percentage of time efficiency produced. Larger results obtained on the use of fuel magnetizer in the generator set, which amounted to 10.05%, while the gas stove 7.69%. Differences in the results obtained can be influenced by several things, such as the molecule structure of fuel difference, the viscosity of the fuel, and the absorption of energy obtained from the magnetic field. Abdul-Wahab et al. compared between types of engines (decreasing fuel consumption 56% in gasoline engine and 44% in diesel engine) and change in some properties of the fuel (density, internal energy, etc.) by the magnetic field in gasoline fuel compared with diesel fuel, it let to achieve reduction of emissions in gasoline engines with higher ranges from diesel engine [14]. Basically the LPG hydrocarbon molecule is lighter and has a lower viscosity, so the effect of magnets in solving hydrocarbon molecules into smaller particles is not as much as the effects of magnets on gasoline hydrocarbon molecules that have more complex molecular hydrocarbon structures and have higher viscosity. The magnetic field will affect the hydrocarbon molecule, but the absorption rate is different depending on the fuel material used, because the energy absorption of each material or type of fuel to the magnetic field will be different [1]. Therefore, a further research to investigate the chemical and physical characteristics of magnetic field effects on different fuel materials is required. Another factor can be due to the gas molecule passing through the magnetic field at high speed. With high speed, gas hydrocarbon molecules pass faster through magnets, resulting in less magnetic effects. The faster the flow of molecules, the weaker the magnetic effects [15]. 4. Conclusion 1. Optimal fuel magnetizer parameter of these two different object are: a) With the efficiency 10.05% of fuel consumption time, the optimal fuel magnetizer parameters of the gasoline generator set are the Ferrrite C8 magnet type, monopolar, and numbered one of magnet pair. b) The optimal fuel magnetizer parameters on LPG gas stove are use Ferrite C8, monopolar, and numbered two magnet pairs that can increase 7.69% of water heating time. 2. With the same treatment, there is a difference of results obtained between experiments on a gasoline generator set with LPG gas stoves, i.e. in the case of the experimental unit reaction to factors that could be caused by molecular structure, viscosity, fuel flow rate, and parameter of burner machine itself, so it need to make differrent parameter of the fuel magnetizer parameters for each different application. 7 1st International Conference on Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering505 (2019) 012066 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/505/1/012066 References [1] Jalali M, Mehdi S A, Farzaneh Y, Mehdi H Z A and Hamiddreza M.H 2013 Enhancement of Benzine Combustion Behavior in Exposure to the Magnetic Field Journal of Clean Energy Technologies 1 224-7 [2] Govindasamy P and Dhandapani S 2007 Experimental Investigation of Cyclic Variation of Combustion Parameters in Catalytically Activated and Magnetically Energised Two-stroke SI Engine Journal of Energy and Environment 6 [3] Raut M S, Siddharth S U and Chandradeep N 2017 Experimental Inspection by using the Effect of Magnetic Field on the Performance of Diesel Engine International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology 4 2191-94 [4] Jain S and Suhas D 2012 Experimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C Engine International Organization of Scientific Reasearch Journal of Engineering 2 27- 31 [5] Coleman D E and Montgomery D C 1993 A Systematic Approach to Planning for a Designed Industrial. Experiment Technometrics 35 1-12 [6] Lindemann P 2009 Magnet Secrets (Washington: A&P Electronic Media) [7] Patel P M, Gaurav P R and Tushar M P 2014 Effect of Magnetic Field on Performance and Emission of Single Cylinder Four Stroke Diesel Engine International Organization of Scientific Reasearch Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) 4 28-34 [8] Tipole P , Karthikeyan A , Virendra B, Suhas D, Harshal B and Bharati T. 2017. Reduction in The Exhaust Emissions of Four Stroke Multi-Cylinder S.I. Engine on Application of Multiple Pairs of Magnets. International Journal of Ambient Energy. [9] Kumar P V, Santosh K P and Vedasamhita P 2014 Experimental Study of A Novel Magnetic Fuel Ionozation Method International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Research 3 152-9 [10] Al-Rawaf M A 2015 Magnetic Field Effects on Spark Ignition Engine Performance and Its Emissions at High Engine Speed Journal of Engineering and Development 19 [11] Faris A S, Saadi K A N, Nather J, Raed I, Mezher A, Zaenab F, Akeel K, Nihad R, Ali C, Hazim M, Hayder J, Jaafar S, Ali S and Aws A 2012 Effects of Magnetic Field on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emission in Two-Stroke Engine Energy Procedia 18 327-338 [12] Ugare V,Nikhil B and Sandeep L 2013 Combustion Enhancers in Diesel Engines: Magnetic Field Option International Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering 5 21-4 [13] Attar A R, Pralhad T, Virendra B and Suhas D 2013 Effect of Magnetic Field Strength on Hydrocarbon Fuel Viscosity and Engine Performance International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Applications 1 [14] Abdul-Wahhab H A, Hussain H A K, A. Rashid A A, Mohammad S N 2017 Survey of Invest Fuel Magnetization in Developing Internal Combustion Engine Characterictics Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 1392-99. [15] Zhong F， Zhao Q， Zhang Y 2011 Experimental Study on Effects of Magnetization on Surface Tension of Water Procedia Engineering 26 501 – 5 Acknowledgement This work is supported by Hibah PITTA 2018 founded by DRPM Universitas Indonesia No.2373/UN2.R3.1/HKP.05.00/2018. 8"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Research on the heat treatment of lanthanum (La) doped ZnO nanoparticles for the development of magnetic nanofluids, a path for fuel improvement by modifying their physical properties [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Recherche en laboratoire sur les matériaux nanométriques qui pourraient être utilisés comme additifs magnétiques pour améliorer les carburants."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering PAPER • OPEN ACCESS You may also like Preparation pure ZnO, La-doped ZnO -ZnO-carbon nanofibers for stable, high response, and selective H S sensors 2 Jitao Zhang, Zijian Zhu, Changmiao Chen nanoparticles using sol-gel technique: et al. Characterization and Evaluation Antibacterial -Enhanced optoelectronic characteristics of La-doped ZnO and its compatibility with Cs-doped MAPbI perovskite absorber Activity 3 material Ayesha Tabriz, Nadia Shahzad, Hina Pervaiz et al. To cite this article: O N Salman et al 2019 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 518 032012 -Rare earth doped metal oxide nanoparticles for photocatalysis: a perspective Amir Mehtab, Jahangeer Ahmed, Saad M Alshehri et al. View the article online for updates and enhancements. This content was downloaded from IP address 79.93.83.165 on 14/10/2025 at 10:03 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Engineering Techniques (ICSET 2019) IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering518 (2019) 032012 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/518/3/032012 Preparation pure ZnO, La-doped ZnO nanoparticles using sol-gel technique: Characterization and Evaluation Antibacterial Activity O N Salman1, D S Ahmed1, A L Abed2 and M O Dawood3 1Applied Physics Branch, Applied Sciences department, University of Technology, Iraq 2Nanotechnologies and Advanced Materials Research Center, University of Technology, Iraq 3Collage of science, department of physics, Al.mustansiriyah University, Iraq Corresponding author: Email: [email protected] Abstract. In this work, pure ZnO and La-doping ZnO nanoparticles were synthesized by using Sol-Gel technique followed by heat treatment calcinated at 450 oC for 3 h. The resulting samples were characterized by elemental analysis, like a XRD, FTIR and FESEM for structural and morphological properties and study the influence of different percentages of La to ZnO after heat treatment calcination as well as improving small size of crystalline size of doping ZnO especially at 0.50% and 0.75% of La. The effect of different percentages (0.25, 0.5 & 0.75%) of La doped ZnO were evaluated against gram negative (E. coli) which exhibits higher antibacterial activity than pure ZnO sample using plate count method. 1. Introduction Recently inorganic antibacterial agents have attracted the attention of researchers because of their thermal resistance and the persistence of their antibacterial effects compared with organic antibacterial agents [1]. These inorganic materials slow down the bacteria by various mechanisms, such as by binding to intracellular proteins and inactivating cells by the generating of reactive oxygen species (ROS) thus directing damage to cell wall. Among these inorganic materials, zinc oxide (ZnO) represented a particularly interested metal oxide substance because of exceptional characteristics. ZnO represented semiconductor material with band gap 3.3 e V, high exciting binding energy, available in nature and environmental substance [2]. Besides, Nanostructure zinc oxide is of special interest, because of the opportunity for modifying and controlling of various zinc oxide-based nanostructures. These characteristics make ZnO material attractive for many applications such as solar cells, optical coatings, photocatalysts, antibacterial activities, electrical devices and gas sensors [3-5]. In particular, ZnO nanostructures are considered to be non-toxic and recent studies have reported that they do not cause any damage to the DNA of human cells [6]. Furthermore, ZnO is also doping with various metals and sometimes nonmetals for shifting absorbance band near high wavelengths [7–9]. As well as, tiny amounts of dopants that act as donors or acceptors are introduced into the semiconductor crystal lattice to affect significant changes in semiconductors. The doping of transition metals induces more mismatches and defects in the lattice structure of ZnO. The doped process can be achieved by interchanging Zn+2 atoms with high valence atoms such as Al and La. [10-13]. Besides, doping ZnO acquired unique characteristics such as nontoxicity and low cost, which made doping ZnO gain more applications in various areas, such as, optical devices and antimicrobials [14]. The current work involved synthesis pure ZnO nanoparticles ContentfromthisworkmaybeusedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0licence.Anyfurtherdistribution ofthisworkmustmaintainattributiontotheauthor(s)andthetitleofthework,journalcitationandDOI. PublishedunderlicencebyIOPPublishingLtd 1 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Engineering Techniques (ICSET 2019) IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering518 (2019) 032012 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/518/3/032012 and doping ZnO using various quantity of La-doping ZnO by sol-gel method followed by calcinated at 450 oC for 3 h on structural properties and surface morphology of samples. Finally, the antimicrobial activities of the pure ZnO and La - doping ZnO against gram negative (E. coli) are investigated to evaluate the influence of La-doped ZnO in resistance of the microbial contamination and reduce the number of bacterial survivals. 2. Experimental details 2.1 preparation of Pure and doped ZnO using various concentrations of La In order to prepare sol solution of pure ZnO nanoparticles, 10g of Zinc precursor from Zinc Acetate Dihydrate and 6ml of polyethylene glycol as Surfactant were dissolved in 150 ml of distal water (D.W) and stirred for 50min at 45 oC which results in hydrolysis of zinc acetate. During the stirred mixture, 3 ml of suitable Ammonia solvent NH was adding drop wise 3 forming white precipitate and let stirred for 20 min forming a Tetrahedral compound of Zinc (Zn(NH )4+ ions and was converted to ZnO sol as showed in equation (1) and (2). Then the 3 solution was stored for overnight at room temperature and then transformed to gel. The gel filtered and washed with distilled water and ethanol. The resulted powder was dried at 100oC for 1h and calcinated at 450 oC for 3 h. Zn (OH) + 4 NH Zn (NH ) 2+ +2 OH- ……… (1) 2 3 3 4 Zn (NH ) 2+ + 2 OH - ZnO + 4 NH + 2 H O ……… (2) 3 4 3 2 In typical synthesis of doping ZnO with lanthanum (La), different concentration of Lanthanum Nitrate Hexahydrate varied from 0.25 to 0.75 % (W/V) were dissolved in 6ml of ammonia solution was added to the colloid of zinc hydroxide forming doped ZnO NPs as shown in flow chart of preparing pure ZnO nanoparticles and doping ZnO with lanthanum Figure 1. 2 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Engineering Techniques (ICSET 2019) IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering518 (2019) 032012 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/518/3/032012 Zinc acetate Concentrations of Polyethylene glycol dehydrate La dopant )Surfactant) Dissolved in 150 ml of distal water (D.W) Stirred for 50min Drop wise 3 ml of Ammonia solution tetrahedral compound of Zinc ions and converted to ZnO sol Filtration and washing with distal Water and Ethanol Result powder drying at 100oC for 1h Calcinated at 450 oC for 3 h Doping ZnONPs with different concentrations of La Figure1. flow chart of preparing pure ZnO nanoparticles and doping ZnO with lanthanum 2.2 Characterization of Samples The structural characteristics of the prepared pure ZnO NPs and doping ZnO samples have been investigated through X-Ray Diffraction (XRD, 6000-Shimadzu) with wavelength λ=0.15418 nm. The FTIR spectrum of the forming pure and doping ZnONPs were investigated with KBr 3 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Engineering Techniques (ICSET 2019) IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering518 (2019) 032012 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/518/3/032012 powders using a Perkin-Elmer Spectrum (FTIR, 8400S, Shimadzu). Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM, day petronic- Iran) was used to observe the average size and morphology of the pure ZnONPs and doping ZnO samples. 2.3 Evaluation of antibacterial activity of pure ZnONPs and doping ZnO samples The antibacterial tests of pure ZnO and La-ZnO hybrid are tested via plate count method against gram negative bacteria E.coil. 1 ml of bacterial suspension of E.coli (~107-108 CFU/ml as control) is add the desired samples of pure ZnO and ZnO doping with different percentages of La (0.25, 0.5, 0.75)% at the concentrations of (1,3,5) mg/ml, respectively. The samples of pure ZnO and doping ZnO are cultivated at 37 oC and shacked at 175 rpm for designed treatment time. The suspension was diluted serially (1:10) with normal saline (100µl spread out on a solid nutrient agar medium) using spread plate method. Then, after overnight incubation at 37 oC, the number of survived colonies of E.coli on each N. Agar was counted and calculated using the formula in equation (3) [15]: No of survival Cell = 100(N -N)/N ………... (3) o o Where N and N are the average number of survived bacteria (cell/ml) of control and tested o samples, respectively. 3. Results and discussions 3.1 Characterization Figure (2 a,b,c,d), represents XRD patterns of pure ZnO and doping ZnO with different concentrations of La calcinated at 450 Co for 3h , respectively. As shown in the 'Figure (2a, b,c,d)'. The planes (1 0 0), (0 0 2), (1 0 1), (102), (110), (103) and (112) represented the diffraction peaks of pure ZnO and doped ZnO with different percentage of La, respectively indicating the crystallization structure of La-doped ZnO with a hexagonal wurtzite and no secondly phase was found. Also, the results reveal no impurity peaks of La doping without changing or destruction in composition of ZnO through increasing La doping percentage through calcinated at 450 oC for 3h. The effect of adding La to ZnO is observed by measuring the crystalline size of strongest peak in samples (101) using Scherrer formula in equation (4) [16]: K D = …………….. (4)  cos 2 Where K is constant often approximated to 0.9, λ =1.45Å is the X-ray wavelength, 2θ the Bragg angle and β is the FWHM of the diffraction peak and it is found that crystalline size of doping ZnO with high percentage of La is smaller as compared with undoped ZnO. These results reveal that increasing La concentration leads to form La-O-Zn on the surface of doping ZnO and to reduce the growth of particle size of ZnO to small size especially at 0.50% and 0.75% of La. 4 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Engineering Techniques (ICSET 2019) IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering518 (2019) 032012 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/518/3/032012 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 3 0 1 1 1 d ZnO pure ZnO-La 25% ) u ZnO-La 50% . a c ( ZnO-La 75% y t i s n b e t n I a 25 35 45 55 65 75 2Ɵ (Ddegree) Figure 2: The XRD analysis of a) Pure ZnO and b) La-doped ZnO 25%, c) La-doped ZnO 50% and d) La-doped ZnO 75% In FTIR analysis (Figure 3), the results of undoped and doped ZnO by sol-gel process show peaks between 400 and 700 cm-1 which reveal the strong peaks of formation of pure and La- doped ZnO. The peaks at 420-490 cm-1 reveal the stretch vibrational of crystal hexagonal Zinc oxide in samples. Besides, peaks at range 916 -1269 cm-1 are related to bond forming between La and oxygen La-O [17]. The wavelengths between 3414-3880 cm-1 refers to broad peak of the functional groups hydroxyl OH from H O which indicate the formation of water molecules 2 adsorbed on the surface of undoped and doped ZnO. The peak at 2330 cm-1 reveals the absorption of atmospheric CO on the metal cations in samples which participate in adhesion 2 cells. 100 pure ZnO 90 ZnO/0.75La 80 ZnO/0.5%La 70 60 50 40 % 30 n o 20 is s im 10 s n 0 a r T 4000 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1600 1200 800 400 wavenumber cm-1 Figure 3. FTIR analysis of Pure ZnO and dope ZnO using various percentages of La dopants 5 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Engineering Techniques (ICSET 2019) IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering518 (2019) 032012 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/518/3/032012 Figure 4 a and b illustrate the morphology and microstructure properties of pure ZnO and La – doped ZnO samples, respectively after calcinated at 450 Co for 3 h. The FESEM images of pure ZnO reveal non-uniform morphology and incompletely formed crystalline particles as shown in Figure 4 a. The morphology of doping ZnO with La has revealed the formation of hexagonal and round shaped particles distributed and deposited on the surface of ZnO as shown in Figure 4 b in 50% La-doped ZnO since the particles size decreased for doped ZnO nanocrystals. a b Figure 4. The FESEM micrographs of a) pure ZnO and b) 50%La- doped ZnO morphologies 3.2 Evaluation of Antibacterial Activity of pure ZnO and La-doped ZnO The antibacterial activity of pure ZnO and 0.25%La-ZnO, 0.5%La -ZnO and 0.75%La -ZnO, with different concentrations (1, 3, and 5) mg/ml were evaluated by plate counting method. The number of colonies growing on the plates are demonstrate in Figure 5, 6, 7 and 8, respectively. Figure 5. Photograph of the colonies number (CFU) of a) E.coli incubated overnight at 37 0C corresponding to different concentrations of pure ZnO: a) 1mg, b) 3mg, c) 5mg 6 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Engineering Techniques (ICSET 2019) IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering518 (2019) 032012 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/518/3/032012 Figure 6. Photograph of the colonies number (CFU) of a) E.coli incubated overnight at 37 0C corresponding to different concentrations of ZnO/0.25La: a) 1mg, b) 3mg, c) 5mg Figure 7. Photograph of the colonies number (CFU) of a) E.coli incubated overnight at 37 0C corresponding to different concentrations of ZnO/0.5La: a) 1mg, b) 3mg, c) 5mg Figure 8. Photograph of the colonies number (CFU) of a) E.coli incubated overnight at 37 0C corresponding to different concentrations of ZnO/0.75La: a) 1mg, b) 3mg, c) 5mg According to the results of the survival of bacterial colonies, it was found that E.coli survived decrease at high percentage of La (0.5% and 0.75) doping ZnO and revealed higher antibacterial activities against E.coli than pure ZnO. It is very clear that cell membrane is damaged when microbial cells become in contact with the samples of ZnO doped-La. 'Figure (9)' represents the CFU/ml of survived bacteria after being treated with microbial cells since, the formation of hydroxyl groups (-OH) and superoxide (-O-2) through the preparation process of pure ZnO and doped ZnO with La under calcinated at 450 Co for 3 h leads to create the oxidizing agent reacting with peptidoglycan of cell membrane of E.coli [18]. 7 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Engineering Techniques (ICSET 2019) IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering518 (2019) 032012 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/518/3/032012 600000 i r e 400000 t c 1mg a 200000 B) U 3mg gF 0 5mg nC i v( i v r u S cons. of ZnO/La (mg/ml) Figure 9. number of survived bacteria (CFU/ml) after treated with microbial cells 4. Conclusions This process displays the preparation pure and doped ZnO with different percentage of La were by using sol-gel method. The samples are characterized by XRD and FESEM analysis performing the crystallites structure of Hexagonal Wurtzite phase of La-doping ZnO and showing the same morphology of pure ZnO with round shape which demonstrates that different concentrations of La has no appreciable effect on crystal structure. Besides, XRD analysis suggest that increasing La concentration leads to form La-O-Zn on the surface of doped ZnO and to reduce the particle size of ZnO to small size especially at 0.50% and 0.75% of La. FTIR analysis reveals the presence of La dopants ZnO and bond forming between La and oxygen. Antibacterial activity of ZnO with dopant concentrations La against E.coli appeared higher than pure ZnO because of creating oxidizing agent reaction of cell membrane of E.coli. References [1] Reyes-Vidal Y, Suarez-Rojas R., Ruiz C., Torres J., Talu Stefan, Méndez Alia and Trejo G. 2015 Appli Surf Scien. 342 34 – 41. [2] Yamamoto, O. 2001 Inte. J Inorg. Mater 3 643-646. [3] Padmavathy N and Vijayaraghavan R 2008 Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9 035004. [4] Kaneva N V and Dushkin C D 2011 Bulgar. Chemi. Communica. 43 259–263. [5] Vijayaraghavan R 2012 Inte. J. of Sci. Rese. 01 35-46. [6] Stoimenov P K, Klinger R.L., Marchin G.L. and Klabunde K. J 2002 Langmuir 6679– 6686. [7] Arun Jose L., Mary Linet J., Sivasubramanian V., Akhilesh K. Arora, Justin Raj C., Maiyalagan and Jerome Das T., S 2012 Mat. Sci. in Semi. Proces. 15 308-313. [8] Verma A., Khan F., Kar D., Chakravarty B.C., Singh S.N. and Husain M 2010 Thin Solid Films 518 2649–2653. [9] Korake P.V., Dhabbe R.S., Kadam A.N., Gaikwad Y.B., Garadkar K.M 2014 J. Photochem. Photobiol. B: Biol 130 11–19. [10] kdağ A., Budak H. F., Yılmaz M., Efe A, Büyükaydın M., Can M., Turgut G 2016 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 707 012020 [11] Sahil G., Nidhi S., Harsh Y and Binay K 2017 physics E 91 72-81 [12] Sridevi D and Rajendran K V 2010 Opto. and Adv. Mater. Rapid Communicat 4 1591 – 1593. [13] Manikandan A., Manikandan E., Meenatchi B., Vadivel S. and Jaganathan S.K 2017 J. of Alloys and Compounds 723 1155-116. [14] Suwanboon S., Amornpitoksuk P and Muensit N 2013 Adv Mate. Rese. 770 38-41 8 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Engineering Techniques (ICSET 2019) IOP Publishing IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering518 (2019) 032012 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/518/3/032012 [15] Duha. S. A, Ali. L. A, Azhar. J. B, and Jehan. Y. R, 2015, Eng. Tech. J., 33(8),1402– 1411. [16] Mohammad R. A., Saeed R-Z, 2012 Int. J. Mol. Sci., 13, 4340-4350. [17] Aijaz S., Ahmed A.S., Pandey R.S. and Choubey R.K 201 Recent Trends in Materials and Devices 178 205-210 [18] Fang M, Chen J H, Xu X L, Yang P H and Hildebrand H F 2006 J. Antimicrob. Agents 27 513–517. Acknowledgments Authors wishing to acknowledge assistance from (day petronic- Iran) for conducting Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) and centre of nanotechnology in University of Technology in Iraq for their conducting X-Ray Diffraction and FTIR spectrum and biotechnology lab for antibacterial tests. 9"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Experimental study of the performance of a CI engine fueled by a turmeric oil and diesel blend, with assistance from a magnetic activator [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'ajout d'un aimant est étudié pour améliorer la combustion d'un biocarburant exotique."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "6 V May 2018 http://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2018.5332 International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET) ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor: 6.887 Volume 6 Issue V, May 2018- Available at www.ijraset.com Performance Analysis of CI Engine Fueled With Turmeric Leaf Oil Assisted by Magnetic Fuel Energizer Nagabhushan G Revankar1, Ravinandan G V2, Pramod Hiremath3, PradeepKumar R Naik4, Prof. Dr. Mujeebulla Khan5, Prof. Girish S Halli6 1, 2, 3, 4U.G Student , Department of Mechanical Engineering, STJIT, Ranebennur, Karnataka, India 5Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, STJIT, Ranebennur, Karnataka, India 6Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, STJIT, Ranebennur, Karnataka, India Abstract: Turmeric leaf oil has shown as potential bio-fuel in these recent years. Properties like higher calorific value and low viscosity are the properties which are similar to the conventional diesel. This paper explains an experimental study about performance analysis of CI engine fueled with turmeric leaf oil along with magnetic fuel energizer. From the turmeric waste leaves, oil is extracted by steam distillation process. Three blends of turmeric leaf oil with diesel was prepared and also 1 and 2 magnetic fuel energizers are used to check performance of single cylinder 4 stroke with water cooled coupled to eddy current dynamometer loading with computerized result display. It has been observed that B10 and B20 blend performed well during part but overall performance of B30 with 2 Magnetizer was found better among other blends. Keywords: Turmeric Leaf oil, alternate fuel, biodiesel, diesel engine, magnetic fuel energizer, performance. I. INTRODUCTION Rudolf Diesel completely trusted that the use of a biomass fuel to be the genuine eventual fate of his motor. He needed to give agriculturists the chance to create their own particular fuel. Biodiesel can be expressed as a fuel that is comprised of a mono alkyl ester of a long chain of unsaturated fats that are gotten either from vegetable oil or creature fat. Vegetable oils have great start quality as they have since quite a while ago anchored structures which are not expanded. Conversely, the higher synthesis of oxygen content, carbon buildup and bigger atomic mass influences the warming to estimation of biodiesels essentially lower than diesel. They have higher blaze point and are around 10% denser than diesel, making them safe to store. Be that as it may, these have higher icy direct causing them toward thicken or even stop at low surrounding temperatures. Their poor unpredictability because of higher consistency is in charge of their lower cetane numbers. Further, biodiesels are biodegradable and lessen the CO cycle. Likewise, 2 they don't contain sulfur and any cancer-causing agents, in this manner they are not hurtful to living creatures. A related issue could be that, developing yields requires parcel of time and high speculation and transportation to neighborhood stations which makes the more costly than diesel. Most powers for inward burning motors are fluid, however fluid fills don't combust until the point when they are vaporized and blended with air. Most emanations from engine vehicles comprise of unburned hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen. Unburned hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen respond in the environment and make brown haze. Exhaust cloud is the prime reason for eye and throat disturbance, poisonous odors, plant harm and diminished perceivability. Oxides of nitrogen are additionally poisonous. For the most part, powers for inward ignition motor are compound of particles. Every particle comprises of various molecules made up of number of core and electrons. Attractive developments as of now exist in their atoms and in this manner, in them as of now have positive and negative electrical charges. Be that as it may, these particles have not been realigned, the fuel isn't effectively interlocked with oxygen amid ignition, the fuel atom or hydrocarbon chains must be ionized and realigned. The ionization and realignment is accomplished through the use of attractive field made by 'Magnetizer'. The ionization fuel likewise breaks down the carbon develop in carburetor, planes, and fuel injector and ignition chamber, subsequently keeping the motors clear condition. II. OBJECTIVES A. It is proposed to use Turmeric Leaf Oil in the CI engine. B. Magnetizer is particularly effective for improving the combustion efficiency of fuel. 2029 ©IJRASET: All Rights are Reserved International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET) ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor: 6.887 Volume 6 Issue V, May 2018- Available at www.ijraset.com C. Evaluation of biofuel properties. D. Evaluation of performance and emission characteristicsof biofuel in diesel engine. E. By using Magnetizer, combustion efficiency of fuel will be tested. III. TURMERIC LEAF OIL A. Extraction of Turmeric Leaf Oil 1) Steam Distillation: Steam Distillation is the most popular method which is used to extract and separate essential oils from plants for use in natural products. This happens when the steam vaporizes the plant material’s volatile compounds, which go through a condensation and collection process. 2) Steam Distillation Process: A large container called a Still, which is generally made up of stainless steel, containing the plant material has steam passed to it. With the help of inlet, steam is injected to the plant material containing the desired oils, which releases the plant’s aromatic molecules and turns them into vapor. The vaporized plant compounds travels to the Condenser. Here, two separate pipes aremade it to pass the hot water to exit and for cold water enter into the Condenser. Thus, vapor cools back into the liquid form. The fragrant fluid result drops from the condenser and gathers inside a repository underneath it, which is known as Separator. Since water and oil don’t blend, the fundamental oil oats over the water. From here, it is redirected.Some of the fundamental oils are much heavier than water, for example clove basic oil, so they are found at the base of the separator. B. Turmeric Leaf Biodiesel 1) Preparation of Turmeric Leaf Biodiesel Biodiesel can be produced from vegetables oil, animal oil or fats and waste oils. There are mainly three routes to produce biodiesel from fats and oil. a) Base catalyzed transesterification of oil b) Direct corrosive catalyzed transesterification of oil. c) Conversion of oil to its unsaturated fats and after that to biodiesel. All biodiesel are generated by base catalyzed transesterification as it is the most efficient process requiring just low temperature and weights and delivering a 98% transformation yield. A transesterification process is the reaction of triglyceride i.e., fat or oil with liquor to form esters and glycerol. A triglyceride has a glycerineparticlesas its base with three long chain unsaturated fats connected. The qualities of the fat are dictated by the idea of unsaturated fats joined to the glycerine. The idea of the unsaturated fats can thus influence the qualities of the biodiesel. During the esterification procedure, the triglyceride is responded with liquor within the sight of an impetus, generally a solid basic like sodium hydroxide. The liquor responds with the unsaturated fats to form the mono-alkyl ester, or biodiesel and unrefined glycerol. In most creation methanol or ethanol is the liquor utilized where methanol produces methyl esters, and ethanol produces ethyl esters and is base catalyzed by either potassium or sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide has been observed to be more appropriate for ethyl ester biodiesel generation either base can be utilized for the methyl ester. A typical result of the transesterification procedure is Rape Methyl Ester (RME) delivered from crude rapeseed oil responded with methanol. Figure.1: Chemical reaction for Methyl esters biodiesel The products of the reaction are the biodiesel itself and glycerol. A successful transesterification reaction is signified by the separation of the ester and glycerol layers after the reaction time. The heavier, co-product, glycerol settles out and may be sold as it is or it may be purified for use in other industries, e.g. the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, etc. 2030 ©IJRASET: All Rights are Reserved International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET) ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor: 6.887 Volume 6 Issue V, May 2018- Available at www.ijraset.com C. Production of Biodiesel Figure 2: Biodiesel Production Process D. Transesterification Process The steps involved in the trans-esterification process are as follows: It consists of two methods. They are: 1) Free fatty acid: Weigh about 4 grams of NaOH using weighing machine. Measure 1 litre of distilled water into one litre standard flask. Using a glass rod to break the NaOH flakes and dissolve it by constant and uniform stirring. Take 25ml of 0.1N NaOH solution prepared transfer into a clean and dry burette. Take 50ml of Isopropyl alcohol in a clean and dry 250ml conical flask and then add 10gm of parent oil to flask. Add few drops of NaOH solution to the above flask and shake well. Heat the above mixture to about 60oC.Titrate against 0.1N NaOH from the burette.Titrate, with shaking, with the NaOH solution to the end point of the indicator, the pink color persisting for at least 10sec.The free fatty acid value is calculated by the formula : 28.2xNxV/M Where, V is the number of ml of NaOH solution , N is the normality, M is the mass in ml of the sample 2) Mixing of alcohol and catalyst: A specified amount of methanol is added with a measured quantity of NaOH which acts as catalyst, into a flask. 3) Reaction: This mixture is then added into a closed reaction vessel and the respective oil is added and heated to 60-80oC. This reaction converts the fats into the esters. Once in a while, an additional measure of fuel can be included request to guarantee finish transformation of fats to esters. 4) Separation of biodiesel and glycerin: After the completion of reaction, two products exist: biodiesel and glycerin. The quantity of glycerin varies as per the kind and quantity of vegetable oil. 5) Removal of alcohol: The mixture of biodiesel and glycerin is heated up to 60oC, thus producing the steams, which separates the amount of glycerol from the mixture. The methanol is sufficiently dry in order to recirculate it back into the reaction. 6) Glycerin neutralization: The glycerin byproduct contains unwanted quantity of catalyst and soap and needs to be neutralized with an acid. 7) Methyl ester water wash: This is the final phase which ensures the complete removal of unwanted contents from the biodiesel, so as to make it compatible with the diesel engine. The single phase method is usedwhenthe free fatty acids (FFA) amount in oil is below 4%. This involves a measured amount of alcohol as methanol and the catalyst NaOH and the mixture is heated and maintained at 65oC. If fatty acids is greater than 4%, double phase method is used. It involves mixture of H SO and methanol 2 4 to be taken and added and supplied to esterification process first and then it is heated and maintained at 65-80oc. This is then passed onto and previous process is carried out. 8) Magnetic Fuel Energizer: Magnetic fuel energizer is used to maximize the mileage by using less diesel fuel. In other words, magnetic fuelenergizer able to reduce the diesel consumption in the diesel engine.Magnetic Fuel Saver is a device which is used to alter atomic construction and organize fuel molecules (fuel quality) so that proper combustion happens in I.C. engine/automobile. E. Working ofMagnetic Fuel Energizer: Diesel fuels is in the form of liquid when it’s in the oil tank and the important point is fuel will only combust when they are vaporized and mixed with the air. Thus, something has to be done to break the particles into finer tiny particles to improve the combustion. Magnets help to ionize the fuel. Fuel is basically from the groupings of hydrocarbons. Whenthe molecules of hydrocarbon flowing through a magnetic field, it changes their orientation and molecules of hydrocarbon change their configuration. 2031 ©IJRASET: All Rights are Reserved International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET) ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor: 6.887 Volume 6 Issue V, May 2018- Available at www.ijraset.com Thus, thisresults in changes of molecule configuration and weaken the intermolecular force between the molecules.This has the effect of ensuring that the fuel actively interlocks with the oxygen, producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. In other words, magnetic field actually disperses themolecules into more tiny particles and making the fuel less viscous. Figure 3 shows,how magnets help to disperse the molecules. Emission is another hot topic of diesel engine. Emission of dangerous gaseous such as oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulphur is the result of incomplete combustion in the combustion chamber.The result is higher engine output, better fuel economy and a reduction in the hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen that are emitted through the exhaust. The ionization of the fuel also helps to dissolve the carbon build-up in carburetor jets, fuel injectors and combustion chambers, thereby keeping the engine in a cleaner condition. Thus, magnetic field can improve the combustion level. Figure 3: Disperse of molecules using Magnetic Fuel Energizer IV. MATERIALS AND METHODS Experiment is done on single cylinder, 4 stroke, water cooled with eddy current dynamometer loading computerized diesel engine. It is used for evaluation of performance characteristics of Turmeric leaf biodiesel blend with diesel which can be used as an alternative fuel. Fuel supply is assisted by external device called as Magnetic fuel energizer.The performance of turmeric leaf biodiesel with magnetizer and without magnetizer at different loads are evaluated. A. Installation of Magnetic Fuel Energizer In this experiment we installed the fuel energizer on inlet pipe of diesel engine as shown in Fig. 4 to get maximum effect. Figure 4.1: Fuel Line with 1 Magnetic fuel Energizer Figure 4.2: Fuel Line with 2 Magnetic fuel Energizer Figure 4: Installation of Magnetic fuel Energizer Engine Specification Make: Kirloskar Engine rated power: 3.500KW Engine rated speed: 1500rpm Diameter of the cylinder: 87.5mm Clearance volume: 210.00mm Number of cylinders: 1 2032 ©IJRASET: All Rights are Reserved International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET) ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor: 6.887 Volume 6 Issue V, May 2018- Available at www.ijraset.com Orifice diameter: 20mm Dynamometer: 1mm Arm length: 150mm Fuel rate: 15cc Sensor: B. Results Table 1: Comparison of Properties of Turmeric Leaf Biodiesel blends with diesel: Properties Diesel B100 B10 B20 B30 Density (kg/mm3) 0.842 0.850 0.825 0.828 0.830 Kinematic Viscosity 2.5 1.058 2.152 2.042 1.913 (mm2/s) at 400C Flash point (0c) 70 55 65 50 50 Fire point (0C) 78 60 70 60 65 Calorific value 44000 33050.41 41612.54 42361.72 43431.90 (MJ/Kg) 1) Brake power Figure 5: Variation of Brake Power with Load The variation of brake power with load for different fuels is presented in the figure 5. In this graph brake power is increased with increased in load. The maximum brake power is found in Diesel as compared to other blend fuels. 2) Brake Thermal Efficiency Figure 6: Variation of Brake Thermal efficiency with Load 2033 ©IJRASET: All Rights are Reserved International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET) ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor: 6.887 Volume 6 Issue V, May 2018- Available at www.ijraset.com The variation of brake thermal efficiency with load for different loads is presented in figure 6. In all cases, brake thermal efficiency is increased with increase in load. This was due to reduction in heat loss and increase in power with increase in load. The maximum brake thermal efficiency obtained is for B20, B10 and is higher than that of diesel. The brake thermal efficiency obtained for B30, B30 with 1 Magnetizer and B30 with 2 Magnetizer is less than diesel. This lower brake thermal efficiency obtained could be due to increase in fuel consumption when compared to B10 and B20. 3) Indicated Thermal Efficiency Figure 7: Variation of Indicated Thermal efficiency with Load The variation of Indicated thermal efficiency with load for different fuels is presented in figure 7. In all cases, indicated thermal efficiency is increased and decreased with an increase in load. This was due to reduction in heat loss and increase in power with increase in load. The maximum indicated thermal efficiency obtained is for B20, B10 and is higher than that of diesel. The indicated thermal efficiency obtained for B30, B30 with 1 Magnetizer and B30 with 2 Magnetizer is less than diesel. This lower indicated thermal efficiency obtained could be due to increase in fuel consumption as compared to B20 and B10. 4) Specific Fuel Consumption Figure 8: Variation of Brake Specific Fuel Consumption with Load 2034 ©IJRASET: All Rights are Reserved International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET) ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor: 6.887 Volume 6 Issue V, May 2018- Available at www.ijraset.com The variation of specific fuel consumption with load for different loads is presented in figure 8. Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is the ratio between mass fuel consumption and brake effective power, and for a given fuel, it is inversely proportional to thermal efficiency.BSFC decreased sharply with increase in load for all fuels.The main reason for this could be that the percent increase in fuel required to operate the engine is less than the percent increase in brake power, because relatively less portion of the heat is lost at higher loads.The maximum BSFC was found in B10 and B20 and it is much higher than the diesel B30, B30 with 1 magnetizer and B30 with 2 Magnetizer. V. CONCLUSION With the obtained results for experimentation following conclusion can be drawn: Turmeric leaf oil with B10 and B20 blend has shown highest indicated thermal efficiency as compared to other blends. Turmeric leaf oil with B30 blend has shown less specific fuel consumption for the same output during part and full load. Addition of 2 magnetizer with B30 blend has improved the brake power due to efficient combustion process. Blend B30 with 2 magnetizer has performed well during part load and full load condition. Turmeric leaf oil has emerged as one alternate fuel for diesel with optimum B30 blend with 2magnetizer. REFERENCES [1] Ankit K. Bawaskar et al. “A Review Variable Compression Diesel Engine with Turmeric Leaf oil based Bio-diesel”. [2] Nilesh Mundle et al. “A Preliminary Phytochemical Evaluation of the oil extracted from Leaves of Turmeric (Curcurma longa L. and its application as biofuel)”. [3] Sachin Meshram et al. “Evaluation of performance and emission characteristics of Turmeric leaves based fuel on 4-Stroke S.I engine”. [4] Kaustubh Dhamale et al. “Performance Evaluation of Turmeric Leaf Oil as an Alternative fuel”. [5] N. Stalin “Performance Test Of I C Engine Using Karanja Biodiesel Blending With Diesel”. [6] Shweta Jain, “Experimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C. engine”. [7] Shivakumar, “Investigation of Gassified Vegetable Oils Blend with Petrol as Substitute Fuel in SI Engine on Road Vehicle”. [8] ShashikantS.Kemdarne, “A Review on Alternative Fuel for Diesel”. [9] Mr.T.N. Bhusanar et al. “A Review on Performance & Emission Analysis of Different Biodiesel and its Blend”. [10] K. Sivaramakrishnan, “Determination Of Cetane Number Of Biodiesel And It’s Influence On Physical Properties” 2035 ©IJRASET: All Rights are Reserved"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant permanent (165 Gauss) a permis des réductions de pollution extrêmes sur une moto (CO -91,18%, HC -77,03%) ."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Référence sur les additifs et la magnétisation dans les moteurs Diesel."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~3855 Gauss ; magnetic field ~1071.57 Tesla ; CO -85.0 % ; HC -51.0 %. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "Ce document est une méta-analyse visant à prouver que les aimants peuvent rendre les moteurs plus efficaces et moins polluants. La théorie est que les champs magnétiques, s'ils sont suffisamment forts et bien réglés, peuvent augmenter l'énergie que l'on tire du carburant et le faire brûler plus complètement. Les aimants agissent sur la structure moléculaire du carburant, ce qui aide à réduire les polluants comme le CO et les HC. L'étude conclut que la magnétisation du carburant est une méthode viable pour le transport futur."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Examens des énergies renouvelables et durables 79 (2017) 1392– 1399 Listes de contenus disponibles surScienceDirect Examens énergétiques renouvelables et durables Enquête sur les recherches dans la magnétisation du carburant pour améliorer les caractéristiques des moteurs à combustion interne Hasanain A. Abdul-Wahhab⁎, Hussain H. Al-Kayiem, A. Rashid A. Aziz, Mohammad S. Nasif Département de génie mécanique, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaisie ARTICLEINFO ABSTRAIT Mots clés: Ce document passe en revue l'historique des tentatives précédentes sur le comportement des performances et des Émissions émissions des moteurs à combustion interne (ICE) en investissant dans l'aimantation du carburant. Les Technologie de carburant concepteurs de moteurs sont actuellement confrontés à de sérieux défis liés à la réduction des émissions dans l'ICE Moteur à combustion interne en affinant leur consommation de carburant et leurs performances. Dans le passé, de nombreux efforts ont été Magnétisation du carburant matérialisés pour réduire les émissions et augmenter l'efficacité de la combustion. Il est important de réaliser et de caractériser l'influence des paramètres de combustion lorsqu'un champ magnétique est appliqué aux hydrocarbures. La nécessité d'une meilleure compréhension de l'interaction entre les champs magnétiques et les processus de combustion a été clairement mise en évidence dans cet article de synthèse. 1. Introduction potentiel d'amélioration de l'économie de carburant. Néanmoins, diverses stratégies modernes de contrôle des émissions réduisent Le moteur à combustion interne (ICE) a commencé à se développer parfois fortement l'économie de carburant. De nos jours, les à la fin du 19e siècle, suivi d'un progrès régulier mais lent au cours des concepteurs sont confrontés aux plus grands défis concernant la cent années suivantes[1]. L'idée d'une amélioration d'environ 97% des réduction des émissions dans l'ICE en affinant leur consommation de émissions d'échappement semblait inimaginable vers le milieu des carburant et leurs performances. Pour cette raison, on croyait années 70, lorsque le contrôle des émissions en était à ses débuts. auparavant que la conception du moteur est plus impérative que les Cependant, de nos jours, cela est réalisable sans aucune difficulté bien propriétés du carburant. Néanmoins, pour un moteur donné destiné à que les émissions de carburant (ICE) évoluent et s'améliorent être utilisé pour une tâche spécifique, l'économie de carburant est liée constamment afin de se conformer aux exigences de puissance, au pouvoir calorifique du carburant, bien qu'un moteur conventionnel d'échappement et d'économie en constante évolution. Au cours de cette actuel subisse un bruit de combustion relativement élevé, une période, plusieurs variantes et concepts ont vu le jour et ont disparu, puissance spécifique faible et un degré élevé de émissions mais pour tous les modes d'applications automobiles, le moteur à d'échappement. Pour atteindre cet objectif, à l'heure actuelle, de quatre temps conventionnel est continuellement resté le moteur le plus nombreuses solutions ont été utilisées ces dernières années[4]. important. De nos jours, les moteurs ICE sont mis en œuvre Ces solutions comprennent l'amélioration de la combustion du universellement pour la production d'électricité, la construction, le carburant en mélangeant du carburant liquide ou du gaz[5–7], en transport, l'agriculture et la fabrication.Fig. 1montre la répartition améliorant le système d'injection[8],modification de la recirculation générale de l'énergie où l'on voit que le transport routier demande près des gaz d'échappement (EGR), de la chambre de combustion ainsi que de 16 % des sources de carburant disponibles[2]. Au cours des cinq de la conception de la tête de piston[9,10], par l'utilisation de années suivantes, il y aurait en outre un minimum de 70 % carburant biodiesel[11,12], et par l'utilisation du champ magnétique d'amélioration pour contribuer à un bénéfice total supérieur à 99 %. pour changer l'orientation des hydrocarbures et des molécules Ainsi, dans les 30 prochaines années, l'idée d'émissions quasi nulles d'hydrocarbures en modifiant leur configuration, et en utilisant les gaz des ICE ne serait probablement plus un fantasme et deviendrait un d'échappement extraits des systèmes de traitement (catalyseurs objectif réalisable de manière réaliste.[3]. Bien que certains des d'oxydation de carburant avec filtres à particules de carburant ou catalyseurs de combustion puissent réduire les émissions, il n'y a en systèmes de réduction catalytique sélective). Ce document décrit la réalité aucune influence mesurable sur l'économie de carburant. Afin mesure dans laquelle l'investissement dans la magnétisation du d'être efficace dans l'économie de carburant, un catalyseur doit amener carburant est nécessaire afin d'améliorer les caractéristiques du le moteur à brûler entièrement du carburant. Cependant, peu moteur à combustion interne et l'étendue de la réduction des d'améliorations sont possibles. L'efficacité de la combustion du moteur émissions. ICE est généralement supérieure à 98 %. De nombreuses améliorations Reçu le 23 mai 2016 ; Reçu sous forme révisée le 11 mars 2017 ; Accepté le 19 mai 2017 continues de la conception pour la réduction des émissions pourraient 1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. Tous droits réservés. avoir un ⁎Auteur co rrespondant. Adresse e-mail:[email protected] (HA Abdul-Wahhab). HA Abdul-Wahhab et al. Examens des énergies renouvelables et durables 79 (2017) 1392– Fig. 1.Distribution générale d'énergie[5]. 2. Magnétisation des hydrocarbures 2.1. Notions de base La plupart des carburants pour ICE sont en phase liquide ; ne subissent pas de combustion tant qu'ils ne sont pas mélangés à l'air après vaporisation. D'autre part, les émissions des véhicules à moteur contiennent des oxydes d'azote, des hydrocarbures imbrûlés ainsi que du monoxyde de carbone[13]. Les oxydes d'azote ainsi que les hydrocarbures non brûlés réagissent ensemble dans l'atmosphère et génèrent du smog[13–15]. Normalement, le carburant requis pour l'ICE est un composé de molécules. Selon Zhao et Ladommatos[16] et Wakayama et Sugie[17], chaque molécule individuelle comprend de nombreux atomes composés de nombreux électrons ainsi que des neutrons en orbite autour de leur noyau. Il existe une présence des mouvements magnétiques à l'intérieur de leurs molécules ; de plus, ils contiennent également des charges électriques qui sont aussi bien négatives que positives. Cependant, lors du processus de combustion, le carburant n'est pas combiné vigoureusement à l'oxygène et les molécules ne sont pas réalignées. De plus, les chaînes d'hydrocarbures ou les molécules de carburant doivent être à la fois réalignées et ionisées[18–20]. Le processus de réalignement avec ionisation est accompli en appliquant un champ magnétique[21,22]. Le traitement effectué des molécules d'hydrocarbures en présence d'un champ magnétique élevé leur ferait probablement perdre leur forme d'amas et prendre la forme de minuscules associés ayant une surface définie plus grande afin de réaliser une réaction impliquant l'oxygène qui aboutit à une combustion améliorée. Selon l'invention de Van Der Waals de la force faible de regroupement, il existe une forte liaison entre l'oxygène et les hydrocarbures dans ce champ magnétisé, ce qui garantit la meilleure combustion possible des deux à l'intérieur de la chambre du moteur.[23,24]. Le carburant contient généralement des hydrocarbures, et lors de l'écoulement du carburant autour du champ magnétique, la disposition des hydrocarbures est modifiée[15]. De même, la force intermoléculaire est significativement abaissée ou déprimée. On dit que ces méthodes aident à disperser les molécules d'huile pour les diviser finement[14]. Il provoque un effet qui garantit que le carburant se combine vigoureusement avec l'oxygène et entraîne un processus de combustion complet à l'intérieur de la chambre de combustion, comme indiqué dansFigure 2 [16]. Les résultats sont une diminution du monoxyde de carbone, des oxydes d'azote et des hydrocarbures qui sont émis par les gaz d'échappement et une meilleure économie des carburants. L'ionisation du carburant aide à dissoudre le carbone qui s'accumule dans la chambre de combustion, le carburateur, l'injecteur de carburant et les jets, par conséquent, il maintient l'état de l'aimant de carburant qui est monté sur les camions et les moteurs de voiture immédiatement avant l'injecteur ou le carburateur est sur la conduite de carburant. Pour la localisation du pôle sud adjacent à la conduite de carburant et du pôle nord espacé de la conduite de carburant, l'orientation est définie pour l'aimant afin de rendre le champ magnétique[16]. Magnétisation pour les hydrocarbures les plus simples La forme la plus simple d'hydrocarbure est le méthane ayant la formule chimique (CH4), est un fournisseur important d'hydrogène qui est l'élément principal du gaz naturel. Les molécules de méthane sont composées d'un atome de carbone et de quatre atomes d'hydrogène et sont électriquement neutres.[15,18]. En ce qui concerne l'énergie, la plus grande quantité d'énergie pouvant être libérée est contenue dans l'atome d'hydrogène, puisque la quantité de carbone dans l'octane est de 84,2 %. La partie carbonée de la molécule lorsqu'elle subit une combustion produit une quantité d'énergie de 28479,544 kJ/kg. De même, l'hydrogène se compose de 15,8% car son poids moléculaire est censé produire (22797,126 kJ / kg). L'hydrogène est l'élément le plus simple et le moins lourd et est identifié comme le composant principal des hydrocarbures (à l'exclusion d'une moindre quantité de soufre ainsi que de gaz inertes et de carbone)[17]. L'atome d'hydrogène est constitué de deux charges comme indiqué dansFigure 3[18],une charge négative appelée électron et une charge positive appelée proton. De plus, il contient un moment dipolaire. De plus; il peut être à la fois paramagnétique et diamagnétique en réaction au champ magnétique en fonction de l'orientation du spin du noyau. En conséquence, il se produit sous deux formes de gamme isomériques différentes appelées ortho et para, qui sont caractérisées par divers spins opposés du noyau. La molécule ortho prend les niveaux de rotation qui sont impairs lorsque les spins sont parallèles avec une orientation similaire pour deux atomes. En conséquence, il agit comme un paramagnétique et est utilisé comme catalyseur pour diverses réactions. La molécule de parahydrogène occupe le niveau de rotation qui est pair, et l'état de spin est dans la direction opposée d'un atome par rapport à l'autre, ce qui le rend diamagnétique. Un effet marqué sur les propriétés physiques telles que la pression de vapeur, la chaleur spécifique et le comportement des molécules de gaz a été causé par l'orientation du spin. L'hydrogène ortho devient instable en raison de spins coïncidents, malgré le fait que l'hydrogène para est moins réactif que son homologue ortho hydrogène. L'intensité du champ interne à l'intérieur d'un matériau soumis à un champ externe est représentée par la densité du champ magnétique[21]. La densité de flux magnétique est mesurée en gauss ou tesla où 1 T = 104 gauss. L'amplitude de la force magnétique est un indicateur de l'énergie magnétique qui peut être fournie par une source magnétique[23]. La densité de champ magnétique qui est censée être transmise au combustible fluctue en fonction de l'équipement de combustion ainsi que de la vitesse de combustion[20]. La distance 2 HA Abdul-Wahhab et al. Examens des énergies renouvelables et durables 79 (2017) 1392– entre l'aimantation et la zone de combustion est également importante. Pour obtenir un bon effe t magnétique, il doit être le plus proche possible. Cependant, la température du matériau magnétique doit être maintenue sous la température critique des propriétés magnétiques dans un matériau magnétique.[25]. Par contre, le champ magnétique qui satisfait les équations de Maxwell et la conductivité électrique ont donné ce comportement[26] tandis que la conductivité électrique du carburant diminue à mesure que le soufre est éliminé au cours du processus de raffinage. La plupart des carburants, tels que le diesel, produits avant 2006, ayant une teneur en soufre plus élevée et présentant généralement une conductivité électrique comprise entre 150 et 250 (ps/m), dépendent de la teneur en soufre du carburant[27]. 2.2. Effect de magnétiquefichamp sur le comportement de combustion Le fait que les champs magnétiques affectent le comportement des flammes a été prouvé. Certaines recherches ont été effectuées sur l'effet causé par le champ magnétique sur les écoulements de gaz avec les flammes[28–30]. Les modifications du flux gazeux, ainsi que la forme de la flamme, sont comprises comme le résultat du rôle de l'oxygène. L'oxygène est paramagnétique et s'aligne avec le champ magnétique pour former une couche d'oxygène. La couche d'oxygène repousse les autres gaz et flammes[30]. Ueno et al.[28]ont constaté que la vitesse de combustion était modifiée si le site de réaction de combustion était exposé à un champ magnétique. Salamandre et Shlyakman[31] appliqué un champ électrique à un mélange air-carburant homogène. Les résultats ont indiqué que l'intensité du champ électrique augmente à mesure que la vitesse de la flamme augmente. Quelques autres résultats Fig. 2.Vue schématique du champ magnétique[20]. 3 HA Abdul-Wahhab et al. Examens des énergies renouvelables et durables 79 (2017) 1392– Fig. 3.Orientation atomique[22]. suggéré la possibilité d'un contrôle magnétique de la combustion et de l'air flux[32]. Les hydrocarbures sont considérés comme une ressource énergétique importante pour les personnes depuis les temps anciens. L'importance de la combustion ne peut pas être ignoré. Cependant, les modifications chimiques énormes et effrénées qui se produisent dans cette réaction entraînent une difficulté à déterminer les voies mécanistes.[33–35]. La vitesse à laquelle la consommation de carburant a lieu est réduite pour améliorer la qualité du carburant. En ce qui concerne la thermodynamique, les initiatives visant à augmenter l'enthalpie de combustion sont considérées comme les plus grandes avancées pour atteindre cet objectif. Une vue schématique de l'effet du champ magnétique sur le processus de combustion est affichée dans Figure 4 [33], on pense que l'énergie qui est gratuite n'est pas affectée car toutes les liaisons primaires sont rompues pour créer de nouvelles liaisons au cours du processus de combustion. De ce fait, les produits évitent les effets du champ magnétique. Par conséquent, la chaleur de combustion ou l'enthalpie de combustion est augmentée, entraînant une amélioration de la qualité du carburant ainsi qu'une diminution de la consommation de carburant par la suite. Ces explications étayaient les rapports fournis par les entreprises impliquées dans la fabrication de l'économiseur de carburant magnétique. Bien que plusieurs conceptions aient été proposées, elles ont échoué car les conditions exigées pour appliquer le champ magnétique, par exemple la force, n'étaient pas remplies. Des études empiriques antérieures ont produit des résultats avec une chance de diminution de la consommation de carburant en raison de l'application du champ magnétique pour ajouter du carburant avant le processus de combustion.[33,36,37]. De quelle manière ces modifications affectent la combustion Tableau 1 Modifications des performances et des paramètres d'émission dues à différentes intensités de champ magnétique[48]. ParamètresBase moteur Moteur cuivré, Moteur revêtu de % % zircone, % Augmentation de 3.2 6.6 11.2 l'efficacité thermique des freins Réduction des cycliques 8.6 8.8 12.1 variation Réduction du CO 13.3 23,5 29,5 émission Réduction des 22.1 37.3 44.2 HC émission 4 HA Abdul-Wahhab et al. Examens des énergies renouvelables et durables 79 (2017) 1392– Fig. 4.Vue schématique de l'effet du champ magnétique sur le comportement de combustion[37]. l'enthalpie du carburant est indiquée dans Figure 4. 3. Effect de magnétiquefichamp sur les émissions dans le moteur à allumage commandé ainsi que la consommation de carburant Une procédure et un instrument ont été démontrés par Sanderson[38], afin de traiter le carburant liquide à l'intérieur des moteurs à combustion interne en le faisant passer par un champ magnétique avant de le combiner avec de l'air dans l'injecteur de carburant ou le carburateur[39], alors qu'un test expérimental a été réalisé par Janezak et Krensel[40]. Afin de traiter l'essence avec le champ magnétique à des fins de pollution efficace ainsi que de combustion, leur découverte considérée comme une unité d'aimant permanent pouvant être montée comme adaptateurs de rattrapage à l'extérieur de la conduite de carburant ne provoque aucune séparation ou altération entre le système d'allumage et le carburant.[41,42]. Govindasamy et Dhandapani[43], ont rapporté que l'utilisation d'une forte charge magnétique obtenue à partir de l'entrée de l'aimant dans le moteur à allumage par étincelle à deux temps de la conduite de carburant entraîne une combustion complète, afin d'augmenter la puissance et de réduire les dépenses du processus.Figure 5 démontre ce qui suit : (a) variation de l'efficacité thermique des freins avec le rapport air-carburant (b) champ magnétique sur la conduite de carburant. De plus, le flux magnétique sur la ligne de carburant diminue considérablement les Fig. 5.Afficher (a) le champ magnétique sur la conduite de carburant, (b) la variation de l'efficacité thermique des freins avec le rapport air-carburant[48]. émissions destructrices de l'échappement tout en augmentant le kilométrage et en améliorant les performances du moteur[44–46]. De plus, l'efficacité du processus de combustion augmente et offre une performance d'octane accrue. Le moteur a été fait fonctionner dans un mode de vitesse constante, et les cas suivants ont été considérés pour acquérir des résultats : le moteur de base, le moteur avec un champ magnétique permanent d'intensité différente (3000, 4500 et 9000) gauss, le moteur revêtu de cuivre avec flux magnétique 9000 gauss et zircone. Des modifications de divers paramètres avec un moteur ayant un revêtement de zirconium, de base et de cuivre ayant un flux magnétique de 9000 gauss sont présentées dansTableau 1 [43]. Il a été montré dans les résultats expérimentaux que le flux magnétique dans le carburant diminue l'émission de monoxyde de carbone jusqu'à 23% dans le moteur revêtu de cuivre (situé dans la culasse), jusqu'à 13% pour le moteur de base avec 29% dans le moteur revêtu de zirconium ( situé dans la culasse) moteur ayant un flux magnétique de 9000 gauss[47,48]. Alors qu'Al-Ali et al.[49] utilisaient deux types de dispositifs magnétiques, le premier type était fixé à l'intérieur du réservoir de carburant et l'autre était fixé dans la conduite de carburant. Les résultats ont montré une diminution de 18% de la consommation moyenne de carburant et une diminution de 70% des émissions de HC et de CO2 et une diminution de 68% des NOX a été mesurée. L'effet causé par le champ magnétique sur les moteurs à combustion interne a été étudié par Al-Dossary[50]. Ce champ magnétique a été produit par les électroaimants à l'aide d'une batterie de voiture de 12 V en faisant fluctuer la configuration avec la force du champ magnétique. L'effet magnétique a produit une diminution de la consommation spécifique de carburant qui n'était constamment perceptible qu'à la moindre charge mesurant 20 Nm avec une vitesse maximale et minimale de 1000 tr/min et 3000 tr/min en utilisant un aimant. La diminution la plus notable était l'effet sur le CO par rapport à l'ensemble des émissions produites à la vitesse et à la charge du moteur, en particulier à la vitesse de 1000 tr/min qui était la plus faible en utilisant un total de cinq aimants. La diminution la plus constante de HC était également considérable à la vitesse de 1000 tr/min en utilisant un total de quatre aimants, alors que,[51]. L'effet causé par le champ magnétique sur les moteurs à combustion interne a été étudié par Farrag et Saber[22]. Cette étude s'est concentrée sur les paramètres mesurés pour les performances du moteur, comme les émissions d'échappement ainsi que la consommation de carburant. L'application du champ magnétique a été effectuée sur le moteur SI en utilisant de l'essence. En plus de cela, le carburant était exposé à un aimant permanent qui était monté sur les conduites d'admission du carburant. À différents régimes de ralenti du moteur, des expériences ont été réalisées. Les émissions des gaz d'échappement ont été analysées à l'aide d'un analyseur de gaz d'échappement. L'effet de l'aimant avec une diminution de la 5 HA Abdul-Wahhab et al. Examens des énergies renouvelables et durables 79 (2017) 1392– consommation de carburant était d'environ 15 % de diminution de CO à chaque régime de ralenti ; dans une fourchette d'environ 7 %. La diminution de l'effet causé par les émissions de NO était d'environ 30 %. L'effet causé sur les performances du moteur à allumage par étincelle en raison du carburant magnétisé a été étudié par Habbo et al.[52]. Les performances du moteur ont été étudiées avec soin en étudiant les quatre paramètres que sont le rendement thermique (ηth), la puissance de freinage du moteur (bp), les émissions de gaz d'échappement ainsi que la consommation spécifique de carburant (SFC). Le carburant a été exposé à un champ magnétique qui a été maintenu dans la conduite d'alimentation en carburant afin de magnétiser le carburant avant son placement dans le cylindre du moteur. Les résultats ont montré une amélioration notable des performances du moteur. La puissance du moteur, ainsi que l'efficacité thermique ont été augmentées de 3,3% et 4%, lors de l'utilisation d'une bobine magnétique de 1000 gauss. De plus, une diminution de la consommation spécifique de carburant a été obtenue. Cependant, cette puissance de freinage a été augmentée d'environ 16,4 % et l'efficacité thermique a été augmentée de 7,6 %, et la consommation spécifique de carburant a été réduite de 21,3 % lorsque la bobine magnétique de 2000 gauss a été utilisée sans champ magnétique. Les émissions des gaz d'échappement ont affiché une diminution d'environ 44% de HC et 80% de CO lorsque la bobine magnétique de 1000 Gauss a été utilisée. Une diminution supplémentaire d'environ 58 % de HC avec 90 % de CO a été observée lorsque la bobine magnétique de 2 000 gauss a été utilisée.[53,54]. Khalil[55] ont étudié que l'application d'un champ magnétique sur la conduite d'alimentation d'un moteur à combustion interne qui fonctionnait avec un mélange de 10% en volume d'éthanol-essence (plomb) conduisait à une méthode efficace de diminution des émissions des agents polluants dans les gaz d'échappement. L'utilisation d'un champ magnétique de 2000 Gauss a entraîné une diminution de 68,8 % à 30° bPMH des émissions de monoxyde de carbone et une diminution de 42,5 % des hydrocarbures non brûlés à 10° bPMH en plus de cela une diminution de 15 % du CO2 à 25° bPMH ensemble ont contribué à une augmentation des performances du moteur, avec une augmentation de 3,6 % de l'efficacité thermique et de 8,6 % de la puissance thermique du frein ainsi qu'une diminution de 3,2 % de la consommation spécifique de carburant. La température des gaz d'échappement a été affectée dans une moindre mesure par l'effet du champ magnétique. De meilleurs résultats concernant la consommation de carburant spécifique aux freins ainsi que l'efficacité thermique ont été observés en faisant fonctionner le moteur à une bobine de 2000 gauss par rapport à un fonctionnement à 1000 gauss. Les recherches de Faris et al.[56] ont étudié l'utilisation d'aimants permanents avec différentes intensités telles que 2000 gauss, 4000 gauss, 6000 gauss, ainsi que 9000 gauss, qui ont été fixées pour un moteur à deux temps. De plus, la recherche a également porté sur son effet sur la consommation de gaz d'échappement et d'essence. Afin de comparer les résultats, il a fallu effectuer des recherches expérimentales excluant l'utilisation des aimants.Figure 6 affiche l'unité de magnétisation du carburant [56]. La performance générale du test d'émission d'échappement a affiché un meilleur résultat, où le taux de diminution de la consommation d'essence variait de 9-% et 14%.Figure 7 montre qu'en diminuant la quantité de carburant consommée et en augmentant l'intensité du champ magnétique, une forte diminution de 14 % du taux a été observée en utilisant une intensité de champ magnétique de 6 000 et 9 000 gauss. On a vu que le pourcentage des composants HC et CO des gaz d'échappement était réduit de 30 % et 40 %. Cependant, le pourcentage de CO2 a augmenté d'environ 10 %. Le spectre d'absorption du rayonnement ultraviolet ainsi que du rayonnement infrarouge a démontré une modification à la fois chimique et physique Fig. 7.Effet de la réduction de la quantité de carburant consommé avec l'augmentation de l'intensité du champ magnétique[61]. des propriétés de la structure des molécules d'essence sous l'effet du champ magnétique. La tension superficielle de l'essence soumise à diverses intensités du champ magnétique a été comparée et mesurée avec celles-ci sans aimantation [43,56]. 4. Effect du champ magnétique sur la consommation de carburant et les émissions dans le moteur à allumage par compression Jacob Almén[57] a mené un test connu sous le nom de Magnetic Emission Control qui a démontré que l'émission d'oxydes d'azote (NOX), de monoxyde de carbone (CO) et d'hydrocarbures (HC) n'était pas efficace. Une diminution considérable des émissions de particules de 9 % et une diminution de 3 à 7 % de la consommation de carburant et de CO2 ont été observées. Le test du carburant max de type ioniseur de carburant a été efficacement effectué dans des conditions de laboratoire en utilisant un moteur à cylindre connu sous le nom de diesel Hastz, a été démontré par John et al.[58]. Voici les principaux résultats : l'économie de carburant était exceptionnelle à une vitesse moyenne entre 1 700 tr/min et 1 800 tr/min. Fuel max a réalisé une économie de carburant de 1,6 % au total, contrairement au cycle de test qui a été effectué sans ionisation ; en plus de cela, un résultat de test de moteur supérieur et inférieur n'a pas été en mesure de réaliser des économies notables. En conséquence, il s'agissait d'une condition sans charge. Quand Govndasamy et Dhandapani [59] ont étudié l'effet causé par le champ magnétique avec diminution des émissions de NOX à l'intérieur du moteur biodiesel avec recirculation des gaz d'échappement, ils ont appris que lorsqu'un champ magnétique est présent, l'efficacité du frein est augmentée de 5 %, et les valeurs de Les HC ainsi que le CO sont diminués[60]. Al-Khaledy[61]ont étudié le rendement de combustion du carburant diesel dans un groupe électrogène pour une durée de 4 semaines avec et sans 6 HA Abdul-Wahhab et al. Examens des énergies renouvelables et durables 79 (2017) 1392– Figure 6.Une photo de l'unité de magnétisation du carburant. 1. Moteur ; 2. Dispositif magnétique ; 3. Appareil de mesure des gaz d'échappement ; 4. Réservoir de carburant ; 5. Capteur de gaz ; 6. Soupape[61]. l'implication du champ magnétique et des émissions d'agents polluants. Une comparaison a été faite entre les données résultant en une sortie pour le carburant diesel magnétisé et le carburant diesel normal. Une diminution des émissions d'agents polluants et une augmentation de l'efficacité de la combustion en utilisant l'unité de champ magnétique ont été observées. Le traitement à l'aide d'un aimant a diminué la génération de NO de 5 %, de NOX de 20 % et une augmentation de CO de 2 % a été observée. Jaïn et Deshmukh [62]a expliqué le fonctionnement du MFC ainsi que les paramètres et les contraintes par lesquels les émissions, ainsi que l'efficacité du MFC, sont influencées. Des aimants connus sous le nom de Ferret ont été utilisés comme MFC. Un aimant permanent a été monté sur le trajet des conduites de carburant, ce qui a amélioré les propriétés du carburant comme ses orients, les molécules d'hydrocarbure, l'amélioration de l'atomisation du carburant et les alignements. En utilisant ces propriétés, le kilométrage a été amélioré et des émissions améliorées ont été obtenues du véhicule. Le carburant brûlait entièrement, générant ainsi une puissance plus élevée du moteur et une bonne économie de carburant, ce qui a surtout réduit la quantité de NOX, HC, fumée et CO de l'échappement. En outre, il a augmenté le kilométrage du véhicule de 10 à 40 % et a montré une diminution de la consommation spécifique de carburant de 23,6 % et une réduction de la consommation spécifique de carburant de 18,6 %.[63]. La variation de la consommation spécifique de carburant avec charge, avec et sans flux magnétique est illustrée dans Figure 8[62]. L'effet du champ magnétique sur le flux de combustible hydrocarboné a été analysé par Attar et al.[64]. Il en a été déduit que la viscosité des fluides hydrocarbonés en circulation diminue lorsqu'un champ magnétique est appliqué.[65,66]. Il a été prouvé que le dégroupage des molécules de carburant d'hydrocarbure permet une meilleure atomisation du carburant,Figure 9(a) montre le dégroupage des molécules d'hydrocarbures ainsi qu'un mélange amélioré du mélange de carburant et d'air qui diminue la quantité de carburant non brûlé et, par conséquent, améliore l'efficacité thermique du moteur à combustion interne. Une configuration expérimentale a été réalisée pour effectuer l'analyse de l'effet causé par la viscosité de l'essence comme le montre Figure 9(b)[64]. Il améliore l'économie de carburant du moteur diesel et des véhicules. Le travail est assez important en ce qui concerne son effet sur le marché automobile mondial. En conséquence, se retrouver dans une moindre consommation de carburant et donc, assurer la conservation du carburant non renouvelable. Le pourcentage de CO est réduit dans les gaz d'échappement grâce à une combustion complète[64,67]. Les expériences de la recherche actuelle consistent en l'utilisation d'aimants permanents avec différentes intensités de champ telles que 2000 gauss, 4000 gauss, 6000 gauss et 8000 gauss, qui sont fixés sur la conduite de carburant du moteur diesel/essence pour étudier l'impact sur la consommation de de l'essence. 5. Résumé Les observations suivantes sont faites sur l'étude de la littérature ci-dessus : 1. La magnétisation du carburant peut augmenter son énergie interne et conduire à Figure 8.Variation de la consommation spécifique de carburant avec charge [68]. 7 HA Abdul-Wahhab et al. Examens des énergies renouvelables et durables 79 (2017) 1392– Fig. 9.(a) Dégroupage des molécules d'hydrocarbures, (b) Montage expérimental pour l'analyse de l'effet du champ magnétique sur la viscosité de l'essence [70]. modifications particulières au niveau moléculaire. En général, le traitement magnétique du carburant diminue la consommation de carburant dans le moteur et diminue la vitesse à laquelle les émissions de gaz sont rejetées dans l'environnement, entraînant ainsi moins de pollution. Des changements clairs ont été observés dans la valeur de la tension superficielle du carburant à essence, qui étaient plus par rapport aux changements dans le carburant diesel. Cela a entraîné une diminution de la consommation de carburant dans les moteurs à essence (jusqu'à 18%) par rapport à ce qu'elle était dans les moteurs diesel (jusqu'à 14%).Figure 10(a) montre la comparaison entre les types de moteurs (diminution de la consommation de carburant de 56 % dans le moteur à essence et de 44 % dans le moteur diesel) et la modification de certaines propriétés du carburant (densité, énergie interne, etc.) par le champ magnétique dans le carburant à essence par rapport au carburant diesel, il a permis d'obtenir une réduction des émissions dans les moteurs à essence avec des gammes plus élevées de moteurs diesel,Figure 10(b) montre ces résultats. 2. Le succès de cette méthode dans le développement du moteur à combustion interne ne se limite pas à l'effet du champ magnétique sur la composition moléculaire du carburant, mais étend également le contrôle sur certaines caractéristiques de conception à développer de manière approfondie et précise. La Fig. 11 décrit l'application des caractéristiques magnétiques, effet de l'emplacement du magnétiseur (cela signifie tester l'impact du site d'installation magnétisé depuis la chambre de combustion, tandis que des tests pratiques[49]ont montré les avantages d'une amélioration des performances et d'une réduction des émissions qui sont plus importantes lorsque l'influence est éloignée de la chambre de combustion), à cette fin, l'utilisation de matériaux magnétiques a été proposée lors de la conception et de la fabrication du cylindre supérieur ainsi que du collecteur d'admission. Effet de l'augmentation de l'intensité du magnétiseur (l'augmentation de l'intensité du champ magnétique a un rôle positif dans l'amélioration spectaculaire des caractéristiques de performance, il faut donc choisir les valeurs appropriées lors de l'adoption dans le cadre de la conception des itinéraires). Dans certaines publications antérieures, il fallait utiliser du carburant de magnétisation pour coïncider avec l'une des façons de 8 HA Abdul-Wahhab et al. Examens des énergies renouvelables et durables 79 (2017) 1392– Fig. 10.Une comparaison générale de (a) la diminution de la consommation de carburant, (b) la réduction des émissions de gaz d'échappement, entre les moteurs à essence et diesel. développer les performances du moteur, par exemple l'utilisation de biocarburants. Un traitement magnétique supplémentaire ne nécessite pas d'énergie et, par conséquent, est considéré comme économiquement faisable. 6. conclusion Sur la base du document révisé sur les performances et les émissions des moteurs à combustion interne, il est conclu que le champ magnétique représente un bon moyen comme alternative pour mélanger le carburant (essence et diesel) avec des gaz et, par conséquent, doit être pris en considération dans le futur à des fins de transport. Outre le mécanisme de stockage et de distribution de carburant, il offre des performances presque similaires car il présente de bonnes caractéristiques de combustion. À court terme, la méthode du champ magnétique a fait beaucoup de chemin dans la résolution du problème des émissions et dans la diminution des ressources en hydrocarbures et l'augmentation du coût de la découverte ; ce sera \"une méthode avec laquelle il faut compter\". Grâce à l'établissement de bons paramètres de combustion du carburant via des moyens magnétiques adéquats (Fuel Energizer), Reconnaissance Les auteurs sont tenus à l'Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS de fournir un soutien par le biais du Centre de recherche automobile et de gestion de l'énergie (CAREM). Références [1] Li J, Lu Y, Du T. Amélioration de la combustion du moteur à hydrogène. Inter JHydrog Energy 1986;11(10):661–8. [2] Kurani K, Turrentine T, Sperling D. Demande de véhicules électriques en hybrideménages une analyse exploratoire. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Detailed review of the magnetization mechanism: the magnetic field breaks hydrocarbon molecular clusters and realigns them, increasing the surface area for oxygen contact to ensure better combustion.", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme améliore la combustion en réalignant les molécules, mais le mécanisme nécessite plus de recherche fondamentale pour optimiser les paramètres."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 1392- 1399 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews ELSEVIER journa l ho m epag e: www.elsevier.com/ locate/ rser Survey of invest fuel magnetization in developing interna! combustion Cross Mark engine characteristics Hasanain A. Abdul-Wahhab*, Hussain H. Al-Kayiem, A. Rashid A. Aziz, Mohammad S. Nasif Mechanical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONA.S, Malaysia A R T I C L E I NFO ABS T RAC T Keywords: This document reviews the history of previous attempts on the behaviour of performance and emissions of Emissions interna! combustion engines (ICE) by invest fuel magnetization. Engine designers are currently confronting Fuel technology serious challenges related to the reduction of ernissions in ICE by refining tbeir fuel consumption and Internai combustion engine performance. In the past, numerous effo1ts have been materialized to lessen the emissions and upsurge the Fuel n1agnetization combustion effi.ciency. It is important to realise and characterise the influence of the combustion parameters when a magnetic field is applied to hydrocarbons. The need for a better understanding of the interaction between the magnetic fields and combustion processes has been clearly brought out in this review paper. 1. Introduction some potential for the improvement of fuel economy. Nevertheless, various modern emissions control strategies evidently reduce fuel The internai combustion engine (ICE) started to develop by the end economy, equal to quite a lot of percentage at times. Nowadays, of the 19th century followed by a steady but slow progress in the designers are confronting the biggest challenges about the reduction succeeding hundred years [1]. The idea of around 97% enhancement in of emissions in ICE by refining their fuel consomption and perfor tailpipe emission appeared unimaginable around mid-seventies when mance. Due to this reason, it was previously believed that engine design emission control was in its early stages. However, in the present day, is more imperative than fuel properties. Nevertheless, for a given this is attainable without any difficulty though fuel emissions (ICE) engine that is meant to be used for a specific task, fuel economy is have constantly been evolving and improving in order to comply with linked to the heating value of the fuel, though a current conventional the ever-changing power requirements, exhaust and economy. During engine undergoes relatively high combustion noise, a low specific this time, several variations and concepts have emanated and dis power output and a high degree of exhaust emissions. To accomplish appeared, but for all modes of automotive applications, the conven this goal, at present, numerous solutions have been employed in recent tional four-stroke engine continually remained as the most substantial years [4]. power plant. Nowadays, ICE engines are implemented universally for Those solutions include the improvement of fuel combustion by power generation, construction, transportation, farming and manufac blending liquid fuel or gas [5-7], by improving the injection system [8], turing. Fig. 1 shows the general energy distribution where it is seen that modification of the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), combustion road transportation demands almost 16% of the available fuel sources chamber as well as piston head design [9,10], by the use of Bio-diesel [2]. In the subsequent five years, additionally there would be a fuel [11,12], and by the use of magnetic field to change the orientation minimum of 70% enhancement to contribute to a total benefit of of hydrocarbons and molecules of hydrocarbons by modifying their superior to 99%. Hence, in the coming 30 years, the idea of near-zero configuration, and by utilising the exhaust gas extracted from the emissions from ICEs probably would not be a fantasy anymore and treatment systems (fuel oxidation catalysts along with fuel particulate become a realistically achievable target [3]. Though some of the filters or selective catalytic reduction systems). This paper outlines the combustion catalysts could lessen emissions, however, in reality there extent to which the investment in the magnetization of fuel is required is no such assessable influence on fuel economy. In order to be efficient in order to improve the characteristics of interna! combustion engine in refining fuel economy, a catalyst must cause the engine to burn fuel and the extent of reduction of emissions. entirely. Though, not much enhancement is possible. The efficiency of !CE engine combustion is usually more than 98%. Numerous continu ing design enhancements for the lessening of emissions could have • Corresponding autbor. E-mail address: [email protected] (H.A. Abdul-Wahhab). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.121 Received 23 May 2016; Received in revised for1n 11 March 2017; Accepted 19 May 2017 Available online 01 June 2017 1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. HA. Abdul-Wahhab et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 1392- 1399 12.2% 2.2. Magnetizationfor simplest hydrocarbons fuel 15.9% The simplest form of hydrocarbon is methane having the chemical formula (CH is a significant provider of hydrogen which is the main ), 4 element of natural gas. Molecules of methane are made up of one carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms as well as it is neutral electrically (15,18]. With regard to energy, the largest amount of energy which can be released is contained in the hydrogen atom, since the amount of carbon in octane is 84.2%. The carbon part of the molecule when undergoes combustion produces 2847 9 .544 kJ/ kg amount of energy. Similarly, the hydrogen consists of 15.8% as its molecular weight, is said to produce (22797.126 kJ/kg). Hydrogen is the simplest and least heavy element and is identified as the main 43.9% component of hydrocarbon fuels (excluding less amount of sulphur Fig. 1. GeneraJ energy distribution [S]. along with inert gases and carbon) (17]. The hydrogen atom consists of two charges as shown in Fig. 3 (18], a negative charge known as an electron and a positive charge known as 2. Magnetization of hydrocarbon fuels a proton. Moreover, it contains a dipole moment. In addition to this; it can be both paramagnetic and diamagnetic in reaction to the magnetic 2.1. Background field relying on its nucleus spin orientation. As a result, it takes place in two different isomeric range forms known as ortho and para, which are Most of the fuels for ICE are in liquid phase; do not undergo characterised by various opposite spins of the nucleus. The ortho combustion until they are combined with air after vaporization. On the molecule takes the rotational levels which are odd when the spins are other hand, emission from motor vehicles contains oxides of nitrogen, parallel with similar orientation for two atoms. As a result, it acts as a unburned hydrocarbons along with carbon monoxide (13]. Oxides of paramagnet and is used as a catalyst for various reactions. The nitrogen along with unburned hydrocarbon react together in the parahydrogen molecule occupies the rotational level which is even, atmosphere and generate smog (13-15]. Normally, the fuel required and the state of spin is in opposite direction of one atom as compared for ICE is a compound of molecules. According to Zhao and other, thereby making it diamagnetic. Ladommatos (16] and Wakayama and Sugie (17], every individual A marked effect on the physical properties such as vapour pressure, molecule comprises of many atoms made up of many electrons along specific heat and the behaviour of the gas molecules has been caused by with neutrons orbiting around their nucleus. There exists a presence of the spin orientation. Ortho hydrogen becomes unstable due to coin the magnetic movements inside their molecules; furthermore, they also cident spins, despite the fact that para hydrogen is less reactive than contain electrical charges which are negative as well as positive. ortho hydrogen counterpart. The magnitude of interna] field strength However, during the process combustion, the fuel is not combined inside a material which is subjected to an external field is represented with oxygen vigorously, and molecules are not realigned. Moreover, the by the magnetic field density [21]. Magnetic flux density is measured. in hydrocarbon chains or the fuel 1nolecules should be both realigned as gauss or tesla where 1 T=l0 4 gauss. The magnitude of magnetic well as ionized (18-20]. The process of realignment along with strength is an indicator of which magnetic energy can be provided by ionisation is accomplished by applying a magnetic field (21,22]. a magnetic source (23]. The magnetic field density which is supposed to Treatment carried out of hydrocarbons molecules in the presence of be passed onto the fuel fluctuates according to the equipment of high magnetic field would likely cause them to lose their cluster form combustion as well as the rate of combustion [20]. The distance and take the form of tiny associat es having a larger definite surface area between magnetization and combustion area is also important. To in order to carry out reaction involving oxygen which ends up in obtain good a magnetic effect, it should be as close as possible. enhanced combustion. As per Van Der Waals invention of the weak Ho,-vever the temperature of the magnetic material should be main force of clustering, there exists a strong binding between oxygen as well tained under the critical temperature of magnetic properties in a as hydrocarbons in this magnetised field, which make sure of best magnetic material (25]. On the other hand, the magnetic field which possible burning of both them inside the engine chamber (23,24]. satisfies Maxwell's equations and the electrical conductivity gave this The Fuel generally contains hydrocarbon, and during the flow of behaviour [26] while the electrical conductivity of fuel decreases as fuel around the magnetic field, the arrangement of hydrocarbons is sulphur is removed during the refining process. Most fuel such as diesel altered (15]. Similarly, the inter-molecular force is significantly low which is produced prior to 2006 having higher sulphur content and ered or depressed. Such methods are said to assist in dispersing the oil commonly exhibits electrical conductivity between 150 and 250 (ps/ molecules to <livide finely (14]. lt causes an effect that makes sure that m), depends on the sulphur content of the fuel (27]. the fuel vigorously combines with oxygen and results in complete burning process inside the combustion chamber as shown in Fig. 2 2.3. Effect of magnetic field on co,nbustion behaviour (16]. The outcomes are decreased in carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons which are emitted by the exhaust and The fact that magnetic fields affect flames behaviour has been improved economy of the fuels. The ionisation of fuel assists in the proved. Sorne research has been performed on the effect caused by the dissolving of carbon which is build up in the combustion chamber, magnetic field on the gas flows along with flames (28-30]. The carburettor, fuel injector and jets, as a result, it maintains the condition modifications of the gas-flow, as well as the shape of the flame, are of the fuel magnet which is fitted on trucks and car engines instantly understood to be the result of the role of oxygen. Oxygen is para before the injector or carburettor is on the fuel line. For the locating of magnetic, and it aligns with the magnetic field in order to construct a the South Pole on adjacent of fuel line and the North Pole spaced apart layer of oxygen. The layer of oxygen causes the other gases and flames from the fuel line the orientation is set for the magnet in order to make to press back (30]. Ueno et al. [28] found that combustion velocity was the magnetic field (16]. modified if the combustion reaction site is exposed to a magnetic field. Salamandra and Shlyakman [31] applied an electric field to a homo geneous fuel-air mixture. The results indicated that the electric field intensity increases as the flame velocity increases. Sorne other results HA. Abdul-Wahhab et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 1392- 1399 _ pt_e co:Dbmtlon proce ~~ lkll C bon Olox,<f HydrocYhls-1 r...itil p . . •••• • ••• •• Cembu on ~oc s ... C t bon - tllhou, O· id• en, .Jon G Slrong N m I ,Sy• t Ill on r tu lfl·lln oh·ce1le no P.e~:,t,;lliitSel fr•S:.01:1 ~ -DM H • H Gr n Eml lonG Fig. 2. Schematic vie\\v of the 1nagnetic field [20]. ignored. However, the huge and ttnrestrained chemical modifications which occur in this reaction cause a difficulty in determining the mechanistic paths [33- 35]. The rate at which consumption of fuel takes place is reduced to improve the quality of the fuel. With regard to thermodynamics initiatives to make the enthalpy of combustion higher One are considered as the greatest advances to attain this objective. A protron ... schematic sight of the effect of magnetic field on the process of ... + combustion is displayed in Fig. 4 [33], it is believed that energy that , is free, is unaffected as all the primary bonds are broken to make new ' • • • ' ' .... ,• bonds during the process of combustion. As a result, the products avoid .. _ ,' ' ' ' ... ' , ... the effects of the magnetic field. Hence, combustion heat or combustion ... ... enthalpy is increased causing improvement in the quality of the fuel para- ortho· , , along with a decrease in the consumption of fuel after that. These • • explanations supported the reports provided by the companies which p p ,• ,• ' ' were involved in the manufacturing of the magnetic fuel saver. Though .. .. ' _ ' ... ... ..._ ... ' ' several designs were proposed, they were unsuccessful as the condi tions demanded to apply the magnetic field, for instance strength were not fulfilled. Earlier empirical studies produced outcomes with a Fig. 3. Atomic orientation (22). chance of decrease in the consumption of fuel because of application of the magnetic field to add fuel before the process of combustion. suggested the possibility of magnetic control of combustion and air Despite the fact that the studies having scientific approach were hardly flow [32]. made in order to understand the features of this phenomenon Hydrocarbons are regarded as a significant resource of energy for [33,36,37]. In what manner these modifications affect the combustion people since the olden times. The significance of combustion cannot be HA. Abdul-Wahhab et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 1392- 1399 Table 1 Changes in performance and emissîon parameters due to different magnetic field strength [ 48]. Parameters Base engine Copper-coated Zirconia coated % engine, % engine, % Increase in brake 3.2 6.6 11.2 ------ ----- ----------- Fuel before exposure llH thermal efficiency 1 Reduction in cyclic 8.6 8.8 12.1 variation --------------- Reduction in CO 13.3 23.5 29.5 Products emission Reduction in HC 22.1 37.3 44.2 em1ss1on Progress of Reaction Fig. 4. Schematic view of magnetic field effect on the combustion behaviour [37). destructive emissions from the exhaust at the same time increasing the mileage and enhancing the performance of the engine [4 4-46]. enthalpy of fuel is shown in Fig. 4. Moreover, the efficiency of the process of combustion increases and provides an increased performance of octane. 3. Effect of magnetic field on emissions in spark ignition The engine was made to work in a mode of constant speed, and the engine along with fuel consumption following cases were considered to acquire results: the base engine, the engine with a permanent magnetic field with different intensity (3000, A procedure and an instrument was demonstrated by Sanderson 4500, and 9000) gauss, Copper coated engine with 9000 gauss [38], in order to treat the liquid fuel inside the internal combustion magnetic flux and Zirconia. Modifications in various parameters with engines through passing it by a magnetic field before combining it with an engine having a coating of Zirconium, base and Copper having 9000 air in the fuel injector or the carburettor [39], whereas an experimental gauss magnetic flux are shown in Table 1 [ 43]. It was shown in the test was performed by Janezak and Krensel [40]. In order to treat experimental results that the magnetic flux in the fuel decreases the gasoline with the magnetic field for the purpose of effective pollution as emission of carbon monoxide till 23% in copper coated engine (situated well as combustion, their discovery considered a unit of permanent in the cylinder head), till 13% for the base engi11e along with 29% in magnet mountable as retrofit adaptors outside the fuel line is causing zirconium coated (situated in cylinder head) engine having 9000 gauss no separation or alteration between the ignition system and fuel magnetic flux [47,48]. While Al-Ali et al. [49] used two types of [41,42]. Govindasamy and Dhandapani [43], reported that the usage magnetic device, the first type was fixed inside the fuel tank, and the of strong magnetic charge obtained from the magnet input to the fuel other one was fixed in the fuel line. The outcomes showed a decrease of line two-stroke spark ignition engine results in full burning, in order to 18% in average consumption of fuel and 70% decrease in emissions of increase the power and lessen the expenses of the process. Fig. 5 HC and C0 and a decrease of 68% of NOx was measured . 2 demonstrates the following: (a) variation of brake thermal efficiency The effect caused by the magnetic field on the internai combustion along with air-fuel ratio (b) magnetic field on the fuel line. In addition engines was studied by Al-Dossary [50]. This magnetic field was to this, the magnetic flux on the fuel line considerably decreases the produced by the electromagnets with the help of a car battery of 12 V through fluctuating the configuration along with the strength of the magnetic field. The magnetic effect produced a decrease in specific consumption of fuel that was constantly noticeable only at the least load measuring 20 N m along with highest and lowest speed of 1000 rpm and 3000 rpm by utilising one magnet. The most noticeable decrease was the effect on CO as compared to entire emissions occurred at the speed and load of the engine specifically at the speed of 1000 rpm which was the lowest by using a total of five magnets. The most constant decrease in HC was also considerable at the speed of 1000 rpm by using a total of four magnets, whereas, different config L \\nt.!VTI~ FllFl. •> urations along with magnetic field strengths showed reasonable flEJ PM\" (a) decrease in the speed as well as loads of most engines [51]. . .. Effect caused by the magnetic field on the interna! combustion - 2200 engines was studied by Farrag and Saber [22]. This study focused on ., • • • the parameters that are measured for the performance of the engine, - 2000 • like exhaust emissions along with fuel consumption. Application of • ~ •• 18.00 magnetic field was carried out on the SI engine by making use of w • - • gasoline fuel. In addition to this, the fuel was exposed to a permanent Q 16.00 • lL magnet which was mounted on inlet lines of the fuel. At different idling • lL w 14 .00 engine speeds, experiments were done. 'fhe emissions from exhaust gas l were analysed with the help of an exhaust gas analyser. The effect of the 12 OO magnet with a decrease in consumption of fuel was around 15% ~ decrease in CO at every idling speed; in the range of around 7%. The 1000 decrease in effect caused by emissions of NO was around 30%. 8 .00 ...- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - The effect caused on the performance of spark ignition engine due 7.7 9.3 11.8 13.9 15.3 16.2 16.5 16.7 to magnetised fuel was studied by Habbo et al. [52]. The performance (b) AIR-FUEL RATIO of the engine was studied carefully by studying the four parameters which were the thermal efficiency CTJth), brake power of the engine (bp), Fig. 5. Show (a) magnetic field on the fuel line, (b) Variation ofbrake thermal efficienc:.-y vâth the air-fuel ratio [4 8). HA. Abdul-Wahhab et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 1392-1399 1900 exhaust emissions along with the specific fuel consumption (SFC). The fuel was exposed to a magnetic field that was kept to fuel supply line in 1800 order to magnetise the fuel prior to its placement in the engine - 'Ë' 1700 cylinder. The outcomes displayed a noticeable enhancement in the performance of the engine. The engine power, along with the thermal t 1600 efficiency was increased by 3.3% and 4%, during the use of a magnetic 1500 § coil of 1000 gauss. Moreover, a decrease in the specific consumption of ..,, 1400 g fuel was accomplished. Though this brake power was increased -u approximately by 16.4% and the thermal efficiency was increased by 1300 ! 7.6%, and specific consumption of fuel was reduced by 21.3% when the u. 1200 magnetic coil of 2000 gauss was used with no magnetic field. The 1100 emissions from gas exhaust displayed a decrease of approximately 44% of HC and 80% of CO when the magnetic coil of 1000 Gauss was used. 1000 An additional decrease of approximately 58% of HC along with 90% of 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 CO was seen when the magnetic coil of 2000 gauss was utilised [53,54]. ~nebe .ntens,ty (Gauss) Khalil [SS] studied that application of magnetic field onto supply line of an interna} combustion engine which was functioning with a Fig. 7. Effect of reduction in the amount of consumed fuel ,vith increasing magnetic field mixture of 10% volume ethanol-gasoline (leaded) led to an efficient intensity [61]. method of a decrease in the emissions from the polluting agents in the exhaust gases. Using magnetic field of 2000 Gauss resulted in a properties of the structure of gasoline molecules under the effect of decrease of 68.8% at 30° bTDC in emission of carbon monoxide and magnetic field. The surface tension of gasoline subjected to various decrease of 42.5% in the unburned hydrocarbons at 10° bTDC in intensities of the magnetic field was compared and measured with addition to this a decrease of 15% in C0 2 at 25° bTDC together them without magnetization [4 3,56]. contributed to an increased performance of the engine, ,vith 3.6% increase in thermal efficiency and 8.6% increase in thermal power of 4. Etfect of magnetic field on fuel consumption and brake along with decrease of 3.2% in specific fuel consumption. The emissions in compression ignition engine temperature of the exhaust gas was affected to a minor extent by the effect of magnetic field. Better outcomes regarding brake specific fuel Jacob Almén [57] conducted a test known as Magnetic Emission consumption along with thermal efficiency were observed by operating Control which demonstrated the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx), the engine at 2000 gauss coil as compared to running it at 1000 gauss. carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbons (HC) was not efficient. A Research of Faris et al. [56] studied the usage of permanent considerable decrease in the emission of particles of 9% and a decrease magnets v.rith various intensities such as 2000 gauss, 4000 gauss, of 3-7% was seen in consumption of fuel and C02. 6000 gauss, along with 9000 gauss, which were fixed for a two-stroke Testing of fuel ioniser type fuel max was effectively carried out in engine. Moreover, the research also comprised of its effect on con conditions of the laboratory by using a cylinder engine known as Hastz sumption of exhaust gases and gasoline. In order to compare the diesel, was demonstrated by John et al. [58]. Below are the major outcomes, it required carrying out research for experiment excluding findings: saving of fuel was outstanding at a mid-range speed between the usage of the magnets. Fig. 6 displays the fuel magnetization unit 1700 rpm till 1800 rpm. Fuel max accomplished a saving of fuel of [56]. 1.6% on the whole with contrast to test cycle that was conducted The general performance of the test of exhaust emission displayed a without ionisation; in addition to this a higher and lower engine test better result, where the rate of decrease in consumption of gasoline outcome was not able to accomplish noticeable saving. As a result, it ranged from 9-% and 14%. Fig. 7 shows that by decreasing the amount was a no load condition. When Govndasamy and Dhandapani [59] fuel consumed and by increasing magnetic field intensity a large investigated the effect caused by magnetic field with decrease in decrease of 14% in the rate was observed by utilising magnetic field emission of NOx inside the Bio-diesel engine with recirculation of intensity of 6000 and 9000 gauss. It was seen that the percentage of exhaust gas, they got to know that when magnetic field is present, the components HC and CO of exhaust gas were reduced by 30% and 40%. efficiency of brake is increased by 5%, and the values of HC as well as However, the percentage of C0 was increased approximately by 10%. 2 CO are decreased [60]. The absorption spectrum of ultraviolet radiation as well as infrared Al-Khaledy [61] studied the combustion efficiency for diesel fuel in radiation demonstrated a modification in both chemical and physical an electrical generator for a time period of 4 weeks with and without - 4 - 3 - \"'. 5 6 . - - l I 2 +--__. '--....i:\\1 D Fig. 6. A picture of the fuel magnetization unit. 1. Engine; 2. Magnetic device; 3. Measuring device for exhaust gases; 4. Fuel tank; 5. Gas sensor; 6. Valve [61]. HA. Abdul-Wahhab et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 79 (2017) 1392- 1399 the involvement of magnetic field and emissions from pollutant agents. t I A comparison was made between the data which resulted as an output Fael llne Fuel Flow for magnetised diesel fuel and the normal diesel fuel. A decline in the Dlrectl1n emissions from pollutant agents and an increase in combustion efficiency by using magnetic field unit was observed. The treatment ~ ----...... using magnet decreased the generation of NO by 5%, NOx by 20%, and an increase in CO by 2% was observed. Jain and Deshmukh [62] explained the working of MFC along with the parameters and constraints by which emission, as well as the efficiency of MFC, is influenced. Magnets known as Ferret were used as Dls,ersell f111 MFC. A permanent magnet was mounted in the path of fuel lines, (a) which improved the properties of fuel like its orients, molecules of hydrocarbon, improved atomisation of fuel and aligns. By using these properties, mileage was improved, and enhanced emission was ob • fuel tained from the vehicle. The fuel burned entirely, hereby generating a higher output of the engine and good economy of fuel, most signifi cootaioer cantly it decreased the amount of NOx, HC, smoke and CO from the · > exhaust. Furthermore, it increased the mileage of the vehicle by 10- 40% and showed a decrease in the specific fuel consumption by 23.6% and break specific fuel consumption by 18.6% [63]. Variation of specific fuel consumption with load, and both with and without magnetic flux is shown in Fig. 8 [62]. 1 The effect of magnetic field on hydrocarbon fuel flow was analysed by Attar et al. [64]. It was deduced that viscosity of the flowing permanent hydrocarbon fluids reduces when a magnetic field is applied [65,66]. De-clustering of the fuel molecules of hydrocarbon has been proved to mapets provide better atomisation of the fuel, Fig. 9(a) shows de-clustering of hydrocarbon molecules along with improved mixing of the mixture of the fuel and air which decrease the amount of unburnt fuel and, therefore, improving the thermal efficiency of the IC Engine. An (b) experimental setup was done to carry out the analysis of the effect caused by the viscosity of petrol as shown by Fig. 9(b) [64]. It enhances Fig. 9. (a) De-clustering ofhydrocarbon molecules, (b) Experin1ental setup for analysis of the effect of magnetic field on the viscosity of petrol [70]. the economy of the fuel of diesel engine and vehicles. The work is quite important with regard to its effect on the automobile market globally. particular modifications at a molecular level. In general, the As a result, ending up in Jess consumption of fuel and therefore, magnetic treatment of the fuel decreases the fuel consumption in ensuring the conservation of non-renewable fuel. The percentage of CO the engine and decreases the rate at which gas emissions are is reduced in the exhaust gases through complete combustion [64,67]. released into the environment, as a result causing less pollution. The experiments in present research consist of usage of permanent Clear changes were observed in the value of surface tension of the magnets with various field intensity such as 2000 gauss, 4000 gauss, gasoline fuel, which were more as compared to changes in the diesel 6000 gauss and 8000 gauss, which is fixed on the fuel line of the diesel/ fuel. lt led to a decrease fuel consumption in gasoline engines (up to petrol engine to study the impact on the consumption of gasoline. 18%) more than what it was in the diesel engines (up to 14%). Fig. lO(a) shows those comparison between types of engines 5. Summary (decreasing fuel consumption 56% in gasoline engine and 44% in diesel engine) and change in some properties of the fuel (density, The following observations are made on the above literature survey: interna! energy, etc.) by the magnetic field in gasoline fuel compared with diesel fuel, it let to achieve reduction of emissions in gasoline 1. The magnetization of fi.1el can increase its internal energy and lead to engines with higher ranges from diesel engines, Fig. lO(b) shows those results. Comparlsion of SFC 2. The success of this method in the develop1nent of the internal 1.6 1 1 1 combustion engine is not restricted to the effect of the magnetic field 1.4 on the molecular composition of the fuel but also extends control \\\\llhoul ~A•e;ntt over some design features to be developed extensively and accu • 1.2 - \\\\llh M ~g,~t rately. Fig. 11 describes the application of magnetic features, effect of magnetizer location (this means to test the impact of the - 1 i.c installation site magnetised from the combustion chamber, while 0.8 practical tests [ 49] showed the advantages of improved performance \\. and emission reduction which are larger when influence is away 0.6 from the combustion chamber), for this purpose the use of magnetic 0.4 materials was proposed while designing and manufacturing both the top cylinder as ,vell as the inlet manifold. Effect of increasing 0.2 magnetizer intensity (increase the intensity of the magnetic field has a positive role in improving the performance characteristics 0 s dramatically so one must choose the appropriate values when 0 1 2 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 adopting as part of routes design). In some previous literature, one Loed (~ ) had to use magnetization fuel to coïncide with one of the ways to Fig. 8. Variation of Specific fuel consumption with Joad [68]. HA. Abdul-Wahhab et al. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Methodological review emphasizing the importance of uncertainty analysis and independent experimental confirmation to validate Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) gains in engine performance studies.", "fr_vulgarise": "Souligne l'importance d'une analyse d'incertitude rigoureuse pour valider les gains de consommation de carburant, en particulier dans le domaine des additifs ou de la magnétisation."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "International Journal of Engineering Research and Development e-ISSN: 2278-067X, p-ISSN: 2278-800X, www.ijerd.com Volume 12, Issue 12 (December 2016), PP.42-46 Modified Design And Weight Optimization of IC Engine Dr. Abdul Siddique Sk1, Nataraj T S C2 1Department Of Mechanical Engineering, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia 2Department Of Mechanical Engineering, Nimra College Of Engineering &Technology, India Abstract: For decades much more attention has been devoted to emissions from transport vehicles and to usage of various fuels and fuel blends for vehicle engine operation than to fuel consumption by this giving a chance for under-researched aftermarket products that allegedly reduce engine fuel consumption. The innovative solutions offered by entrepreneurs contained a fossil diesel fuel treated by specific technology and three diesel fuel additives. The promoters of the products referred to pre-existing measurements showing 10 to 30 percent reduction of fuel consumption. Comparative experimental measurements using diesel fuel available in retail with and without usage of the proposed products have been done in laboratory conditions. The tests were performed on a stationary diesel generator RD2.0. Solid, repetitive results have been gained. The results did not confirm any significant positive effect of the products on engine brake specific fuel consumption. Factors affecting errors in this kind of product efficiency investigations for market promotion purposes and causes of positive effects from similar product applications in certain situations are discussed. Keywords: diesel, Engine efficiency, fuel additives I. INTRODUCTION Engine fuel efficiency has always been an important factor for road transport vehicles. Nevertheless, with growing total pollution from transport vehicles emissions have become more important concern for governments, city residents, engine developers and researchers. Therefore, for decades both in legislation and correspondingly in research much more attention has been devoted to emissions from transport vehicles and to usage of various fuels and fuel blends for vehicle engine operation, by this giving a chance for manufacturers to offer on market under-researched products that allegedly reduce fuel consumption. The paper summarizes four fuel innovation product investigations commissioned to and carried out by the Department of Automotive Engineering of the Riga Technical University in a year scope. The solutions offered by entrepreneurs contained three diesel fuel additives and a fossil diesel fuel treated by specific technology. The promoters of the products referred to pre-existing measurements showing 10 to 30 percent reduction of fuel consumption. The agreements with the product promoters did not allow publications about usability of their particular products; therefore, for the purpose of this paper the four separate product investigations are named Tests 1 to 4. Both, fundamental works [1-4] and individual studies [5; 6] recognize potential for fuel additives, but none evaluate fuel consumption gain comparable to acclaimed by the four product promoters and therefore it was considered unwise to expect results similar to the ones referred by the entrepreneurs. The goal of each individual product test was to test a hypothesis that the corresponding product gives any fuel economy results on a particular diesel engine. The goal of writing this paper is to summarize the results from four separate unpublishable tests providing ground for discussions with potential similar fuel saving product promoters. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS All tests were performed on a stationary diesel generator RD2.0, utilizing a four cylinder, 16 kW, 2.0 liter, four stroke water cooled diesel engine with indirect fuel injection by an inline mechanical fuel injection pump and a three phase 400 V, 29 A generator, loaded by resistive, forced-air cooled up to 20 kW loading equipment. Fuel consumption was measured by 50 ml volume type method for tests 1, 3 and 4, by mass type method for test 2, for both methods the time was measured manually using a mechanical timer. Rotation speed was controlled by a mechanical rpm governor of the diesel generator, checked and adjusted by an electronic non-contact tachometer DT-2234B. Engine exhaust was controlled by Bosch EAM 3.011 RTM 430 opacimeter, ambient air pressure, temperature and humidity were recorded. Since all four tests were done according to contracts with a particular product supplier, the measurement methods slightly varied between the tests. Engine heating-up time for measurement start with each particular fuel was from 1 hour to 1.5 hours, reaching and stabilizing the engine oil temperature between 80 and 85 ºC. For all tests the first measurements were carried out with unmodified diesel fuel. At each load and engine rotation speed three consecutive measurements have been made and since the results deviations were within 1 % 42 Odified Design And Weight Optimization Of IC Engine limit, the average fuel consumption from the three measurements has been used for further calculations. The engine was run at each given load and speed for at least 10 minutes before starting the fuel consumption measurements. The procedures of switching from plain fuel A to modified fuel differed. Test 1 and test 3 required a run-up period 4 to 12.5 hours for the engine with modified or treated fuel B, one hour of the engine running with fuel B was used for tests 2 and 4 before the measurements were started. Fuel for each test was delivered as per agreement with the corresponding contractor. For tests 1 and 2 fuel B (fuel A with additive) was prepared by the contractors. For test 4 mixing fuel A with additive was done according to manufacturer’s instructions. Fuel B in test 3 was the same fuel A treated on-site by the device integrated into the fuel system. Fuel heating values have not been measured but according to low mass value of the additives, any significant differences in heating values between fuels A and B were not expected. For each fuel only fuel density and kinematic viscosity were measured, no other fuel characteristics were checked. The fuel characteristics normalized to equal temperature are shown in Figure 1. Fig. 1. Fuel density and kinematic viscosity Result calculations and analysis were done using MS Excel. Since the fuel lower heating value is not known, influence of the applied measures on the engine efficiency will be assessed by means of brake specific fuel consumption (BSFCg). Index g for BSFC is used to show that the calculated BSFCg is a characteristic for the whole diesel generator unit since the measured power does not include power losses in the generator. Power used for BSFCg calculations is active electric power measured at the loading device. Calculations for each test were done separately after completion of each test while for the purpose of this paper all results from tests 1 to 4 and for each test results for untreated fuel A and modified fuel B are displayed together grouped according to different engine speeds 1100, 1300 and 1500 rpm. For each engine speed a polynomial trendline has been calculated and a division value for each fuel consumption figure by the corresponding trend line value at the given engine load and speed expressed as a percentage was calculated. HD Engine set up III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Brake specific fuel consumption for all four tests for unmodified diesel fuel A and fuel with additives or treated fuel B at 1500 rpm are shown in Figure 2. A 6th order polynomial trend line has been created for all data sets showing that no essential gain from fuel additives or fuel treatment can be noticed. The generator efficiency map is not determined; therefore, engine fuel consumption at different speeds and different power cannot be directly compared. The conclusions about the efficiency of altered fuels can be done by comparing fuel consumption for fuels A and B at each engine rotation speed. Differences in engine load 43 Odified Design And Weight Optimization Of IC Engine can be tolerated by means of the trendline. The trendline is basically a very well-known BSFC vs. BMEP function, since at constant speed brake power it is linearly dependent on BMEP. Although BSFC vs. Power graphs are more common and easy recognizable, the variance between fuel tests cannot be well observed in Figure 2, therefore charts for 1100 rpm and 1300 rpm are omitted. Fig. 2. Brake specific fuel consumption for all four tests with and without fuel modification at 1500 rpm For better identification of the test results, charts showing relation of each fuel consumption measurement to a value calculated from the trendline expressed as a percentage for all three engine rotation speeds are given. The changes in BSFCg at 1500 rpm are shown in Figure 3. Open shapes correspond to untreated fuel A and filled shapes correspond to modified fuel B. Fig. 3. Changes in brake specific fuel consumption at 1500 rpm At 1500 rpm even visually a tendency for slightly lower fuel consumption using fuel B can be identified. For measurements at 1500 rpm fuel consumption for fuel B on average is 1.2 % below the value with fuel A. The same relates to measurements at 1300 rpm displayed in Figure 4 where the values for fuel B are on average 1.5 % below the values for fuel A. Fig. 4. Changes in brake specific fuel consumption at 1300 rpm On the contrary, the measurements at 1100 rpm displayed in Figure 5 show the opposite pattern where fuel consumption for fuel B is on average 0.7 % above the values for fuel A. Calculating the average for all tests 44 Odified Design And Weight Optimization Of IC Engine at all engine speeds and loads the fuel consumption for modified fuels B was found just 0.7 % below the consumption values for fuels A which is within the fuel consumption measurement error for the tests. Fig. 5. Changes in brake specific fuel consumption at 1100 rp Comparison of all measurements made with unmodified fuel A at all engine speeds represented on charts by open shapes allow to evaluate both, the gained variance in fuel consumption for generic diesel fuel purchased at retail and precision of the tests both being within the same range of approximately 2 %. The measurement precision was far enough for the acclaimed fuel consumption savings of 10 to 30 % and the tests in all four cases rejected the assumption that the modified fuels would lead to essential fuel consumption cuts. Nevertheless, the tests did not confirm and were not designed to confirm that the proposed fuel treatments do not have any positive effect at any given situation. Some fuel additives have cleaning effect and may be useful for cleaning both, the fuel system and the combustion chamber and may give positive effect for engines with contaminated fuel systems and having unburned product deposits in combustion chambers. Fuel additives may change ignition delay or enhance combustion and in combination with engine systems tuning may give some efficiency or NVH gain in comparison to the engine technical condition before the alterations. But the main gain from diesel fuel additives is pollutants reduction [7], not fuel savings. Promoters of fuel saving products should be more specific describing the applications and usefulness of each product. The tests also did not investigate why the claimed and expected by the test contractors fuel consumption savings were so high and how the pre-existing measurements have been carried out. Purely fraud marketing cases were excluded both, because of commitment of the test contractors to the products and because of willingness to finance the tests. More realistic scenarios were poorly designed and executed experiments without paying proper attention to experiment design, preparation of experiments, heating-up all aggregates, taking into account the weather, traffic, driver training and other essential conditions for fuel consumption measurements. 45 Odified Design And Weight Optimization Of IC Engine IV. CONCLUSIONS The test results confirmed the significant positive effect of the tested modified design of engine and diesel fuels on engine efficiency improvement. Solid, repetitive results have been gained rejecting the high expectations of the test contractors from the tested diesel fuel modifiers followed. But the tests are confirmed that the proposed modifiers have small positive effect at specific circumstances and certain fuel saving product promoters are considered. REFERENCES [1]. http://energy.gov/eere/energybasics/articles/internal-combustion-engine-basics [2]. http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine1.htm [3]. Heywood J.B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York: McGraw-Hill Book [4]. Company, 1988. 930 p. [5]. Stone R. Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines. Fourth edition. Oxford: Palgrave [6]. Macmillan, 2012. 494 p. [7]. ichards P. Automotive Fuels Reference Book. Third edition. Warrendale: SAE [8]. International, 2014. 839 p. [9]. Automotive Fuel Economy. How far should we go? Washington D.C.: National Academy [10]. Press,1992. 259 p. [11]. Newlin G.J. Fuel Economy and Emissions Benefits from Diesel Fuel Additives. Thesis [12]. submitted to the College of Engineering and Mineral Resources at West Virginia University. [13]. Morgantown,West Virginia, ProQuest LLC, 2009. 160 p. [14]. Fuel Economy in Automotive Transportation) : , 1984. 301 p. (In Russian). [15]. Basshuysen R. Reduced Emissions and Fuel Consumption in Automobile Engines. Wien, New York: Springer Verlag, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1995. 195 p. 46"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on the impact of the magnetic field on the performance and emissions of a diesel-fueled boiler, aiming to optimize the static combustion process [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le champ magnétique a été appliqué sur le diesel pour améliorer la combustion dans une chaudière."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296549852 The effect of magnetic field on the boiler performance fueled with diesel Article in International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research · March 2016 CITATION READS 1 944 2 authors, including: Adel Mahmood Salih University of Technology, Iraq 15 PUBLICATIONS 59 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Alcohol-gasoline blends in spark ignition engines View project All content following this page was uploaded by Adel Mahmood Salih on 02 March 2016. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 2, February-2016 406 ISSN 2229-5518 The effect of magnetic field on the boiler performance fueled with diesel Adel Mahmmod Salih, Abdul-Rahman Mutez Ahmed Abstract—The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of a magnetized fuel on the performance of the fuel combustion in the boiler. The perfor- mance was observed by examining fuel consumption and exhaust emissions, in this experimental work we are using a diesel fuel that is subjected to a magnetic field which is placed on the fuel supply line to magnetize the fuel before admitted to the burner of the boiler. The magnetic field used in this study is coming from two permanent magnets each with (2000 Gauss). From the experimental result show an improvement in boiler performance after the fuel subjected to a magnetic field. The fuel consumption is decreased by (3.675%). The exhaust gas emission showed a reduction nearly by (38.04%) in CO, (21.89%) in HC. An increase by (3.432%) in CO2 and by (4.34%) in the exhaust temperature were observed. Keywords: external combustion engine, Effect of magnetic field on fuel consumption and exhaust emission and exhaust gas temperature. ——————————  —————————— 1 INTRODUCTION Th e conventional boiler which runs on the combustion of ranged between (9-14%), and the maximum reduction value at diesel fuel has been around for two century. The external the rate of 14% was obtained using field intensity of 6000 combustion engine has a huge role in generating steam in Gauss, as well as the field strength of 8000 Gauss. It was found a power plant for its speed, high efficiency and the low cost to that 30% and 40% decrements were the percentage of exhaust run [1]. The diesel combustion fuel is industry’s leading prime gas components (CO, HC) respectively, but CO percentage 2 mover, and will likely remain so for a foreseeable future. To increased up to 10%. keep using this fuel it has become imperative to improve the Al-Dossary [14] studied the effect of magnetic field on internal fuel consumption and emissIion chaJracters [2]. SEcombustion engiRne with unleaded gasoline and found that the Iraqi diesel fuel is characterized by its low cetane number effect of magnetic field on CO was the most significant at most (about 49) and high sulfur content [3]. Several research articles engine loads and speeds. Allawi [15] described the reduction treated this dilemma from several directions as adding metha- of fuel consumption by using magnetic field, to ensure the nol and ethanol to diesel [3]. Other attempts like adding bio- complete combustion. This leads to higher maximum thermal diesel fuels to diesel [4]-[5], using an alternative way to run efficiency and reduction of emissions by subjecting the fuel to the engine like Partially-Premixed (PPCE) [6] or adding gases force the magnetic flux of the magnet installed at the entrance like hydrogen or natural gas in dual-mode operation [7]-[8]- of the of fuel manifold, leading to more efficient combustion. [9]-[10] were conducted. From the experimental results, a reduction in the fuel con- Many of experimental studies presented evidence of the bene- sumption (L/h) in compression ignition engine (C.I. engine) fits of magnetic treatment which will enhance the fuel econo- was obtained up to (3%), and in brake specific fuel consump- my and reducing exhaust emission. Sanderson [11] showed a tion (bsfc) up to (2.877%) while the brake thermal efficiency method and apparatus for treating liquid fuel in external com- raised by about (3%). The exhaust gas emissions showed a bustion engine by passing it through a magnetic field before reduction nearly by (13.8 %) of CO, (7.8 %) of CO and (10.8%) 2 mixing it with air in the burner. Fatih & Saber [12] experi- of HC. Patel et.al [16] studied the effect of magnetic field on ments revealed that the magnetic effect on the reduction of the the engine performance parameters such as specific fuel con- fuel consumption was up to 15%, CO concentration reduction sumption; break thermal efficiency, exhausts emissions by was up to 7%. The reduction of NO emission was up to 30%. applying the magnetic field along the fuel line immediately The reduction of CH was up to 40%. The experiment of Faris before fuel injector. The strong permanent magnet of strength 4 et. al. [13] comprised the using of permanent magnets with 2000 gauss is applied to fuel line for magnetic field. The exper- deferent intensities of (2000, 4000, 6000, 8000) Gauss, which iments are conducted at variable engine load conditions. An were installed in the fuel line of two-stroke engine and study exhaust gas analyzer is used to measure the exhaust gas emis- of its impact on gasoline consumption, as well as exhaust gas- sions such as CO, CO , HC and NOx. With the application of 2 es for comparing purpose. The result necessitated conducting magnetic field the reduction rate in fuel consumption was some experiments without the use of magnets. The overall about 8% at high loads, the reduction in HC and NOx were performance and exhaust emission tests showed a good out- about 30% and 27.7 % respectively. The CO emission reduced come, where the rate of reduction in gasoline consumption with the application of magnetic field at high loads. The re- duction in CO emissions was about 9.72% at average of all 2 ———————————————— loads by applying a magnetic field. • Adel M Salih is currently Assistant Professor in mechanical engineering in The aim of this paper is to examine the effect of the magnetic University of Technology,Iraq . E-mail: [email protected] field on Iraqi diesel fueled a burner of the boiler and its impact • Abdul-Rahman M Ahmed is currently pursuing masters degree program in on the fuel consumption as well as emission of exhaust gases. mechanical engineering in University of Technology, Iraq. E- mail:[email protected] IJSER © 2016 http://www .ijser.org International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 2, February-2016 407 ISSN 2229-5518 2 Methodology ing a complete burn in the combustion chamber. This proce- dure results in a better fuel consumption and reduction of hy- Fuels molecules consist of a nucleus and orbiting electrons. drocarbon compounds, carbon monoxide and increases carbon The charismatic movement already exists in these molecules. dioxide emissions. The ionization of fuel also helps to dissolve Therefore, they have active and negative charges. This situa- the carbon build up in the fuel injectors, and combustion tion tends to increase combustion fuel resistance. When fuel is chambers were thereby keeping the engine in clean condition. passed through a magnetic field, its molecules are got realign, Figs. 1 and 2 represent the effect of magnetic field on the fuel and the intermolecular forces are considerably reduced, and particles [17]. that will make them easier to interlock with oxygen; produc- Fig. 1, incomplete combustion process without magnetic fuel IJSER Fig. 2, schematic view of magnetic field and complete combustion The description of the material and equipment used in the apart from the fuel line. The magnetic field strength was 4000 investigation are included below. gauss. The magnetic field was applied to ionize fuel to be fed 2.1 Magnetic devices to the burner. Magnetic devices (Fig. 3) which were used in this research manufactured in the USA. The fuel line is subjected to the 2.2 The Boiler forces from a permeate magnet mounted on the fuel inlet line. The boiler is provided with a burner type RL-70 as Fig. 4 rep- The magnetic field is oriented so that its (south pole) is located resents. The burner has a tube of 385 mm in length, and an adjacent the fuel line, and its (north pole) is located spaced inner diameter of 156 mm penetrates the boiler to inject the IJSER © 2016 http://www .ijser.org International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 2, February-2016 408 ISSN 2229-5518 tangential air and fuel inside the combustion as Fig. 5 declares. thermocouple and a digital reader. The measurement instru- The burner has two nozzles with an orifice diameter of 0.65 ment was connected to the exit pipe of the exhaust manifold mm placed in the center of the tube, which injects the fuel by a mean of the prop. Fig. 6 shows the digital reader. spray into the chamber. Fig. 5, the nozzles of the burner Fig. 3, the used magnet IJSER Fig. 6, thermocouple and reader Fig. 4, the burner 2.6 Species consecration 2.3 Rate of fuel consumption measurement The device used to measure the emission of exhaust gases is The rate of fuel consumption was measured by taking the Flux 2000-4, which can detect the CO-CO -HC-O gases. The 2 2 initial fuel level in the observation tube and takes a measure of exhaust gases are picked up by a probe from the chimney, and the level every five minutes after starting the combustion op- separated from moisture by a mean of condensate filter and eration until the boiler is shutdown. goes to the measuring cell. A ray of infrared is transmitted and sent through the optical filter on the measuring element. The 2.4 The rate of air consumption gases in the cell absorb the rays at different wavelengths ac- The air supplied to the burner is measured by operating the cording to their consecration. The CO , CO and HC are meas- 2 burner without fuel injection (dry run), and using the air flow ured by their molecular composition. However, the device is meter to measure the air velocity and adjusting the gate con- equipped with a chemical sensor for the oxygen percentage. trolling the air flow. This method was used because the burner Fig. 7 represents the used appliance. tube that penetrates the combustion chamber has a continuous The following equations were used in calculating the fuel con- area. sumption of the burner [19]: 2.5 The exhaust gas temperature measurement The volume rate of fuel (m3/s) = The measurement of the temperature was achieved by using a ????ℎ? (?)∗????ℎ(?)∗?ℎ(?) ???? IJSER © 2016 http://www .ijser.org International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 2, February-2016 409 ISSN 2229-5518 The mass rate of fuel (kg/s) =the volume rate of fuel (m3/s)* density (kg/m3). 0.018 0.017 0.016 0.015 0.014 0.013 0.012 0 10 20 30 40 Fig. 8, the relation between the fuel consumption and the time Fig. 7 the gas analyzer 2.7 Fuel specification The fuel used in the experiment is prepared in the Al-Doura Refinery. This fuel made for the operations and was compa- nied by a document of its properties. Table 1 is the used fuel resources. TABLE 1 FUEL PROPERTIES Property Value Fuel type Iraqi diesel Cetane number 58 Lower calorific value (KJ/Kg) 44844 Specific gravity (Kg/m3) 0.8266 Flash point (oC) 92 Pour point (oC) -6 Viscosity (mm2/s at 40oC) 14.3 3 Result and discussions Two experiments were carried out to determine the impact of using the magnetic field on the fuel. The first experiment was conducted without using the magnetic field while the second one was accomplished with the magnetic field. Fig. 8 shows the relation between the rate of fuel consumption and the time. It can be seen that the rate of fuel consumption is decreased when exposing the fuel to the magnetic field by (3.675%), as well as it reduced with time. The magnetization property improved the fuel combustion efficiency and precipi- tated in heating the boiler, making the fuel consumption de- creases with time. Fig. 9 represents the relation between the exhaust gas temper- ature and the time. It can be seen from the figure that the tem- perature was increased when exposing the fuel to the magnet- ic field by (4.34%). This result indicates a higher flame temper- Figs 10 and 11 reveal the relation between the HC and CO ature produced, which in turn led to a better combustion. concentrations in the exhaust gas emission respectively, and the time. The figures clarify that the HC emission is decreased by (21.89%) while the CO levels were reduced by (38.04%). IJSER © 2016 http://www .ijser.org )s/gk( etarwolf ssam leuF Without magnet With magnet Time (min) 230 220 210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 0 10 20 30 40 Fig. 9 the relation between the exhaust gas temperatures and the time )C°( eruterepmet sag tsuahxE Without magnet With magnet Time (min) 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 10 20 30 40 Fig. 10 shows the relation between the exhaust gas emission (HC) and the time )mpp( CH IJSER Without magnet With magnet Time (min) International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 2, February-2016 410 ISSN 2229-5518 The effect of the magnetic field was tangible and the same line exposed to the magnetic field. with what was indicated by many researchers as References The tests results indicate an improvement in fuel combustion [12]-[13]-[14]. of the fuel resulted in lower fuel consumption and CO and HC Fig. 12 shows the relation between the CO concentrations in concentrations and Higher CO . 2 2 exhaust gas emission and the boiler's operation time. CO2 in- REFERENCES creased by (4.4705%) when exposing the fuel to the magnetic [1] S. mingdong etal, “study on the Combustion Efficiency of Magnetized Petro- field, and this indicates the tendency of the combustion to- leum Fuels” Chinese science bulletin, 1984. ward the idle combustion. [2] M.T. Chaichan, \"Practical Measurements of Laminar Burning Velocities and Markstein Numbers for Iraqi Diesel-Oxygenates Blends,\" The Iraqi Journal for 0.14 Mechanical and Material Engineering, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 289-306, 2013. [3] M.T. Chaichan, \"Improvement of NOx-PM Trade-off in CIE Though Blends 0.12 of Ethanol or Methanol and EGR,\" International Advanced Research Journal in 0.1 Science, Engineering and Technology, vol. 2, no. 12, pp. 121-128, 2015. DOI: 10.17148/IARJSET.2015.21222 0.08 [4] M.T. Chaichan & S.T. Ahmed, \"Evaluation of Performance and Emissions 0.06 Characteristics for Compression Ignition Engine Operated with Disposal 0.04 Yellow Grease,\" International Journal of Engineering and Science, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 111-122, 2013. 0.02 [5] M.T. Chaichan, \"Performance and Emission Study of Diesel Engine Using 0 Sunflowers Oil-Based Biodiesel Fuels,\" International Journal of Scientific and En- 0 10 20 30 40 gineering Research, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 260-269, 2015. [6] M.T. Chaichan, \"Combustion and Emissions Characteristics for DI Diesel Engine Run by Partially-Premixed (PPCI) Low Temperature Combustion (LTC) Mode,\" International Journal of Mechanical Engineering (IIJME), vol. 2, no. Fig. 11 the relation between the exhaust gas emission (CO) and 10, pp. 7-16, 2014. the time [7] M.T. Chaichan, D.S.M. Al-Zubaidi, \"A Practical Study of Using Hydrogen in Dual–Fuel Compression Ignition Engine,\" International Journal of Mechanical Engineering (IIJME), vol. 2, no. 11, pp. 1-10, 2014. [8] M.T. Chaichan, A.M. Saleh, \"Practical Investigation of Performance of Single Cylinder Compression Ignition Engine Fueled with Dual Fuel,\" The Iraqi Jour- nal for Mechanical and Material Engineering, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 198-211, 2013. [9] M.T. Chaichan, \"Combustion of Dual Fuel Type Natural Gas/Liquid Diesel Fuel in Compression Ignition Engine,\" Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer- ing (IOSR JMCE), vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 48-58, 2014. [10] M.T. Chaichan, \"The Impact of Equivalence Ratio on Performance and Emis- sions of a Hydrogen-Diesel Dual Fuel Engine with Cooled Exhaust Gas Recir- culation,\" International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 938-941, June-2015. [11] C.H. Sanderson, “Method and Apparatus for Treating Liquid Fuel,\" U.S, 1977. [12] F.A. El-Fatih, G.M. Saber, \"Effect of Fuel Magnetism on Engine Performance and Emissions,” Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, vol. 4, no. 12, pp. 6354-6358, 2010. [13] A.S. Faris and et al., \"Effects of Magnetic Field on Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emissions in Two-Stroke Engine,” Energy Procedia, vol. 18, pp. 327 – 338, 2012 4 Conclusions [14] R.M.A. Al Dossary, \"The Effect of Magnetic Field on Combustion and Emis- sions\", Master's thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, 2009. In this research work diesel, fuel was exposed to a magnetic [15] M.K. Allawi, A.M. Salih, \"Effect of Magnetic Field on Fuel Consumption and field before entering a boiler combustion chamber. The practi- Exhaust Emissions in Internal Combustion Engine,” MSc., University of cal results reveal: Technology, 2012. 1. An increase in the exhaust gas temperature and that indi- [16] P.M. Patel, G.P. Rathod, T.M. Patel, \"Effect of Magnetic Field on Performance cate a higher flame temperature, as well as a better combus- and Emission of Single Cylinder Four Stroke Diesel Engine,” IOSR Journal of tion. Engineering, vol. 04, no. 05, May-2014. 2. A decrease in fuel consumption of 3.675% compared to us- [17] H. Zhao, N. Ladommatos, “Engine Performance Monitoring Using Spark ing regular diesel Plug Voltage Analysis,” Proc Instn Mech Engrs, vol. 211, part D, IMech E., 1997. 3. HC and CO exhaust gas emissions were reduced when the [18] ICI Caldaria Technical Manual. magnetic field was used with 21.89 and 38.84 respectively. [19] V. Ganesan, \"IC Engines\", 3rd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Compa- CO 2 concentrations increased by 4.47% when diesel fuel was ny, 2007. IJSER © 2016 http://www .ijser.org )%lov( OC Without magnet With magnet Time (min) 13.9 13.8 13.7 13.6 13.5 13.4 13.3 13.2 13.1 13 0 10 20 30 40 Fig. 12 the relation between the exhaust gas emission (CO2) and the time )%lov( OC 2 IJSER Without magnet With magnet Time (min) VViieeww ppuubblliiccaattiioonn ssttaattss"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Numerical simulation (CFD) analyzing the effect of the Lorentz force on fluid flow, relevant for modeling MHD interactions in propulsion systems [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Étude théorique utilisant des simulations pour comprendre comment les forces électromagnétiques affectent le flux de carburant."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "J u r n a l P o l i m e s i n micro rotational speed in concentrated flow, while it increased in slightly concentrated flow. Charisma, in 2016 reported the results of his research Department of Mechanical Engineering related to magnetohydrodynamics in fluid flow in a cylinder, the magnitude of State Polytechnic of Lhokseumawe the magnetic field provided is 1.3-2.3 Tesla. The result is that the greater the http://e-jurnal.pnl.ac.id/polimesin magnetic parameters, the lower the fluid velocity. This happens due to the e-ISSN : 2549-1999 No. : 21 Month : April influence of the large Lorentz force on the magnetic ball which causes the p-ISSN : 1693-5462 Volume : 2 Year : 2023 fluid passing through the magnetic ball to receive a Lorentz force which can change the flow profile [2]. Rahayu et al in 2018, reported the results of their Article Processing Dates: Received on 2022-11-07, Reviewed on research that the flow of micropolar fluids decreased due to the 2022-12-08, Revised on 2023-01-10, Accepted on 2023-01-11 and magnetohydrodynamic effect with a given magnetic field of 1.3-1.9 Tesla[3]. Available online on 2023-04-25. Based on the description above, research related to magnetohydrodynamics has been carried out by many people, it's just that all Computational analysis of magnetohydrodynamic effects use large magnetic field strengths, namely above 0.5 Tesla or 5000 Gauss and on biodiesel flow rate no one explains what the minimum magnetic field can affect fluid flow. Therefore this study will be analyzed the characteristics of fluid flow to magnetohydrodynamics for a magnetic field of 1500 Gauss or 1.5 Tesla. The Tatun Hayatun Nufus1,*, Candra Damis Widiawati1, Ahmad choice of 1500 Gauss is related to its smaller dimensions so that when it is Indra Siswantara2, Gun Gun R Gunadi1, Dianta Mustofa placed on a two-wheeled vehicle it is comfortable. Knowing the Kamal1, Asep Apriana1, Delasiska1, Bayu Prasetio1, Irfan Hermansyah Saputra1 characteristics of fluid flow can give a more correct picture of about magnetism and complete combustion[4]. 1Mechanical Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Depok A particular type of Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) flow that has been 16432, Indonesia studied extensively is the flow in a channel between two parallel plates, 2Mechanical Engineering, University of Indonesia, Depok 16424, known as Hartmann flow [5][6]. The problem analyzed is shown in Fig. 1. Indonesia The parallel plates are separated by a distance of 2y0. A magnetic field is *Corresponding author: [email protected] applied in the upward y direction. Differential pressure between the inlet and outlet plates is applied so that a flow profile that varies in the y direction Abstract develops. The pressure gradient in the z direction is chosen as zero so that The purpose of this research is to determine the velocity flow occurs only in the x direction. The magnetic field creates an characteristics of fluid (fuel) flow in a pipe surrounded by minimal electromotive force on the liquid as it moves between the plates [7]. magnetic (electromagnetic) field strength by using computational fluid dynamics simulations. For a more detailed discussion, Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) theory is used, which is a branch of science that studies fluid flow that can conduct electric current due to the influence of a magnetic (electromagnet) field. The fuel used is B0, B10, B20 and B30. The magnitude of the electromagnetic field used is 0.15 Tesla. the result is that the flow Fig. 1. Electric and Magnetic Fields Applied to a Pressure Driven rate of B0 fuel has decreased by 0.623%. B10 fell to 0.41%. The Parallel Plate Flow B20 was down 0.618% and the B30 was down 0.648%. Thus the magnetic field strength of 0.15 Tesla is able to change the speed of The basic formula used in the Computational analysis of the fuel flow even if only slightly. This information is needed as a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD), is the Maxwell equation, Navier-Stokes, basis for the development that the magnetic field is able to change Force Equation and Energy Conservation (scalar). Maxwell's equations are the value of the flow velocity; this will provide information related used to describe the behavior of electromagnetic fields that interact with fluids. to improving the quality of combustion and fuel savings in the and the Navier-Stokes Equation describes fluid motion and is used to calculate future. fluid velocity, pressure, and density. The combination of these two equations, Eq. 1 Maxwell's-Navier Stokes describes the effect of electromagnetic fields Keywords: on fluids that can significantly change the behavior of fluid flow. For example, Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), Computational Fluid Dynamics magnetic fields can induce eddies, suppress turbulence, or even completely (CFD), flow velocity, fuel. change flow patterns. 1 Introduction The Maxwell and Navier-Stokes equations used in MHD are:[8] Human daily activities are very dependent on fuel. Humans continue to p rely on fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas to meet their needs.  +•(v)=0 (1) Because fossil fuels are non-renewable, their recovery takes a very long time.  t  As a result of this situation, fuel prices rose. One solution for the problem is to flow fuel through a magnetic field.. The purpose of using a magnetic field in The Force Eq. 2, also known as the momentum equation, is used this situation is to slow down the speed of the fluid and break up the to describe Newton's law of motion in fluid flow. This equation agglomerated fuel molecules so that they react more easily with the air states that the force applied to the fluid is equal to the change in molecules and the resulting combustion is more thorough. The concept theory momentum of the fluid over time. In MHD, this equation is and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation are used in this study. modified to account for the effects of magnetic fields on the fluid Research related to magnetohydrodynamics in fluid flow has been carried flow. out by Engin et al, in 2012. In this study, a magnetic field was used ranging from 0.5 – 1.5 Tesla or around 5000-15000 Gauss and there was a decrease in Force Equation (vector) the velocity of the fluid flow around 80-95% [1]. In 2015 Anggriani v  = −p+ JB (2) developed research on magnetohydrodynamics in micropolar fluids that were t given a magnet of 1-10 Tesla. Micropolar fluid flows through the porous sphere This study observed the influence of magnetic parameters and The Energy Conservation Eq. 3, also known as the Bernoulli equation, is permeability parameters on the fluid velocity and micro rotation rate. The used to describe the conservation of energy in fluid flow. This equation states results showed that the greater the magnetic parameters given, the lower the that the total energy in the fluid flow, consisting of kinetic energy and potential Disseminating Information on the Research of Mechanical Engineering - Jurnal Polimesin Volume 21, No. 2, April 2023 183 below: energy, must remain constant during fluid flow. In MHD, the energy inlet outlet conservation equation is modified to account for the effects of magnetic fields on the fluid flow. a (a) Energy Conservation (scalar)     e+ v2   =−•(pv)+•(kT)+J •E (3)   t 2  Where: (ρ) is represents density, (v) is velocity, (P) is pressure, (e) is internal energy, (k) is thermal conductivity and (σ) is electrical (b) conductivity of the gas, (E) is electric field, (J) is current density, (B) is magnetic induction, (μ) is permeability and (R) is universal Fig. 3. (a) Domain, and (b) Grid gas constant. Domain boundaries consist of wall (green), symmetry (yellow), inlet (blue), and outlet (red). Some of the regulation equations that are activated 2 Materials and Methods include turbulence and magnetic fields. The simulation parameters are shown This experiment uses 5 types of biodiesel that are commonly used, in the following table: namely B0 (100% diesel), B10 (10% biodiesel + 90% diesel), B20 (20% biodiesel + 80% diesel) and B30 (30% biodiesel + 70% diesel). The biodiesel Table 2. Simulation parameter in the storage tank is forced to flow by an electric pump to the pipe. The pipe Description Value and unit Notification is wound which, when given an electric current, will produce a magnetic field Inlet velocity 0.461 m/s B0, B10, B20, B30 of 0.15 Tesla or 1500 Gauss. This experiment observes changes in the Turbulence approach k-epsilon dynamics of biodiesel flow along the pipe when it is not subjected to a Density kg/m3 As describe in Table 1 magnetic field and is subjected to a magnetic field. Experimental diagrams Viscosity Pa.s As describe in Table 1 and biodiesel properties can be seen in Fig. 2. Magnetic Force 0,15 Tesla F= BIL= 52.452 N 3 Results and Discussion The grid dependency test has been carried out using three grid densities Fuel tank namely 1000 x 50, 1650 x 50 and 2000 x 50. The simulation resulted from the Stopwatch magnet three grid densities are as follows: more significant after using a minimum t Power supply grid of 1650 x 50, because the network density is used in more height. Validation of the simulation results in the experimental data was carried out at the beginning of the analysis before the fluid was affected by a magnetic field pump Fuel tank on flow dynamics such as velocity (Fig. 4) and validation with fluids affected by a magnetic field (Fig. 5). Furthermore, Fig. 6 presents the flow rate error between the experiment and the simulation obtained. 0.6 Before use magnet Fig. 2. Experimental Schematic Diagram )s0.4 /m Table 1. Property of Biodiesel [9] ( y tic Biodiesel ρ(kg/m3) µx10-6 (Pa.s) o le 0.2 Exsperiment simulation V B0 830 2257 B10 800 2314 0 B0 B10 B20 B30 B100 B20 830 2483 Fuel B30 840 2665 B100 870 3967 Fig. 4. Validation of outlet velocity before applying magnetic field 0.6 After use magnet The measurement of the volume rate per unit time was carried out by observing the change in the height of the biodiesel in the storage for 30 seconds. The volume rate data was taken for 20 repetitions with the same )s /m 0.4 experimental parameters. ( y tic o 0.2 Exsperiment simulation le V 2.1 Simulation 0 The simulation domain is a pipe with a length of 80 mm B0 B10 B20 B30 B100 and an inner diameter of 4.64 mm which is represented by a 2- Fuel dimensional approach. The domain and mesh are shown Fig. 3: Fig. 5. Validation of outlet velocity after applying magnetic field Disseminating Information on the Research of Mechanical Engineering - Jurnal Polimesin Volume 21, No. 2, April 2023 184 the fluid velocity that is reduced significantly from the middle of the pipe to Error Prosentage the pipe wall. This reduction is caused by the fluid flowing on the pipe wall 9 experiencing friction that is large enough to inhibit the fluid flow rate. )% Likewise, after the fluid passes through the magnetic field (MHD) in Fig ( ro 6 8, there is a decrease in the speed of the fuel flow, but it is greater than before rrE passing through the magnetic field (MHD). The difference between fluid flow 3 through a magnetic field and fluid flow through a non-magnetic field is shown Exsperiment simulation in Fig 9. It can be seen that the largest difference occurs at a distance of 0 60x10-5 m. B0 B10 B20 B30 B100 The large flow velocity causes the kinetic energy of the fluid to be large so Biodiesel Type that the sublayer in the fluid flow area will be thicker. The thicker the sublayer Fig. 6. Simulation error on experiment in the pipe flow causes the fluid flow to be disturbed by the sublayer. So that the flow direction will be random and cause ripples. In Fig. 4 and 5 it appears that the experimental results with the As a result, so that the flow pressure is not normally distributed. This simulation have almost the same value, or the error is below 10% causes a pressure drops in highly turbulent flows. Because there is pressure as shown in Fig 6, it can be said that the data obtained from the left in the pipe, it is very likely that the pipe will produce heat so that there will simulation is valid. be a decrease in the energy because other energy is left behind and generates the heat [10]. In addition, the shear stress is also a parameter that causes the thickness of the sublayer layer. Shear stress occurs due to fluid friction on the wall. In the 0.8 viscous sublayer, the fluid flow is laminar and does not collide with each )s other, while in the middle of the pipe the fluid flow is turbulent. So because of / m ( y 0.6 the high turbulent velocity, it will cause eddies to form in the flow which are tic called Eddies. o le 0.4 This eddy will cause the rate of energy change (rate of dissipation) to V w change in the form of heat due to this friction. As a result, the fuel that passes o lf le 0.2 through the magnetic field becomes slower. The heat energy that arises causes u the bonding of the fuel molecules to decrease but not to be broken. This weak F 0.0 fuel molecule bond causes it to be easier to react with air, so that the 0 20 40 60 80 100 combustion is better. This is the basis of why the magnetic field is able to save Distance J x10-5(meter) fuel[11][12]. Fig. 7. Velocity before being applied to a magnetic field (MHD) at B10, B20 and B30 fuels have the same characteristics as B0. The biggest B0 percentage difference between fuel that does not pass through a magnetic field and through a magnetic field is B30. This is because its density is greater than the others so that the fluid frictional force is large as shown in Fig. 10. The percentage difference in flow rate between fuel that does not pass through a 0.8 magnetic field and that passes the magnetic field for B0 is 0.623%. while for )s B10 decreased to 0.410%, and for B20 the percentage value of the difference / m 0.6 in flow rate between fuel that does not go through a magnetic field and ( y tic through a magnetic field is 0.618%. The largest, B30, is 0.648% because its o le 0.4 density is greater than the others so that the fluid friction force is large. All V w these values are smaller than the results of other studies. However, this o lf le 0.2 i f n lo fo w r . m s that a magnetic field strength of 0.15 Tesla is able to affect the fluid u F 0.0 0 20 40 60 80 100 0.482 Distance J x10-5(meter) Non MHD Fig. 8. Velocity after being applied to a magnetic field (M HD)at )s / m 0.479 B0 ( e c n e0.476 re )s 5 ffid y0.473 / m tic 3-0 1 ( 4 o le V 0.47 x e 3 B0 B10 B20 B30 c n e re 2 Fig. 10. Velocity differences F u o e f l Non MHD & MHD ffid y 1 tic It can be concluded that the fuel flowing in a magnetic field of 0.15 tesla o le V 0 resulted in insignificant changes in the fuel flow rate for all fuel compositions, 0 20 40 60 80 100 except in B100. However, it can also be informed that with a magnetic field of Distance J x10-5(meter) 0.15 Tesla the fuel molecules can change their flow velocity even if only Fig. 9. Velocity differences of Non MHD & MHD at B0 slightly. The slow speed of this flow does not make the combustion process so slow. This information is needed as a basis for the development that the Fig. 7 and 8 show the characteristics of the fuel flow rate. At first glance magnetic field is able to change the flow of velocity. This is related to fuel they look the same, but if you look closely they are different. The e c o n o m y [ 1 3 ] . Characteristics of fluid flow without a magnetic field (MHD) is showed by Disseminating Information on the Research of Mechanical Engineering - Jurnal Polimesin Volume 21, No. 2, April 2023 185 4 Conclusions Based on the CFD simulation that has been validated with experimental results, the characteristics of the fluid, especially fuel when passed by a magnetic field will experience a decrease in flow velocity: B0 decreased by 0.623%. B10 dropped to 0.41%. B20 fell by 0.618% and B30 decreased by 0.648%. The magnetic field strength of 0.15 Tesla is able to change the speed of the fuel flow even if only slightly. This information is needed as a basis for the development that the magnetic field is able to change the value of the flow velocity. This is related to fuel economy. Acknowledgement UP2M which has provided the PIT Grant PT CCIT which has provided simulation facilities, namely CFDSOF References. [1] E. Gedik, H. Kurt, and Z. Recebli, “CFD simulation of magnetohydrodynamic flow of a liquid- metal galinstan fluid in circular pipes,” Fluid Dyn. Mater. Process., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 23–33, 2013. [2] Charisma, “Micropolar Magnetohydrodynamic Fluid FlowThrough A Porous Sphere Effected By Mixed Convection And Magnetic Field,” 2018. [3] R. O. Putri, B. Widodo, B. Widodo, N. Asiyah, and N. Asiyah, “Magnetohidrodinamik Fluida Micropolar yang Mengalir Melalui Bola Berpori dengan Pengaruh Magnet,” J. Sains dan Seni ITS, vol. 7, no. 2, 2019. [4] TH Nufus et al., “Two wheeled vehicles E20 fuel magnetization study on exhaust gas emissions,” Int. J. Mech. Prod. Eng. Res. Dev., vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 201–212, 2020. [5] N. Ramesh and J. M. Mallikarjuna, “Low temperature combustion strategy in an off-highway diesel engine – Experimental and CFD study,” Appl. Therm. Eng., vol. 124, pp. 844–854, 2017. [6] S. Hosseinzadeh, S. M. Emadi, S. M. Mousavi, and D. D. Ganji, “Mathematical modeling of fractional derivatives for magnetohydrodynamic fluid flow between two parallel plates by the radial basis function method,” Theor. Appl. Mech. Lett., no. xxxx, p. 100350, 2022. [7] D. Ramya, R. S. Raju, J. A. Rao, and A. J. Chamkha, “Effects of velocity and thermal wall slip on magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) boundary layer viscous flow and heat transfer of a nanofluid over a non-linearly- stretching sheet: a numerical study,” Propuls. Power Res., vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 182–195, 2018. [8] J. Reitz and F. J. Milford, Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory, 1st ed. London, England: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, INC, 1960. [9] W. M. Adaileh and K. S. Alqdah, “Performance of diesel engine fuelled by a biodiesel extracted from a waste cocking oil,” Energy Procedia, vol. 18, pp. 1317–1334, 2012. [10] A. S. Faris et al., “Effects of magnetic field on fuel consumption and exhaust emissions in two-stroke engine,” Energy Procedia, vol. 18, pp. 327–338, 2012. [11] N. Karande, S. Kore, A. Momin, R. Akkiwate, and P. K. Sharada, “Experimental Study the Effect of Electromagnetic Field on Performance & Emission of IC Engine,” vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 27–34, 2015. [12] G. K. Ayetor, A. Sunnu, and J. Parbey, “Effect of biodiesel production parameters on viscosity and yield of methyl esters: Jatropha curcas, Elaeis guineensis and Cocos nucifera,” Alexandria Eng. J., vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 1285–1290, 2015. [13] V. Ugare, A. Dhoble, S. Lutade, and K. Mudafale, “Performance of internal combustion ( CI ) engine under the influence of stong permanent magnetic field,” in IOSR Journal of Mechanical and civil Engineering, 2014, vol. 2014, no. Ci, pp. 11–17. Disseminating Information on the Research of Mechanical Engineering - Jurnal Polimesin Volume 21, No. 2, April 2023 186"}}

{}

{"page_1": {"en_base": null, "fr_vulgarise": "Étude sur la physique de la combustion des petites gouttelettes de carburant."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study using a 3000 Gauss magnetic field to optimize AFR. Magnetic treatment resulted in reduced CO and increased CO2, signaling more complete combustion [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant (3000 Gauss) permet un meilleur rapport air-carburant, ce qui rend la combustion plus complète (augmentation du CO2)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "International Journal of Electrical Energy, Vol. 3, No. 4, December 2015 Effects of Gasoline Exposed to Magnetic Field to the Exhaust Emissions Mahmut Ünaldi Selcuk University, Faculty of Technical Education, Konya, Turkey Email: [email protected] Ali Kahraman1 and Mustafa Taşyürek2 1Necmettin Erbakan University, Energy Systems Engineering, Konya, Turkey 2Selcuk University, Faculty of Technology, Konya, Turkey Email: [email protected], [email protected] Abstract—Excessive increase in environmental pollution due combustion burnt gases called exhaust emissions are to the use of fuels derived from petroleum in internal released from the vehicle exhaust system. Vehicle combustion engines will make it mandatory the widespread exhaust emissions consist of water vapor, Carbon use of alternative fuels or economically usage of existing Dioxide (CO ), unburned Hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon fuels. Studies are focused on the issues of using available 2 Monoxide (CO) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) etc. resources in the most efficient way, because of the world's Especially unburned emissions react in the atmosphere oil reserves began to decline. In this study, the changes in and they are harmful to human health and the the exhaust emissions of an internal combustion engine that works using gasoline exposed to a magnetic field were environment [3]. investigated. Results of this study are compared with other Car manufacturers have to give importance to the studies and reports which were made for this issue. The increase in engine performance by reducing of fuel magnetic field device used in this study led to the fall of the consumption and exhaust emissions of vehicle thanks to hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions and the new systems. Therefore, manufacturers can make improved the lambda value.  their vehicles more attractive for consumers. On the other hand, the studies about vehicles on the road have focused Index Terms—air-fuel ratio, engine, exhaust emissions, on fuel consumption and emissions particular due to the greenhouse gas, magnetic field device large numbers of older vehicles on the road [4]. Nowadays, there are a lot of different devices with I. INTRODUCTION different types and working principles to reduce fuel consumption and emission values of vehicles on road. The researchers focused on the following topics to The device producers are promised that the low cost prolong the remaining life of the world oil reserves and to reduces fuel consumption and exhaust emissions, and prevent the negative impacts of the vehicle to the increases the engine performance. Although these devices environment because of economic crisis, energy crisis are outnumbered and due to scientific studies have small and automobile emissions; to discover alternative fuels, number, we do not have enough information on the petroleum-based fuels and to use available resources in efficiency of these devices [4]. the most efficient manner. When the criteria such as One of the treatment work about fuel consumption and availability of fuel, emissions, cost, storing, transport etc. exhaust emissions of vehicles is on the fuels exposed to a are taken into consideration, finding a suitable alternative magnetic field. Diamagnetic atoms have only paired fuel for internal combustion engines is revealed as a high electrons, whereas paramagnetic atoms, which can be cost of research topic. Vehicles which pollute the made magnetic, have at least one unpaired electron (Fig. environment represent a major problem particularly in 1). Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby metropolitan cities. Researchers are trying to reduce the certain materials are attracted by an externally applied fuel consumption and exhaust emissions of vehicles in magnetic field. In the presence of a magnetic field this road traffic by economic methods on the development or effect causes the fluid to be drawn in the direction of improvements of existing vehicle systems [1], [2]. increasing magnetic field strength. On the contrary, if the Most fuels for internal combustion engine are liquid electrons are already paired, the atoms resist the and liquid fuels are mixture of organic chemical formation of a dipole and this resistance causes the atoms compounds predominantly consist of carbon and to move in the direction of decreasing magnetic field hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbons-HC). The fuels vaporize strength, known as diamagnetism. Paramagnetic behavior and mix with air in combustion chamber of an engine and is about three orders of magnitude larger than the the mixture burn in the engine chamber. At the end of the diamagnetic behavior. Oxygen and air are examples of paramagnetic substance and are drawn towards higher Manuscript received March 16, 2015; revised September 23, 2015. ©2015 International Journal of Electrical Energy 239 doi: 10.18178/ijoee.3.4.239-242 International Journal of Electrical Energy, Vol. 3, No. 4, December 2015 magnetic field strengths. Nitrogen, carbon dioxide and II. MATERIALS AND METHODS most hydrocarbon fuels are examples of diamagnetic The magnetic field device which is a magnetic substances and are repelled by stronger magnetic fields frequency resonator, can easily mounted to the carburetor [5], [6]. fuel inlet pipe on an internal combustion engine. The magnetic field device has 3000 Gauss magnetic field intensity because it is made from Neodymium-Iron- Boron. The fuel molecules passing through the magnetic field generated by the device enter the combustion chamber of internal combustion engine in a specific sequence as shown in Fig. 1 and thus fuel molecules within the combustion chamber contact with more oxygen and so that the combustion reaction approaches the theoretical combustion. Descriptions of the three major automotive terms used in study about fuel consumption and exhaust emissions are as follows: The Air-Fuel Ratio (AFR) is the most common reference term used for mixtures in internal Figure 1. Spin isomers of hydrogen and to effect of magnetic field combustion engines. AFR is the mass ratio of air to fuel over the fuel molecules [7], [8]. present in a combustion process in an internal combustion Magnetization of fuel breaks down the bonds between engine. If exactly enough air is provided to completely hydrocarbon chains which results in decreased density, burn all of the fuel, the ratio is known as the surface tension and, hence smaller particulars and stoichiometric mixture. The stoichiometric mixture for a droplets during atomization or injection within an internal gasoline engine is the ideal ratio of air to fuel that burns combustion engine (Fig. 1). Smaller particles and droplets all fuel with no excess air and the stoichiometric mixture causes increased evaporation rates, improved mixing of is approximately 14.7:1. Air-Fuel equivalence ratio, (λ- fuel and oxidizer, and improved promotion of oxidation. lambda), is the ratio of actual AFR to stoichiometry for a The use of strong magnetic charge from the magnet put given mixture. λ=1 is at stoichiometry, rich mixtures λ<1, into the fuel line gives a complete and clean burn so that and lean mixtures λ>1. Carbon Monoxide (CO) and power is increased with reduced operating expenses. Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions result from incomplete Many of experimental studies which present evidences of combustion of fuel in combustion chamber. When the benefits of magnetic treatment were carried out. For combustion does not take place all, as with a misfire, HC pollution due to automobile emissions, it is of great and CO emissions are emitted from the combustion concern more particularly in metropolitan cities [9]. chamber [12], [13]. Experiments conducted using a 252cm3, 4.5 It is very beneficial for both the environment and horsepower (HP) single-cylindered diesel engine, economies to reduce exhaust emissions of vehicles in measured the effects of fuel passing through the magnetic traffic without major modifications in the vehicles. In this field to the engine performance. It is noted that the study, Neodymium magnetic field device (Fig. 2), OVLT magnetic field device don’t have a significant brand exhaust emissions tester and 4-cylinder, 1.6-liter, contribution to fuel economy [10]. 80HP, carbureted engine, 1991 model Toyota Corolla Aydın et al. (2003) experimentally investigated the brand vehicle, are used and the gasoline fuel obtained effects of magnetic field to the fuel economy and exhaust from the same filling station as needed. Exhaust emissions of internal combustion engines such as two- emissions test device was calibrated to be authorized firm stroke, four-stroke gasoline and diesel engines. Magnetic before experiments. After the magnetic field device was field intensity used in the experiments is provided with placed to the closest location to the carburetor, vehicle the fixed magnet, 12-volt coil, 24-volt coil, and 48-volt was driven approximately 100km. At the end of each coil. Maximum benefit is obtained with the four-stroke experiment, the moisture filter of the emission tester has gasoline engine type [11]. replaced. Experiments were performed with the vehicle The experiments using of permanent magnets with four on chassis dynamometer at various engine speeds of the different intensities exhaust emission tests showed a good vehicle. Experiments were repeated 3 times and the result. As a result of study, exhaust gases such as CO, HC results in tables and figures are average values. were decreased and CO emissions increased up [3]. 2 This study was conducted to determine the effect of the magnetic field device to the engine exhaust emissions and fuel consumption values of a carbureted internal combustion engine. Device manufacturers argue that the device can reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emissions of vehicles in traffic economically. The experimental setup was prepared in accordance with previous scientific studies on the subject and the data obtained from the experiments were compared. Figure 2. Image of the magnetic field device [4]. ©2015 International Journal of Electrical Energy 240 International Journal of Electrical Energy, Vol. 3, No. 4, December 2015 III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION device and with device tests were reached the maximum level at 3000-4000rpm range. In experiments conducted If the lambda value is more than 1.02, excess air with the device lambda values are close to the ideal molecules in the combustion chamber absorb a portion of stoichiometric mixture. When the engine speed increased, the heat present and then temperature end of combustion the lambda value dropped in both cases. In experiments process drops a small amount. In actuality, an increase in conducted with the device, the decrease rate of lambda the initial pressure during combustion can greatly alter values are more than the other. the way the fuel burns. Higher pressure in a limited In experiments conducted without the device CO volume means that the temperature in the cylinder is emission values [Vol.%] at low engine speeds are more higher and that the fuel and air molecules are more than the values with the device test results (Fig. 4(d)). CO reactive. The mixture burns faster, so the burn duration emission values decreased between 1000-4000rpm, but becomes shorter. Under higher inlet pressure, the gases in after 4000rpm CO emission values began to increase. the cylinder are hotter throughout combustion and the combustion, which is an oxidation reaction, occurs faster. The heat of combustion is the energy released as heat when a compound undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions. Figure 4. Experimental results of CO and HC emissions in graphically. CO emission values increased between 1000-4000rpm 2 and after 4000rpm CO emission values [Vol.%] began to Figure 3. Experimental results of CO and Lambda values in 2 2 decrease. The graphics of CO emission values and CO graphically. 2 emission values are compatible with each other. CO 2 Lambda values obtained from experiments given in Fig. emission values began to decrease. In experiments 3(a). While the engine is 1000rpm, lambda values test conducted with the device, CO emission values are more 2 results are 0.905 and 0.917 for without device and with than other because better combustion reaction has device, respectively. Lambda values on without the occurred. TABLE I. THE TEST RESULTS ACCORDING TO ENGINE SPEED Engine Speed (rpm) Emission 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 400 4500 5000 CO (without device) [Vol.%] 4.43 3.96 3.61 3.29 3.05 2.76 2.71 2.89 3.13 CO (without device) [Vol.%] 12.70 12.77 13.05 13.43 13.75 14.06 14.09 13.93 13.80 2 HC (without device) [ppm] 885.50 856.00 823.30 775.80 774.00 716.80 726.80 733.00 750.50 Lambda (without device) 0.91 0.91 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 CO (with device) [Vol.%] 4.62 4.24 3.80 3.66 3.29 3.00 2.75 2.79 2.86 CO (with device) [Vol.%] 12.85 13.07 13.37 13.47 13.85 14.07 14.26 14.15 14.17 2 HC (with device) [ppm] 874.00 839.30 811.30 782.70 756.70 723.30 710.30 705.70 715.70 Lambda (with device) 0.92 0.92 0.95 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.96 0.94 ©2015 International Journal of Electrical Energy 241 International Journal of Electrical Energy, Vol. 3, No. 4, December 2015 There is no significant difference in the HC emissions [7] Hydrogen. [Online]. Available: values [ppm]. When engine speed increased, HC http://wwwchem.uwimona.edu.jm/courses/CHEM1902/IC10K_M G_hydrogen.html emission values dropped for both cases. HC emission [8] [Online]. Available values are 874 and 885.5 at 1000rpm, and 715.7 and http://mitosytimos.blogspot.com.tr/2015/01/ahorradores- 750.5 at 5000rpm for with device and without device, magneticos-de-combustible_10.html respectively. The test results given graphically above are [9] P. Govindasamy and S. Dhandapan, “Experimental investigation of cyclic variation of combustion parameters in catalytically presented in the Table I. activated and magnetically energised two-stroke SI engine,” Journal of Energy and Environment, vol. 6, pp. 45-59, 2007. IV. CONCLUSIONS [10] E. Uzunsoy, “Manyetik alan etkisine maruz kalmış benzinin motor performansına etkisi,” M.S. thesis, Graduate School of Natural According to the results of present study: and Applied Sciences, Yıldız Technical Universty, Istanbul,  When fuel is exposed to a magnetic field, exhaust Turkey, 1998. [11] K. Aydın, A. Bulca, M. Özcanlı, H. L. Yücel, and F. Balo, “Dizel emission values of vehicle are changed. motorlarda manyetik alan cihazinin motor performansi ve Yakıt  While the magnetic field device plugged, the most ekonomisine etkisi,” in Proc. VIII. Otomotiv ve Yan Sanayi change occurred in lambda values. In experiments Sempozyumu, Bursa, Turkey, 2003, pp. 138-144. [12] Air-fuel ratio. [Online]. Available: conducted with the device lambda values are http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%E2%80%93fuel_ratio changed between 0.90 to 0.96 ranges and after the [13] Combustion chemistry. [Online]. Available: device is plugged on the carburetor, lambda values https://www.princeton.edu/ssp/64-tiger-cub-1/64- are up to 0.92-0.99 ranges. data/combustion-chemistry.pdf  When CO 2 emission values increased up to 4000rpm, CO emission values decreased. Mahmut Ünaldı was graduated from Selcuk University, Department of Mechanical  HC emissions values are the same for all rpm. Education, Turkey in 2002. He received his  The magnetic field devices have the potential to M.S. degree from Selcuk University, reduce exhaust emissions and fuel consumption by Department of Mechanical Education, Graduate School of Natural Sciences, Turkey taking into consideration CO and CO emission 2 in 2006. Currently, he is a research fellow at values and lambda values. the Department of Mechanical Education,  Magnetic treatment is economically feasible to Faculty of Technical Education, Selcuk reduce exhaust emissions values and fuel University, Turkey. His main research interests include engine technologies, fuels and exhaust emissions, consumption because of does not need energy. automobile brake systems and composite materials. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Ali Kahraman was graduated from Selcuk University, Mechanical Engineering The authors express their sincere thanks to the Selcuk Department, Turkey with B.Sc. degree, in University Scientific Research Projects for funding. The 1993. He received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degree from Cukurova University, Department of data used in this study was taken from Mahmut Mechanical Engineering, Turkey in 1997 and ÜNALDI’s M.S. thesis. 2003. Currently, He works as Assoc. Professor at Energy System Engineering Department of REFERENCES Necmettin Erbakan University, Turkey. His research interests are flows in pipes and [1] [Online]. Available: http://www.oilreportmarket.org channels, unsteady flows, quantitative visualization of flow phenomena, [2] Air - NSW overview. [Online]. Available: flow measurement techniques, flow control in complex geometries, http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/air/index.htm renewable energy. He has several articles published in the scientific [3] A. S. Faris, S. K. Al-Naseri, et al., “Effects of magnetic field on journals. fuel consumption and exhaust emissions in two-stroke engine,” Energy Procedia, vol. 18, pp. 327-338, 2012. Mustafa Taşyürek was born in 1982, who [4] M. Ünaldı, “Benzinli araçlarda manyetik alan etkisindeki received his PhD degree in mechanical Hava/Yakıt,” M.S. thesis, Graduate School of Natural and Applied education from Selçuk University, Turkey in Sciences, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, 2006. 2014. From 2005 to present, he is a research [5] Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism. [Online]. Available: assistant with Selçuk University. Currently, he https://www.boundless.com/chemistry/textbooks/boundless- is a research assistant at the Department of chemistry-textbook/periodic-properties-8/electron-configuration- Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, 68/diamagnetism-and-paramagnetism-320-10520/ Selçuk University, Turkey. His research [6] S. Swaminathan, “Effects of magnetic field on micro flames,” M.S. interests are in nanomaterials, nanocomposites thesis, The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Louisiana and mechanical properties. He is a member of State University, USA, 2005. IACSIT. ©2015 International Journal of Electrical Energy"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Objective — Assess the impact of an upstream magnetic field on performance and emissions. Method — Magnetic conditioning and instrumented measurements (exhaust gases, fuel). Results — magnetic field ~10.0 Tesla. Interpretation — Molecular ordering supports more complete oxidation and improved atomization. Conclusion — Passive, replicable device with measurable energy and environmental benefits.", "fr_vulgarise": "L'étude simule la stabilisation des flammes par des champs magnétiques intenses (50000 Gauss)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Context review on the effects of an electromagnetic field on the performance and emissions of Internal Combustion Engines (ICE).", "fr_vulgarise": "Recherche sur les effets des champs électromagnétiques sur la performance des moteurs."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online) Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp: (27-34), Month: April 2015 - September 2015, Available at: www.researchpublish.com Experimental Study the Effect of Electromagnetic Field on Performance & Emission of IC Engine 1Nitin Karande, 2Sachin kumar Kore, 3Akram Momin, 4Ranjit Akkiwate, 5Sharada P.K, 6Sandip K. Kumbhar 1,2,3,4,5, UG Student, Dept. Of mechanical engg. Shivaji University Kolhapur, INDIA. 6M.Tech Scholar, Dept. of Mechanical Engg. VTU Belgum, Karanataka, India, 6Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. AITRC Vita, Shivaji University Kolhapur, India. Abstract: The present work deals with fuel ionization by using magnetic field which will ensure complete combustion of air-fuel mixture. Incomplete combustion in engine is due to improper mixing of hydrocarbon and oxygen molecule. In I.C. engine incomplete combustion produced large amount of emission gasses like CO, HC & NO etc. & incomplete combustion fuel gives lower efficiency. These attempt is made in this work to improve the X combustion efficiency of internal combustion engines by adopting a magnetic fuel ionization method in which the fuel is ionized due to the magnetic field. To overcome these issues electromagnets are developed called as electro- magnetic fuel conditioner. This help to aligns & orientation of hydrocarbon molecules, better atomization of fuel. Use of such electromagnet mounted in path of fuel lines improves mileage & reduces emission of vehicle. These experiments are conducted at different engine loading conditions. The work in particular is very significant on account of its impact on the global automobile market. Keywords: aligns& orientation, efficiency, electromagnetic fuel conditioner, HC I. INTRODUCTION Over the last decade there so many efforts towards the improving power output and emission of internal combustion engines per fuel, but success up to 31%. It is very difficult to improve the more than that efficiency but magnetic fuel conditioner help to improve 3-4% in present value. We have, combustion of fossil fuel has release of pollutants such as CO, HC and NO like many component in environment. When these pollutants are in place, an atmospheric phenomenon X called smog is created by the action of sunlight on hydrocarbon (HC) in the atmosphere, and the main source of HC is the exhaust gases of vehicles, the rapid increase in traffic causes the increase in the percentage of smog. That effect the deterioration of air & harmful for health is irritate the eyes & throats, noxious smell, decrease visibility. Wide range of pollutants are believed to penetrate deeply into human lungs including aerosols of many small particles. Due to the reduction the emission from mobile sources increase the demand. Hydrocarbon leaves the natural deformation of carbon clog stalling, loss of horsepower & reducing mileage. There are many method MPFI, EGR, PCV, CATALYTIC use to complete combustion as well as minimize the emission. This is new technology working the similar to other technology but in better way. Electro-Magnetic field that ionized the fuel on the principle of magnetic field mutual action with hydrocarbon molecules of fuel and oxygen molecules. There are various physical attraction forces between hydrocarbons and they form densely packed structures is called pseudo compounds which can later organize into clusters. The external force of magnetic field helps to polarize the hydrocarbon fuel. Due to that hydrocarbon fuel change their orientation and increase space between hydrogen This hydrogen of fuel interlocks with oxygen and producing a more complete combustion in the combustion chamber. It has been noted that when the fuel passes through a magnetic field, it helps increasing the atomization process by improved air fuel mixing Page | 27 Research Publish Journals International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online) Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp: (27-34), Month: April 2015 - September 2015, Available at: www.researchpublish.com a. Background Of An Electromagnet In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted, the Danish physicist and chemist (1777-1851), noticed that a current in a wire caused a compass needle to deflect. He had discovered that moving electric charges create a magnetic field. A dedicated teacher, he made this discovery while teaching his students at the University of Copenhagen. He Suspected there might be an effect and did the experiment for the very first time in front of his class. With his discovery, Oersted was the first to identify the principle of an electromagnet. Fig.1.1.1 Oersted law II. MAGNETIC FUEL CONDITIONER An electromagnetic fuel conditioner is device which arrange the fuel molecules & alter the atomic structure so that proper combustion take place in engine. Magnetic field applied at fuel line atomize the fuel & which get adhere to oxygen enhance fuel air mixing ratio. Basic concept of magnetize fluid is that: In 1989, Hans Dehmelt of university of Washington awarded Noble prize in physics for his great contribution in fundamental property of electron [1]. According that electron have ability to store the energy within itself called spine. When provide small of magnetic field, it absorb the energy and changing property. Particle made up of number of atom which have same number proto & neutron charge, if greater number of electron then „– ve‟ charge obtain & vice versa. Two distinct type hydrogen (a)Para-Hydrogen (b) Ortho-Hydrogen Fig.2.1 Rotational view of para & ortho hydrogen Fig.2.2 process of the fuel ionization Page | 28 Research Publish Journals International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online) Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp: (27-34), Month: April 2015 - September 2015, Available at: www.researchpublish.com However these molecules have not been realigned, the fuel is not actively interlocked with oxygen during combustion, the fuel molecule or hydrocarbon chains must be ionized and realigned. The ionization and realignment is achieved through the application of magnetic field, as said by Paul (1993), Park K et al (1997). Hydrogen occurs in two different part isomeric forms one is Para which is normally occurs in fuels, second is ortho which is achieved by applying magnetic field. These two forms are the different opposite nucleus spins. The ortho state can be achieved by applying strong magnetic field along the fuel line. In the para Hydrogen molecule, which occupies the anti-parallel rotation, the spin state of one atom relative to another is in the opposite direction, therefore it is diamagnetic. In the ortho molecule, which occupies the parallel rotational levels, the spin state of one atom relative to another is in the same direction. When the fuel passes through a magnetic field, created by the strong electro-magnets, due to that magnetic field hydrocarbon change their orientation and convert from para state to ortho state. In ortho state inter molecular force is considerably reduced and increase space between hydrogen. This hydrogen of fuel actively interlocks with oxygen and producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. The result is better fuel economy and reduction in hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen that are emitted though exhaust. The ionization fuel also helps to dissolve the carbon build-up in carburetor, jets, fuel injector and combustion chamber, thereby keeping the engines clear condition. Electro- Magnetic kit is installed on cars, trucks, auto rickshaw, and heavy trucks immediately before carburetor or injector on fuel line. (a)Para state (b) ortho state Fig.2.3. Conversion of para to ortho state III. OBJECTIVES By this technique of electromagnetic field used to reduce exhaust emission following objectives are obtained: 1. To study electromagnetic field used to decrease intermolecular force of attraction of hydrocarbon atoms. 2. To study reduction in exhaust emission. 3. To prepare Electromagnetic kit or model. 4. To test fuel emission on various engines. 5. To improve in engine performance. 6. To study increase in mileage of vehicle. 7. To study increase in engine life IV. CONSTRUCTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD Electromagnets are magnets that are created when there is electric current flowing in a wire. The simplest electromagnet uses a coil of wire, often wrapped around some iron. Because iron is magnetic, it concentrates the magnetic field created by the current in the coil. Page | 29 Research Publish Journals International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online) Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp: (27-34), Month: April 2015 - September 2015, Available at: www.researchpublish.com (a) (b) (c) Fig.5 Structure of electromagnetic circuit An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire, due to Ampere's law. To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is wound into a coil with many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field there. A coil forming the shape of a straight tube (a helix) is called a solenoid. Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a \"core\" of ferromagnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed inside the coil. The ferromagnetic core increases the magnetic field to thousands of times the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high magnetic permeability μ of the ferromagnetic material. This is called ferromagnetic-core or iron-core electromagnet. The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of the right-hand rule. If the fingers of the right hand are curled around the coil in the direction of current flow (conventional current, flow of positive charge) through the windings, the thumb points in the direction of the field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field lines e merge from is defined to be the North Pole. Fig.6 The right hand rule When your fingers curl in the direction of current, your thumb points toward the magnet‟s North Pole.For generating electromagnetic field source of energy of electric energy is used as the automobile battery. The microprocessor chip is used to vary the frequency of the electromagnetic field. The range of frequency is set from 1.5 kHz to 38 kHz. This frequency is set so that to break the bonding of hydro-carbon molecules bonds. This frequency matches with respective hydro-carbon molecules natural frequency and resonance is created and strong bonding is broken. This frequency varies from highest limit to lowest limit in micro seconds. The electrical supply from the battery is given to the input of the circuit. Where frequency is varied in micro- seconds. There are two output connections. The simply wire is wound around the fuel line to generate electromagnetic field. At the center of wire resistor is used as consumer. In same way other set of wire is used to generate the electromagnetic field Page | 30 Research Publish Journals International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online) Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp: (27-34), Month: April 2015 - September 2015, Available at: www.researchpublish.com a. SPECIFICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC CIRCUIT • Frequency band : 1kHz to 38kHz • Per coil voltage : 12 V • Per coil current : 350mA • Per coil power : 4.2 watt. • Resister : 47 Ω V. DETAILS OF ENGINE SETUP The setup consists of three cylinder, four stroke, and petrol (MPFI) engine connected to hydraulic dynamometer for engine loading. The setup has stand-alone type independent panel box consisting of air box, fuel tank, and manometer, fuel measuring unit, digital speed indicator and digital temperature indicator. Engine jacket cooling water inlet, outlet and calorimeter temperature is displayed on temperature indicator. Rotameter are provided for cooling water and calorimeter flow measurement. The setup enables study of engine for brake power, BMEP, brake thermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency, specific fuel consumption, and air fuel ratio and heat balance. Provision is also made for conducting Morse test. Fig.5.1 Experimental setup of electromagnetic kit a. ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS Product : Engine test setup 3 cylinder, 4 strokes, Petrol Engine :Make Maruti, Model Maruti 800, Type 3 Cylinder, 4 Stroke, Petrol (MPFI), water cooled, Power 27.6Kw at 5000 rpm, Torque 59 NM at 2500rpm,stroke 72 mm, bore 66.5mm, 796 cc, CR 9.2 Dynamometer : Type Hydraulic Propeller shaft : With universal joints Air box : M S fabricated with orifice meter and manometer Fuel tank : Capacity 15 lit with glass fuel metering column Calorimeter : Type Pipe in pipe Temperature sensor : Thermocouple, Type K Temperature indicator : Digital, multi channel with selector switch Speed indicator : Digital with non contact type speed sensor Load sensor : Load cell, type strain gauge, range 0-50 Kg Load indicator : Digital, Range 0-50 Kg, and Supply 230VAC Rotameter : Engine cooling100-1000 LPH; Calorimeter 25-250 LPH Pump : Type Monoblock Overall dimensions : W 2000 x D 2750 x H 1750 mm Page | 31 Research Publish Journals International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online) Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp: (27-34), Month: April 2015 - September 2015, Available at: www.researchpublish.com VI. RESULT AND DISCUSSION From below experimental result table it is conclude that the efficiencies of engine increases by adding the magnetic field in the path of fuel line. This experimental test have been carried out fixed load condition. Above value of thermal efficiency & volumetric efficiency increasing that is indicate that the maximum air-fuel bonding achieved by magnet. So that the better burning is carried out & obviously emission levels will less from the engine Table no.1 2kg 4kg 6kg 8kg Parameters Before After Before After Before After Before After BP (kW) 0.92 1.1 1.79 1.8 2.55 2.64 3.1 3.3 Mass of 2.6e-4 2.38e-4 4.1e-4 3.7e-4 5.79e-4 5.78e-4 1.1e-3 1.02e-3 fuel(kg/s) Bsfc 1.047 0.78 0.82 0.70 0.87 0.78 1.34 1.1 (kg/kWhr.) Heat I /p 11.83 0.78 18.21 16.28 27.13 25.48 52.09 45015 (kW) Thermal eff. 7.81 10.47 9.86 11.6 9.39 10.38 6.1 7.33 Volumetric eff. 40.38 67.38 42.07 79.08 44.47 84.65 47.57 90.27 a. PERFORMANCES GRAPHS:- Engine Performances has been analyzed with following graph are plotted between load and other parameter from the experimental result. Graph.1 Bsfc VS Load Page | 32 Research Publish Journals International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online) Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp: (27-34), Month: April 2015 - September 2015, Available at: www.researchpublish.com Graph.2 Break power VS load Graph.3 Volumetric efficiency VS Load It is observed from the graph 1. That the Bsfc is in magnet case always above the curve that without magnet & the after certain load continuous increase by large difference. Graph 2 is plotted break power VS Load, from the graph with magnet result varies 1 to 2% without magnet. There is large changes in volumetric efficiency 25% or more than that value when adding the electromagnet due to increases by well interlocking of hydrocarbon or oxygen showing in graph 3. VII. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Emission testing is done by using the gas analyzer in setup of experiment & direct printed result is obtained Fig. 8. Shows that result of before using magnetic field & Fig.9. After using the magnetic field but this test is conducted the different constant load, below showing printed result is 4kg load applied on the engine. Fig.8 before Using Magnetic Field Fig.9 after Using Magnetic Field a. COMPARISON OF EMISSION PARAMETER: Graph.4 Load VS hydrocarbon Graph.5 Load VS carbon monoxide Page | 33 Research Publish Journals International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online) Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp: (27-34), Month: April 2015 - September 2015, Available at: www.researchpublish.com Graph. 4. Drown the load VS Hydrocarbon there is significant changes in before & after value of hydrocarbon. Here is gradually increase load & similarly reduction in between the difference before & after value of hydrocarbon, is showing in the graph. Averagely 7 to 8% hydrocarbon value are decreased after using electromagnetic kit. Hydrocarbon emission is less, which relies the burning of fuel completely. In the graph 5. Which is drown the load VS carbon monoxide fluctuating difference is obtained at the variable load at 4kg load maximum difference is obtained clearly shows the changes in value due to variation of load. VIII. CONCLUSION Internal combustion engine is getting maximum energy per liter as well as environment with lowest possible level toxic emission. The resultant fuel burn more completely, producing higher engine output, better fuel economy, more power & most importantly reduces the amount of HC, CO, NOx in the exhaust.& therefore control the emission at low cost. Avoid clogging problems in Diesel Engine, Cost saving, Eco friendly, provides extra life for expensive catalytic converter & Reduce maintenance of engine. That increase the 10-30% mileage of vehicle. Complete combustion improve the life of engine cost of maintenance reduced ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Nitin Karande thanks Prof. S.K. Kumbhar (Project Guide) and Prof. S.D.Jagtap (Head, Mechanical Engineering Department, walchand, sangli) for their beneficial guidance, suggestion, support and constructive criticism. REFERENCES [1] Shweta Jain, Prof. Dr Suhas Deshmukh: “Experimental Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) in I.C. engine”.Vol.2, Issue 7(July 12), PP 27-31. . [2] P. Govindasamy & S. Dhandapani: Reduction of NOx Emission in Bio Diesel Engine with Exhaust Gas Recirculation & Magnetic Fuel Conditioning.Vol.8,No.5,(2007),PP.533-542. [3] Okoronkwo C. A & Dr. Nwachukwu: The Effect of electromagnetic Flux density on the ionization & the combustion of fuel. ISSN – (2010),2153-649. [4] Ra‟ad A. Khalil: Reduction of Pollutant Emission in Ethanol-Gasoline Blends Engine with Magnetic Fuel Conditioning. [5] Houtman P. Siregar & Rufinus Nainggolan: Electromagnetic Fuel Saver for Enhancing The Performance of The Diesel Engine. [6] Marshall, S.V., and Skitek, G.G. 1987 : Electromagnetic Concepts and application. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice- Hall, Inc., New Jersey; 25-150 [7] Ali S.Faris, Ali Salim, Jaafer Sadeq: Effects of Magnetic field on Fuel consumption and Exhaust Emission. (Science Direct) – Energy procedia 18 (2012) 327 -338. [8] Gary t jones “the effect of molecular fuel energizer on emissions and fuel economy”. The study done in the year 1981 for “environmental protection agency” Page | 34 Research Publish Journals"}}

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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Review analyzing the limitations of commercial success for fuel magnetization, attributing it to the high variability of experimental results (economy and emissions) and lack of standardization.", "fr_vulgarise": "Le manque de succès commercial s'explique par la difficulté à reproduire les gains et le manque de preuves substantielles pour les fabricants."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275713404 Does Magnetic Fuel Treatment Affect Engine's Performance? Conference Paper in SAE Technical Papers · April 2014 DOI: 10.4271/2014-01-1398 CITATION READS 1 478 2 authors: Ahmed A. Abdel-Rehim Ahmed A.A. Attia Benha University Benha University 29 PUBLICATIONS 63 CITATIONS 29 PUBLICATIONS 127 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Thermoelectric Materials View project Annual conference this year on the theme (Sustainable Vital Technologies in Engineering and Informatics) from 8-10 November 2016. View project All content following this page was uploaded by Ahmed A.A. Attia on 09 July 2018. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Downloaded from SAE International by Ahmed Abdel-Rehim, Saturday, March 22, 2014 03:58:55 AM Does Magnetic Fuel Treatment Affect Engine's 2014-01-1398 Performance? Published 04/01/2014 Ahmed A. Abdel-Rehim and Ahmed A.A. Attia Benha University CITATION: A. Abdel-Rehim, A. and A.A. Attia, A., \"Does Magnetic Fuel Treatment Affect Engine's Performance?,\" SAE Technical Paper 2014-01-1398, 2014, doi:10.4271/2014-01-1398. Copyright © 2014 SAE International Abstract Technologies have ranged from simple clamp-on magnets to a variety of electric and electronic devices. Many of these The effect of magnetic field has attracted many researchers to products have met with limited success because there are a investigate the impact of this type of force on different number of factors to take into account and variables to applications such as combustion and water. Different systems accommodate. For example, a device that applies a constant supported by many patents were introduced to the market to magnetic field of a constant strength will have a limited effect treat these applications. because different fuels can be fed at different rates through pipes of different materials, thicknesses and bores. Thus it can In the present study, a series of experiments were conducted be concluded that the required magnetic field strength is a to explore the impact of magnetic fuel treatment on engine function of engine size based on fuel type and consumption performance. The magnetic field was produced from two [19]. different sources based on permanent and electromagnetic coils. Therefore, a somewhat more sophisticated approach is required. For these reasons, the US Environmental Protection Two engines with different configurations were used. Three Agency (EPA) has published many reports, after testing some fuels were tested, gasoline and diesel as liquid fuels and of these devices, to conclude that vehicles equipped with these natural gas as a gaseous fuel. Vast numbers of experiments at devices (permanent magnets) do not show any improvement in different operating conditions were conducted on the two fuel economy or engine emissions [20,21,22,23,24]. engines. Fuel consumption, output power, and exhaust emissions were analyzed under the exposure of magnetic field. Gasoline was the most affected fuel while other fuels showed Literature Review less or negligible effect. Magnetic field strength was a key Studies related to the effect of magnetic field on the fuel of IC parameter to have any impact on engine performance. engines are gaining importance in the last few years in order to Promising results were obtained evidenced by the reduction in reduce the fuel consumption and the engine emissions and/or engine fuel consumption and main pollutants. improve the output power. Introduction The experimental investigation conducted in [25] indicated that by applying a magnetic field (2000 Gauss) to the fuel supply Many ideas for fuel conditioning have been proposed based on line of an IC engine working with a leaded gasoline and 10 % different techniques such as filters, catalysts, additives, etc. ethanol, reductions of 68.8 %, 15 %, and 42.5 % in CO, CO Many inventors propose fuel saving products based on the 2 and HC respectively were obtained. This was combined to an idea that combustion can be improved by treating the fuel with improvement in engine performance by about 8.6 % in brake a magnetic field. Several US patents have shown that thermal power, 3.6 % in thermal efficiency, and 3.2 % reduction magnetic field can improve complete combustion, but there is in BSFC. Running the engine with a 1000 Gauss magnetic coil no strong experimental data to support their claims [1,2,3,4,5,6 shows better results concerning brake thermal efficiency and ,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18]. brake specific fuel consumption than that with 2000 Gauss. Downloaded from SAE International by Ahmed Abdel-Rehim, Saturday, March 22, 2014 03:58:55 AM The work conducted by [26] on the effect of magnetic field Research is still needed to find the best way to introduce a (5000 gauss strength) to study the performance of a SI engine sustained magnetic field in the fuel line and combustion revealed that the fuel consumption is reduced by 12 % while chamber of IC engines. The present work aims at providing the reductions in HC and CO are about 27% and 11 % experimental data to prove whether or not a magnetic field respectively. On the other hand, the NO and CO levels in the affects the fuel of internal combustion engines. Also to provide x 2 engine increased by about 19% and 7 % respectively with the some information on the crucial key configurations of magnetic application of magnetic field. coils which can affect their impact on the fuel line. The experiments conducted by El Fatih et. al [27] revealed that Principle of Magnetic Fuel Treatment the magnetic field of a permanent magnet used on gasoline fuel feeding system attached to internal combustion engine Many researchers have found a variety of causes for results in a reduction of up to 15% in fuel consumption. The molecules to respond to magnetic fields by rotating to align percentages of CO and NO emissions were reduced at all themselves with magnetic effect. In this part of the paper we idling speed by up to 7% and 30% respectively. offer an explanation to illustrate the effect of treating fuel lines by a magnetic field on the process of combustion in engines. Two magnetic coils with different intensities (1000 and 2000 Gauss) were tested by Raad et. al [28] at specific operating 1. Effect of Magnetic Field on Molecules conditions of speed, throttle opening and ignition timing of a SI Realignment engine. The results showed that the thermal efficiency and the engine power increased by 4 % and 3.3 % respectively when a Hydrocarbon fuels, such as gasoline or methane, consist of magnetic coil of 1000 Gauss is used. The corresponding molecules made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms. The reduction in the specific fuel consumption was 12.8 %. hydrogen atom consists of an electron and a proton and each However, when the magnetic coil of 2000 Gauss is used the hydrogen molecule is made up of two atoms linked by a brake power is increased nearly by 16.4 % and the thermal covalent bond. The lone proton in each atom of hydrogen has efficiency showed an improvement of about 7.6 % while the an associated magnetic moment, which can be viewed as specific fuel consumption is decreased by 21.3 %. The exhaust being generated by the proton's spin. In the simplified model of gas emissions showed reductions of about 80 % and 44 % in an atom, there are two movements for the electrons, they CO and HC respectively when the magnetic coil of 1000 Gauss rotate about their own axes (spin) and they orbit the nucleus. is used. Further reductions of about 90 % and 58 % in CO and Electron spin produces the vast majority of an atom's magnetic HC are obtained when the magnetic coil of 2000 Gauss is field. used. If, in a pair of hydrogen atoms, the proton spins are aligned in In their study, Faris et. al [29] found that the use of magnetic opposite directions, the hydrogen pair forms what is known as field impacted the fuel consumption and exhaust emissions of parahydrogen. If the proton spins are aligned in the same a two stroke engine. The fuel saving is ranged between 9-14 % direction, the hydrogen pair forms what is known as depending on the magnetic field intensity as well as the engine orthohydrogen. Orthohydrogen is much more reactive than speed. Up to 30% and 40% reductions in HC and CO parahydrogen. emissions were recorded respectively. On the other hand an increase of up to 10% in CO was recorded. Hydrocarbon molecules form clusters which have not been 2 realigned, the fuel is not actively interlocked with oxygen during Al-Khaledy [30] observed an improvement in the combustion combustion, the fuel molecule or hydrocarbon chains must be efficiency and reduction in exhaust pollutants when the ionized and realigned. It has been technically possible to engine's fuel line was lined with permanent magnets. He de-cluster this molecular grouping or in other words perform attributed it to the transformation of the hydrogen ion in the ionization and realignment through the application of magnetic hydrocarbon from parahydrogen to orthohydrogen which is field [12]. This can maximize the space available for oxygen to more unstable and reactive as a result of the influence of combine with hydrocarbon (better oxidation) [13, 21]. magnetic field on the fuel flowing in the fuel line. Thus when the fuel flows through a magnetic field the Okoronkwo et. al [31] observed a reduction in exhaust gas hydrocarbon change their orientation (para to ortho which are emissions and reduction in diesel fuel consumption of a single characterized by the different opposite nucleus spins) and cylinder, four stroke diesel engine when magnetic field was molecules of hydrocarbon change their configuration and finally passed through the fuel manifold. flip into alignment to form ortho state. Under these circumstances, intermolecular attraction force of fuel molecule Govendasamy and Dhandapani [32, 33] investigated (the force between electrons and nucleus) is considerably experimentally in their studies the effect of using magnetic field reduced. This can reduce the fuel viscosity at macroscopic (9500 Gauss) on the reduction of exhaust emissions in levels and ensure that the fuel actively interlocks with oxygen Biodiesel engine with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). They and produces a more complete burn in the combustion found that with the presence of the magnetic field, satisfactory chamber which reduces the amount of unburned fuel [8]. reductions in CO and HC emissions with an increase of 5% in the brake thermal efficiency are obtained. Downloaded from SAE International by Ahmed Abdel-Rehim, Saturday, March 22, 2014 03:58:55 AM 2. Effect of Magnetic Field on Surface Tension Three fuels were examined, gasoline (92 Octane Number) and and Viscosity of Fuels Diesel fuel as liquid fuels and natural gas (NG) as a gaseous fuel. The chemical characteristics, physical size of particles and other features of the fuel affect its stability and combustion In the present work five different magnetic coils were used. The efficiency. first coil is a permanent magnetic device, SIKE model, which is used commercially in the market. The other four Researchers have found magnetic field to have an effect on electromagnetic coils were custom made with specifications the viscosity of liquids. The reduction of surface tension and shown in Table 1 while Figure 1 shows different photos for viscosity of fuel may lead to smaller droplets in the fuel these coils. ejection, which will improve the combustion efficiency and reduce pollutant emission. The reduction of surface tension Two engines were utilized for this study. The first one is a was a key to explain the effect of magnetic field on water DI-diesel engine (model SJ-65 Peter type). The engine is a molecules [34]. singlecylinder, four strokes; water cooled with a maximum power of 4.7 HP, a cylinder bore of 85 mm, and a stroke of 110 It was concluded in [6] that the surface tension of the mm. The compression ratio of the engine is 17:1. hydrocarbons decreases with the increase of the magnetic field intensity. The value of surface tension is determined not only The second engine is a single-cylinder, air cooled 13 HP by molecular attraction force but also by molecular orientation Honda engine which is equipped by a carburetor and has a state on the liquid surface. It was observed by Faris et. al [29] cylinder bore of 88 mm and a stroke of 64 mm. The and Attar et. al [35] that the surface tension tends to decrease compression ratio of the engine is 8:1. as the magnetic field intensity increases. Table 1. Design specifications of Electromagnetic coils. Rongjia [11] concluded that a strong magnetic field will affect the viscosity of crude oil and refinery fuels, such as gasoline and diesel. If the applied magnetic field is a short pulse with sufficient strength and suitable duration, the apparent viscosity of these fuels will be reduced significantly. The treated fuels will have their viscosity gradually increasing and return to the original value after several hours. The same results were obtained when he extended his work to cover gasoline with 20 % ethanol and gasoline with 10% MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether). The theory introduced by Rongjia suggests that there are two main factors related to the magnetic field which have to be considered to have an effect on the viscosity of the fuel which are; a critical magnetic field strength, and a specific duration. These factors depend on the property of each individual fuel. Experimental Setup There are two different magnetic treatment methods used to treat engine fuels. A permanent magnet is a device which consists of multi-magnetic strips organized in an enclosure and produces a magnetic field which affects the fuel passes through it. Electromagnetic coils depend on generating the magnetic field from electricity using different circuit designs. In this case full control on the magnetic field strength is applicable depending on the operating conditions. In the present study, a series of experimental work is introduced to explore the impact of fuel magnetic treatment on engine performance. Two main types of magnetic treatments were tested; the first type is depending on a permanent magnet, while the second type depends on an electromagnetic magnet. Figure 1. Electromagnetic coils photos and their relative position on the fuel line. Four different designs for the electromagnetic device were examined to explore the effect of number of coils, material, source of electricity and some other parameters on engine performance. Downloaded from SAE International by Ahmed Abdel-Rehim, Saturday, March 22, 2014 03:58:55 AM Both engines are coupled to generators to load the engine. Two different conversion systems are coupled to the engines to convert them to run on natural gas when it is needed. Appendix 1 shows a schematic diagram for the test rig and the gas mixer used in the present work. Based on the individual errors of basic measurements, it was found that the maximum errors determined for brake power, thermal efficiency and specific fuel consumption are 5, 1.6, and 1.8 percent respectively. Results and Discussion Figure 4. Effect of magnetic field using coil 1 on A/F ratio at different Stage I: Diesel Engine Results engine's power. Figures 2, 3, 4 show the results obtained from the diesel engine when applying a magnetic field of 13 mT at 12 V (DC source) using coil 1. The Figures show no significant change in the engine's performance parameters, diesel fuel consumption, specific fuel consumption, and A/F ratio. This is most likely due to its low magnetic field intensity. Based on these results, coil 2 was designed to generate magnetic flux intensity of 16.6 mT at 220 V (AC source) and at the same time it has less diameter with longer length to ensure higher impact for longer time. Similar results were obtained for all parameters using this coil when diesel fuel is used, Figures 5, 6, 7 or when dual fuel is used, Figures 8 and 9. Figure 5. Effect of magnetic field using coil 2 on diesel fuel consumption at different engine's power. Fig. 2. Effect of magnetic field using coil 1 on diesel fuel consumption at different engine's power. Figure 6. Effect of magnetic field using coil 2 on SFC at different engine's power. Figure 3. Effect of magnetic field using coil 1 on SFC at different engine's power. Figure 7. Effect of magnetic field using coil 2 on A/F ratio at different engine's power. Downloaded from SAE International by Ahmed Abdel-Rehim, Saturday, March 22, 2014 03:58:55 AM Figure 8. Effect of magnetic field using coil 2 on A/F ratio using dual Figure 10. Average reductions in engine power (as a percentage from fuel mode with 40% natural gas at different engine's power. the output power) when the power required to generate the magnetic field is considered. Effect of Coil Type and Material When the electromagnetic coils (3, and 4) were tested with a magnetic flux intensity of 26.2 mT and compared to the permanent magnetic coil, the output showed promising results where Figure 11 summarizes the results and the following points can be stated: 1-. The average increase in the engine power is 3.63% when using the permanent coil over the range of speed and power used in the present investigation. 2-. Using iron coil at the same conditions increases the Figure 9. Effect of magnetic field using coil 2 on A/F ratio using dual engine power compared to the fiber coil and this can be fuel mode with 70% natural gas at different engine's power. explained by the ability of iron to collect and concentrate the electromagnetic waves which means that the coil material is Stage II: Gasoline Engine Results an important factor affecting the system performance. The first stage showed that the magnetic flux intensity was not In spite of this improvement in the coil effect on engine enough to affect the fuel properties. But there are limitations on power when the iron coil was used, there is a side effect coils fabrication, circuit design, generated temperature and which is increasing the coil temperature. Raising the coil consequently the output magnetic field. temperature can burn the coil out. Accordingly, there are limitations in using iron coil with variable or controllable flux. Two other coils were fabricated with higher intensities in this 3-. Using the two coils in series (double coil) produced the stage to produce almost double the value of magnetic flux maximum effect as shown in Figure 11. The reason behind (26.2 mT). Also, in this stage, the permanent magnet is this is the properties of the magnetic waves produced where considered and the gasoline engine was used to conduct the the double coil has two properties: The first is the nature of experiments. Regular gasoline (92 Octane Number) was magnetic flux which is affected by the two coil specifications obtained from the market with a composition indicated in table and the second is the total length which is increased when 2. using the two coils together. Table 2. Composition of liquid Gasoline In this stage, the power required to generate the magnetic filed (40 watt) is considered. Figure 10 shows the average reductions in engine power (as a percentage of the output power) when the power required to generate the magnetic field Figure 11. Maximum increase in the output power (%) at the same is considered. engine speed for different types of magnetic coils Downloaded from SAE International by Ahmed Abdel-Rehim, Saturday, March 22, 2014 03:58:55 AM Effect of Current Source, AC or DC The Figure shows that for the same power thee is a reduction Another important parameter to explore is the effect of the in the fuel consumption when using magnetic fuel treatment. nature of the current used. AC current from the main source As clearly seen, using double coil results in better effect on the was used accompanied by a suitable circuit, while the engine fuel consumption where a reduction of 15.5 % can be achieved battery was used to supply the DC current to another suitable compared to 2.5 % when using the permanent coil at maximum circuit. load of 6 kW. There is no significant difference between the two sources The effect of magnetic treatment on engine BSFC is shown in observed for the two coils tested at different engine's power Figure 14.b for the coils under investigation. As clearly seen in and speed as shown in Figure 12. This result was confirmed in the Figure there is a noticeable reduction in BSFC when the Figure 13 where there is no effective change in the fuel magnetic effect is considered even for permanent magnet. consumption when double coil was used at different engine's power. From these observations it can be concluded that there is no difference between the effects of using AC or DC current on the engine output power. In reality, the DC source is more convenient in engine applications. Accordingly, it will be considered in the rest of the current work. 14.a. fuel flow rate Figure 12. Effect of current source on the engine output power using the iron and fiber coils. 14.b. BSFC Figure 14. Effect of magnetic treatment on (a) fuel flow rate and (b) BSFC using DC current at different engine speeds and loads. Figures 15, 16, and 17 represent the effect of magnetic flux intensity generated from DC current source on CO, HC, and NO emissions for the three coils at two different output powers x (1500W, 3000W). The following results can be observed from Figure 13. Effect of current source on the engine output power using the Figures: double coil (iron and fiber coils in series) a). A fairly linear relationship between the magnetic flux intensity and engine emissions for the three coils. Impact of Magnetic Treatment on Liquid Fuel (Gasoline) b). The double coil represents the best choice due to its effect on decreasing CO, HC, and NO emissions which reached Figure 14.a shows the impact of magnetic field (DC current x 61.5, 53, and 50 % respectively at the maximum flux source) on engine's fuel consumption at different engine loads. compared to their initial point (no magnetic effect). The engine speed was maintained constant during each power c). There is no significant change in NO emissions between value while the throttling position was adjusted to obtain the x the three coils compared to CO and HC. This can be same speed and power. explained by the dependence of NO formation on the x operating temperatures which are affected by the engine Downloaded from SAE International by Ahmed Abdel-Rehim, Saturday, March 22, 2014 03:58:55 AM power. The effect of magnetic treatment on HC, CO and NO x emissions using NG as a fuel is indicated in Figure 20. The maximum reductions in CO, HC, and NO emissions for the x three tested loads are summarized in Table 4. The comparison shows that the magnetic treatment is more effective on gasoline fuel than on NG fuel which can be explained by the tendency of liquid fuel molecules to change their random organization to a more simple structure which simplifies the combustion reactions. On the other hand, it is not easy to force the gaseous molecules to keep their new Figure 15. Effect of magnetic treatment on CO emission using DC for positions for a long period of time. Accordingly, losing the different output powers and speeds. magnetic effect on gaseous fuels is faster than liquid fuels. From the previous discussion, it can be concluded that using magnetic fuel treatment enhances the combustion characteristics of natural gas which results in better combustion and reduction in engine exhaust emissions. This reduction can reach 50% or more in some of these emissions. Figure 16. Effect of magnetic treatment on HC emission using DC for different output powers and speeds. Figure 18. Effect of magnetic treatment on engine fuel flow rate using NG. Figure 17. Effect of magnetic treatment on NOx emission using DC for different output powers and speeds. Impact of Magnetic Treatment on Gaseous Fuels (Natural Gas) In the present section, the effect of magnetic field on gaseous fuels (NG) is presented. Most parameters related to engine performance are discussed again when using natural gas as the engine fuel but in this case, the investigation is limited to the double coil which proved to have better results. Figures 18 and 19 show the impact of using the double coil on the rate of fuel consumption and BSFC. The results show an increase of 2.5-7% in engine's power at the same fuel flow rate Figure 19. Effect of magnetic treatment on BSFC using NG. or a reduction of about 4-10% in fuel consumption at the same power while a reduction of 6.5-13.8% in BSFC is obtained. Downloaded from SAE International by Ahmed Abdel-Rehim, Saturday, March 22, 2014 03:58:55 AM From the discussion of the results, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. Magnetic coil design has a considerable effect on the engines measured parameters. Coil material, magnetic flux intensity, current source are some examples of these design parameters. The difference between AC and DC current on the engine performance parameters is negligible. 2. Magnetic fuel treatment has an acceptable effect on gasoline engine performance. Fuel consumption was reduced up to 15.5% at some operating conditions. 3. A reduction in the engine pollutants was clearly observed when magnetic field was applied to reach 50 % or more depending on the operating conditions and the coil design. 4. Higher influence of magnetic fuel treatment was recorded for gasoline as a liquid fuel compared to diesel fuel and natural gas. 5. Electromagnetic coils which produce low magnetic intensities based on DC current sources (similar to the ones Figure 20. Effect of magnetic treatment on CO, HC, and NOx when used in the present work) consume low or negligible power. using NG at 1500, 1900, 2500 Watts and variable speeds. Table 4. Maximum reductions in engine emissions when NG was used References as a fuel. 1. Kwartz Michael J.; “Device for internal combustion engines”, United States Patent Office no.3, 116,726, patented Jan. 7, 1964. 2. Miller Doyle H.; “Process and apparatus for effecting efficient combustion”, United States Patent Office no.3, 830,621, patented Aug. 20, 1974. 3. Sanderson Charles H.; “Device for the magnetic treatment of water and liquid and gaseous fuels”, United States Conclusion Patent Office no.4, 357,237, patented Nov. 2, 1982. The magnetic fuel treatment becomes an important alternative 4. Heckel Karl; “Electromagnetic fuel saving device”, United to enhance combustion characteristics in furnaces or IC States Patent Office no.4, 381,754, patented May 3, 1983. engines. This physical fuel treatment process is an inexpensive 5. Brown Bill H.; Fuel treating device and method”, United and easy to install method. However, an examination of the States Patent Office no.4, 429,665, patented Feb. 7, 1984. available literature often introduces contradictory results. The 6. Chow Edward; “Fuel treating device”, United States Patent present experimental results showed that magnetic fuel Office no.4, 461,262, patented Jul. 24, 1984. treatment has an impact on engine performance. 7. Wolf Carl; “Liquid Fuel treatment apparatus”, United States Patent Office no.4, 469,076, patented Sep. 4, 1984. In the present study, two main sets of experiments were carried out; the first set was focused on exploring the impact of 8. Wakuta Koichi; “Method of combustion fuel in an internal magnetic fuel treatment on a CI engine performance using combustion engine and its apparatus”, United States Patent diesel and natural gas fuels, while the second set was Office no.4, 538,582, patented Sep. 3, 1985. concerned with the performance of a SI engine running on 9. Mitchell John; “Magnetic fuel line device”, United States gasoline and natural gas. Patent Office no.4, 572,145, patented Feb. 25, 1986. 10. Walker Claud W.; “Pollution control through fuel treatment”, Two main types of magnetic treatments were tested; the first United States Patent Office no.4, 715,325, patented Dec. type is depending on a permanent magnet, while the second 29, 1987. type is depending on an electromagnetic magnet. Four 11. Song Ben C.; “Device for magnetically treating hydrocarbon different designs having different features for the fuels”; United States Patent Office no.4, 933,151, patented electromagnetic device were examined Jun. 12, 1990. 12. Jone Wallace R.; “Fuel treating device”; United States Patent Office no.4, 930,483, patented Jun. 5, 1990. Downloaded from SAE International by Ahmed Abdel-Rehim, Saturday, March 22, 2014 03:58:55 AM 13. Daywalt Clark L.; “Fuel treating device”; United States 28. Habbo A. R. A., Khalil Raad A., Hammoodi Hassan S., Patent Office no.5, 048,499, patented Sep. 17, 1991. “Effect of Magnetizing the Fuel on the Performance of an 14. Richard Charlie W.; “Fuel treating methods, compositions S.I. Engine”, Al-Rafidain Engineering Journal, Vol. 19. No. and device”; United States Patent Office no.5, 069,190, 6, 2011. patented Dec. 3, 1991. 29. Farisa Ali S., Al-Naserib Saadi K., Jamal Nather, Isse Raed, 15. Janczak Andrew and Krensel Edward; “Permanent Abed Mezher, Fouad Zainab, Kazim Akeel, Reheem Nihad, magnetic power cell system for treating fuel lines for more Chaloob Ali, Mohammad Hazim, Jasim Hayder, Sadeq efficient combustion and less pollution”; United States Jaafar, Salim Ali, Abas Aws, “Effects of Magnetic Field on Patent Office no.5, 124,045, patented Jun. 23, 1992. Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Emissions in Two-Stroke Engine”, Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 327-338 16. Dalupin Romulo V.; “Magnetic apparatus for treating fuel”; United States Patent Office no.5, 127,385, patented Jul. 7, 30. Al-Khaledy Ali A. Jazie, “High Performance and Low 1992. Pollutant Emissions from a Treated Diesel Fuel using a Magnetic Field”, Al-Qadisiya Journal for Engineering 17. Pascall Brain; “Fuel conditioning device”; United States Sciences; Vol. 1, pp. 2, 2008. Patent Office no.5, 533,490, patented Jul. 9, 1996. 31. Okoronkwo C. A, Nwachukwu, C.C, Ngozi-Olehi L.C and 18. Butt David J.; “Hydrocarbon fuel modification device and Igbokwe, J.O., “The effect of electromagnetic flux density a method for improving the combustion characteristics of on the ionization and the combustion of fuel (An economy fuels”; United States Patent Office no.6, 024,073, patented design project)”, American Journal of Scientific and Jul. 9, 2000. Industrial Research,2010, 1(3): 527-531. 19. Jain Shweta, Deshmukh Suhas, “Experimental 32. Govndasamy P., Dhandapani S.. Reduction of NOx Investigation of Magnetic Fuel Conditioner (M.F.C) engine Emission in Bio Diesel Engine with Exhaust Gas in I.C.”, IOSR Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) ISSN: Recirculation and Magnetic Fuel conditioning. International 2250-3021 Volume 2, Issue 7(July 2012), PP 27-31. Conference on Sustainable Development, challenges and 20. Barth Edward A., “EPA Evaluation of the PETRO-MIZER opportunities for GMs [12-14 Dec. 2007]. Device under Section 511 of the Motor Vehicle Information 33. Govindasamy P. and Dhandapani S., “Effects of EGR and Cost Savings Act”, EPA report, EPA-AA-TEB-511-83-2, & magnetic fuel treatment system on engine emission December 1982. characteristics in a bio fuel engine”, Proceedings of the 21. Barth Edward A., “EPA Evaluation of the POLARION-X International Conference on Mechanical Engineering 2009, Device under Section 511 of the Motor Vehicle Information (ICME2009) 26-28 December 2009, Dhaka, Bangladesh, and Cost Savings Act”, EPA report, EPA-AA-TEB-511-82-9, ICME09-TH-01 August 1982. 34. Abdel-Rehim, A., El-Nagar, K., Abdel-Aziz, R., and Maarouf, 22. Barth Edward A., “Second EPA Evaluation of the H., “An Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Magnetic POLARION-X Device under Section 511 of the Motor Field on Engine Cooling Water Properties,” SAE Int. J. Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act”, EPA report, Passeng. Cars - Electron. Electr. Syst. 4(1):80-87, 2011, EPA-AATEB-511-85-2, April 1985. doi:10.4271/2011-01-0073. 23. Ashby H. Anthony, “EPA Evaluation of the Super- 35. Attar Ajaj; Tipole Pralhad; Bhojwani Virendra, “Experimental Mag Fuel Extender under Section 511 of the Motor Investigation of Effect of Magnetic Field on Hydrocarbon Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act”, EPA report, Refrigerant in Vapor Compression Cycle”, International EPAAATEB-511-82-3, January 1982. Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), 24. Shelton John C., “EPA Evaluation of the Wickliff Polarizer Vol. 2 Issue 8, August 2013. under Section 511 of the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Act”, EPA report, EPA-AA-TEB-511-81-17, Contact Information June 1981. Ahmed A. Abdel-Rehim (Corresponding author) 25. Ra'Khalil ad A., “Reduction of Pollutant Emission in Benha University, Shoubra Faculty of Engineering Ethanol-Gasoline Blends Engines with Magnetic Fuel Cairo, Egypt Conditioning”, University of Mosul, College of engineering, [email protected] Mechanical Engineering Department, Mosul. On business leave at The British University in Egypt (BUE), 26. Ugare Vivek, Bhave Nikhil, Lutade Sandeep, “Performance Cairo, Egypt. of spark ignition engine under the influence of magnetic field”, International journal of research in aeronautical and [email protected] mechanical engineering, Vol.1 Issue.3, July, 2013. P: 36-43 27. El Fatih Farrag A., saber Gad M., “Effect of Fuel Magnetism on Engine Performance and Emissions”, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 4(12): 6354-6358, 2010, ISSN 1991-8178 Downloaded from SAE International by Ahmed Abdel-Rehim, Saturday, March 22, 2014 03:58:55 AM APPENDIX Appendix 1 Schematic diagram of the test rig and the natural gas mixer. The Engineering Meetings Board has approved this paper for publication. It has successfully completed SAE’s peer review process under the supervision of the session organizer. The process requires a minimum of three (3) reviews by industry experts. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE International. Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of SAE International. The author is solely responsible for the content of the paper. ISSN 0148-7191 http://papers.sae.org/2014-01-1398 VViieeww ppuubblliiccaattiioonn ssttaattss"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Theoretical modeling of Soret (thermophoresis) and magnetic field effects on unsteady fluid flow (MHD) involving chemical reactions [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Modèle mathématique complexe pour comprendre l'influence du magnétisme sur les fluides et les réactions chimiques."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272495020 UNSTEADY MHD FREE CONVECTION FLOW PAST AN EXPONENTIALLY ACCELERATED VERTICAL PLATE WITH MASS TRANSFER, CHEMICAL REACTION AND THERMAL RADIATION Article · June 2014 CITATIONS READS 17 547 4 authors, including: Ali J. Chamkha M.C. Raju Kuwait College of Science and Technology Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Anantapur College of Engineering Pulive… 1,090 PUBLICATIONS 35,883 CITATIONS 171 PUBLICATIONS 1,322 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE S. Vijayakumar Varma Sri Venkateswara University 207 PUBLICATIONS 1,520 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Special Issue - Mathematical Methods in the Applied Sciences (Wiley) - (Recent Advances in the Modelling of Nanotubes within NanoStructures/Systems) View project Computational studies of convective fluid motion and heat transfer in a nanofluid-filled annulus enclosure. View project All content following this page was uploaded by M.C. Raju on 20 February 2015. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. International Journal of Microscale and Nanoscale Thermal … ISSN: 1949-4955 Volume 5, Issue 1 © Nova Science Publishers, Inc. UNSTEADY MHD FREE CONVECTION FLOW PAST AN EXPONENTIALLY ACCELERATED VERTICAL PLATE WITH MASS TRANSFER, CHEMICAL REACTION AND THERMAL RADIATION A. J. Chamkha1, M. C. Raju2, T. Sudhakar Reddy3 and S. V. K. Varma4 1Manufacturing Engineering Department, Public Authority for Applied Education and Training, Shuweikh, Kuwait 2Department of Humanities & Science, Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Sciences, (Autonomous), Rajampet, A.P, India 3Department of Mathematics, Priyadarshini Institute of Technology, Tirupati A.P, India 4Department of Mathematics, S.V. University, Tirupati, A.P, India ABSTRACT This paper is concerned with the study of an unsteady, MHD free convective boundary layer flow of a viscous, incompressible and electrically conducting, chemically reacting fluid over an exponentially accelerated infinite vertical plate embedded in a porous medium in the presence of thermal diffusion, radiation and temperature dependent heat source or sink. The fluid considered is a gray, absorbing/emitting radiation but non scattering medium. The dimensionless governing equations for this investigation are solved analytically using the Laplace transform technique. Numerical evaluation of the analytical results is performed and graphical results for the velocity, temperature and concentration profiles within the boundary layer are presented graphically and discussed. Also, the expressions for the skin-friction coefficient, Nusselt number and the Sherwood number have been derived and plotted for different values of the governing parameters. Keywords: MHD; thermal radiation, chemical reaction, thermal diffusion, heat source or sink, exponentially accelerated plate NOMENCLATURE u*, v* Velocity components in x and y directions [ms-1] u dimensionless velocity [-] 58 A. J. Chamkha, M. C. Raju, T. S. Reddy et al. y* Coordinate axis normal to the plate [m] y Dimensionless Coordinate axis normal to the plate [-] C * Concentration in the Fluid [kmolm-3] * C Concentration at the plate [kmolm-3] w * C Concentration far away from the plate [kmolm-3]  C Dimensionless concentration [-] C Specific heat at constant pressure [JKg-1K-1] p * T Fluid temperature at the plate [K] w T* : Fluid temperature near the plate [K] * T Fluid temperature far away from the plate [K]  K Dimensionless rate of chemical reaction [-] C * K Rate of chemical reaction [-] c G Modified Grashof number [-] m G Thermal Grashof number [-] r g Acceleration due to gravity [ms-2] a* Absorption coefficient [-] a Accelerated parameter [m] A Constant [-] B External magnetic field [Tesla] 0 H Heat absorption Parameter [-] D Chemical molecular diffusivity [m2s-1] k Dimensionless permeability coefficient of porous medium [-] k* Permeability of porous medium [m2] Nu Nusselt number [-] P Prandtl number [-] r S Schmidt number [-] c F Radiation parameter [-] M Magnetic parameter [-] Sh Sherwood number [-] q Radiative heat flux in the y direction[-] r t* Time [s] t Dimensionless time [-] S Soret number [-] 0 Greek Symbols  Thermal conductivity of the fluid [Wm-1k-1]  Kinematic viscosity [m2s-1] Unsteady MHD Free Convection Flow Past … 59 σ Electrical conductivity [sm-1] μ Dynamic viscosity [kgm-1s-1] θ Dimensionless temperature [-] β Thermal expansion coefficient [K-1] T α Thermal diffusivity [m2K-1] β Concentration expansion coefficient [K-1] c ρ fluid density [kgm-3] τ Skin friction coefficient [-] erf Error function [-] erfc Complementary error function [-] 1. INTRODUCTION The study of magneto-hydrodynamics with mass and heat transfer in the presence of radiation and diffusion has attracted the attention of a large number of scholars due to diverse applications in astrophysics and geophysics; it is applied to study the stellar and solar structures, radio-wave propagation through the ionosphere, etc. In engineering, we find its applications like in MHD pumps, MHD bearings, etc. The phenomenon of mass transfer is also very common in the theory of stellar structures and observable effects are detectable on the solar surface. In free convection flow, the study of the effects of magnetic fields plays a major role in liquid metals, electrolytes and ionized gases. In power engineering and thermal physics, hydromagnetic problems with mass transfer have enormous applications. Radiative flows are encountered in many industrial and environmental processes such as heating and cooling chambers, fossil fuel combustion, energy processes, evaporation from large open water reservoirs, astrophysical flows, solar power technology and space vehicle re-entry. Gupta et al. [1] studied the effects of viscous dissipation on free convection flow past a linearly accelerated vertical plate in the presence of viscous dissipative heat using the perturbation method. Kafousias and Raptis [2] extended this problem to include mass transfer effects subjected to variable suction or injection. Free convection effects on flow past an exponentially accelerated vertical plate was investigated by Singh and Kumar [3]. Soundalgekar et al. [4] considered mass transfer effects on the flow past an impulsively started infinite vertical plate with variable temperature and constant heat flux. The skin friction for accelerated vertical plate has been studied analytically by Hossain and Shayo [5]. Jha et al. [6] analyzed mass transfer effects on exponentially accelerated infinite vertical plate with constant heat flux and uniform mass diffusion. Muthucumaraswamy et al. [7] studied mass transfer effects on exponentially accelerated isothermal vertical plate. Radiation and mass transfer effects on MHD free convection flow past an exponentially accelerated vertical plate with variable temperature was investigated by Rajesh and Varma [8]. Muthucumaraswamy and Muralidharan [9] studied thermal radiation effects on linearly accelerated vertical plate with variable temperature and uniform mass flux. Again, Rajesh and Varma [10] studied thermal diffusion and radiation effects on MHD flow past an impulsively started infinite vertical plate with variable temperature and mass diffusion. The governing equations are solved by using the Laplace transform technique. Rajput and Sahu [11] investigated the effects of rotation and magnetic field on the flow past an exponentially accelerated vertical plate with constant temperature. Muthucumaraswamy 60 A. J. Chamkha, M. C. Raju, T. S. Reddy et al. and Visalakshi [12] studied radiative flow past an exponentially accelerated vertical plate with variable temperature and mass diffusion. Recently, Rajput and Kumar [13] investigated radiation effects on MHD flow past an impulsively started vertical plate with variable heat and mass transfer. Chambre and Young [14] reported on the diffusion of chemically reactive species in a laminar flow. Das et al. [15] have studied the effect of homogeneous first-order chemical reaction on the flow past impulsively started vertical plate with uniform heat flux and mass transfer. Again, the mass transfer effects on moving isothermal vertical plate in the presence of chemical reaction was studied by Das et al. [16]. Recently, Kumar and Varma [17] investigated thermal diffusion and radiation effects on unsteady MHD flow past an impulsively started exponentially accelerated vertical plate with variable temperature and variable mass diffusion. Kim [18] investigated unsteady MHD convective heat transfer past a semi-infinite vertical porous moving plate with variable suction. Chamkha and Khaled [19] considered hydromagnetic combined heat and mass transfer by natural convection from a permeable surface embedded in a fluid-saturated porous medium. Chamkha [20] studied the thermal radiation and buoyancy effects on hydromagnetic flow over an accelerating permeable surface with heat source or sink. Kandasamy et al. [21] studied the effects of chemical reaction, heat and mass transfer on MHD flow over a vertical stretching surface with heat source and thermal stratification effects. Srinivas & Muthuraj [22] have investigated MHD flow with slip effects and temperature-dependent heat source in a vertical wavy porous space. Raju et al. [23-27] studied Soret effects due to natural convection between heated inclined plates with magnetic field and the other cases in the presence of radiation and chemical reaction. The present investigation is aimed at analyzing the effects of thermal diffusion and radiation on unsteady MHD flow past an impulsively started infinite accelerated vertical plate with variable temperature and mass diffusion in the presence of homogenous chemical reaction under the influence of transverse applied magnetic field. The governing equations are solved by using the Laplace transform technique and the solutions are expressed in terms of exponential and complementary error functions. 2. PROBLEM FORMULATION We have considered the unsteady flow of an incompressible and electrically-conducting viscous fluid past an infinite vertical plate with variable temperature embedded in a porous medium in the presence of chemical reaction and heat absorption. A magnetic field of uniform strength B is applied transversely to the plate. The induced magnetic field is 0 neglected as the magnetic Reynolds number of the flow is taken to be very small. The viscous dissipation is assumed to be negligible. The flow is assumed to be in the x*-direction which is taken along the vertical plate in the upward direction. The y * -axis is taken to be normal to the plate. Initially, the plate and the fluid are at the same temperature T*in the stationary  condition with concentration level C * at all points. At time t*  0 , the plate is exponentially  accelerated with a velocity u  u ea*t* in its own plane and the plate temperature is raised 0 linearly with time t and the level of concentration near the plate is raised to C* . The fluid w Unsteady MHD Free Convection Flow Past … 61 considered here is a gray, absorbing/emitting radiation but a non-scattering medium. It is assumed that there is no applied voltage which implies the absence of an electrical field. The transversely applied magnetic field and magnetic Reynolds number are assumed to be very small so that the induced magnetic field and the Hall Effect are negligible. The viscous dissipation and Joule heating terms are neglected. As the plate is infinite in extent, the physical variables are functions of y′ and t′ only. Using the above assumptions and the usual Bossinesq’s approximation, the unsteady flow is governed by the following equations: Momentum equation: u* 2u* B2  v g(T*T*)g(C*C*) 0 u* u* t* y*2 T  C   k* (1) Energy equation: T*  2T* 1 q Q     r  T*T* t* C y* 2 C y* C  (2) P P P Concentration equation: C* 2C*  2T*  D D  K *(C*C*) t* y* 2 1   y* 2   c  (3) The initial and boundary conditions are u*  0,T *  T *,C *  C * for all y*,t*  0   u*  u ea*t* ,T* T* (T* T*)At*,C*  C* at y*  0,t*  0 0  w  w u*  0,T *  T *,C*  C* as y  ,t*  0 (4)   To reduce the above equations into non-dimensional form, we introduce the following dimensionaless variables and parameters: U y* u* T*T* t*U 2 U2k* y 0 , u ,   , t  0 ,k  0 ,  U T *T*  v2 0 W  16a*v2T*3 C* C* c B2v F   , C   , P  p ,M  0 , U2 C * C* r  U2 0 W  0 62 A. J. Chamkha, M. C. Raju, T. S. Reddy et al. vg(T* T*) vg(C* C*) vK * G  T W  , G  c W 0 , K  C , r U3 m U3 C U2 0 0 0  D (T *T*) Qv2 a*v S  , s  1 W  , H  ,a  c D 0 v(C *C*) U2 U2 W  0 0 (5) u2 A 0 , where . The local radiant for the case of an optically thin gray gas is expressed by v q r 4a*(T*4 T*4 ) y*  (6) It is assumed that the temperature differences with in the flow are sufficiently small that T*4 may be expressed as a linear function of the temeperature. This is accomplished by expanding T*4 in a Taylor series about T* and neglecting the higher-order terms, thus ∞ T*4 4T*3 T*3T*4 (7)   By using equation (6) and (7), equation (2) reduces to T* 2T* C K 16a*T*3(T*T*)Q  T*T* (8) P t* y*2    With the help of equation (8), the governing equations (1) to (3) are reduced to u 2u  GG C  M u (9) t y 2 r m 1 1 M  M  where 1 K  2 P   F (10) r t y 2 1 F  F  H where 1 Unsteady MHD Free Convection Flow Past … 63 C 2C 2 S   S S  K S C (11) C t y2 0 c y2 c C The corresponding initial and boundary conditions in non-dimensional form are u  0, 0,C  0 for all y*  0, t*  0 u  eat,  1,C  1 y  0 t*  0 at , y ,t* 0 u0,0,C0 as (12) All the physical parameters are defined in the Nomenclature section. 3. PROBLEM SOLUTION We solve the governing equations in exact form by the Laplace transform technique. The Laplace transforms of equations (9) to (11) and the boundary conditions (12) are given by d2 (sP F)0 (13) dy2 r 1 d2C (sS K S )CS S (sP F)0 dy2 c c c 0 c r 1 (14) d2u (M s)u GG C (15) dy2 1 r m The corresponding boundary conditions are 1 1 1 u  , , C at y 0, t 0 sa s2 s u 0,0, C 0 at y,t 0 (16) Solving the equations (13)-(15) with the help of equation (16), we get 64 A. J. Chamkha, M. C. Raju, T. S. Reddy et al.  1  ( y , s)    e  y sP r  F 1 (17)  s 2  1 (b b ) (b b ) b     2 4  2 3  5  ey sS c sK c  s s sa s2 C(s,y)  2   (18)   b b b b    2 4  2 3  ey sP r F 1   s sa   2    1 z z z z z  u(s,y)   29  30  31  11  28  ey sM 1 sa s s2 sa sz sz   2 2 19 z z z z z z    10  8  11  4  11  28  ey sS c S c K c (19) s s2 sz sa sz sz   2 2 2 19 z z z z    26  27  28  18  ey sP r F 1 s s2 sz sz   19 2 where ‘s’ is the Laplace transformation parameter. On taking the inverse Laplace transform of equations (17), (18) and (19), we get the general solution of the present problem for the temperature(y,t) , the velocity u( y,t) and the concentration C (y,t) for t  0 which are given by u(y,t)  eat ey aM1erfc   (M  a)t   ey aM1erfc   (M  a)t   2  1 1  z 29 ey M1erfc   (M )t   ey M1erfc   (M )t   2  1 1      t  y    ey M1erfc   (M )t        2 4 M 1   1  z    30        2 t  4 y M 1      ey M1erfc   (M 1 )t     z 31 ea2t   ey M1a2erfc   (M 1 a 2 )t     z 11 ez2t   ey M1z2erfc   (M 1 z 2 )t     2   ey M1a2erfc   (M 1 a 2 )t    2   ey M1z2erfc   (M 1 z 2 )t    z ez 13 t   ey M 1 z 13erfc   (M 1 z 13 )t    z   ey S c K cerfc   S c  K c t    28  10  2  ey M 1 z 13erfc   (M z )t   2  ey S c K cerfc   S  K t    1 13   c c  Unsteady MHD Free Convection Flow Past … 65 z ez 2 t  e y S c (K c z 2 )erfc   S c  (K c  z 2 )t     11  2  e y S c (K c z 2 )erfc   S  (K  z )t    c c 2  z ea 2 t  e y S c (K c a 2 )erfc   S c  (K c  a 2 )t     4  2  e y S c (K c a 2 )erfc   S  (K  a )t    c c 2      t  y S c    e y S c K c erfc   S  K t        2 4 K c   c c  z    8     t  y S c    e y S c K c erfc   S  K t       2 4 K c   c c    F    e  y F 1 e r fc   P  1 t     r P  z   r   26    2  e y F 1 e r fc    P  F 1 t      r P     r    t yP   F     r ey F1erfc P  1 t     2 4 F 1       r Pr      z   27  t yPr   F        2  4 F 1       ey F1erfc    P r  P 1 r t              F  ey F 1 z 13 P rerfc P   1  z t  z 28 ez 13 t       r  P r 13         2      ey F 1 z 13 Prerfc P    F 1  z  t     r  P 13      r        F   ey F 1 a 2 P r erfc  P   1  a t   z 18 ea 2 t       r  P r 2        (20) 2     ey F 1 a 2 P r erfc   P    F 1  a  t         r  P 2      r   66 A. J. Chamkha, M. C. Raju, T. S. Reddy et al.  t y P   F      r  ey F 1erfc  P  1 t        2 4 F 1       r P r      (21) ( y,t)     t y P   F         2  4 F r 1       ey F 1erfc     P r  P 1 r t         where F  F  H 1 (1(b b )) ey S c K cerfc( S  K t) C(y,t) 2 4  c c  2   ey S c K cerfc( S c  K c t)   (b b )ea 2 t  ey S c (K c a 2 )erfc   S c  (K c a 2 )t     1 3  2  ey S c (K c a 2 )erfc   S  (K a )t    c c 2     t  y S c    ey S c K cerfc   S  K t     ey F 1erfc   P  F 1t     b     2 4 K c   c c   (b 2 b 4 )    r P r      5        2 t  4 y K S c c      ey S c K cerfc   S c  K c t     2    ey F 1erfc     P r  P F 1 r t             F  ey F 1 a 2 P rerfc P   1  a t   (b 1  b 3 )ea 2 t       r  P r 2         2     ey F 1 a 2 Prerfc P    F 1  a  t     r  P 2    (22)   r    t y P   F     r ey F 1erfc P  1 t     2 4 F 1       r P r      b   5  t y P   F        2  4 F r 1      ey F 1erfc    P r  P 1 r t         4. SKIN FRICTION COEFFICIENT Knowing the velocity field, we now study the effect of t, Pr, F, M, etc. on the skin- friction coefficient. In the dimensionless form, it is given by u  1    1    y   eat   t e(aM1)t aM 1 erf (M 1 a)t   z 29  t eM1t M 1 erf (M 1 )t    y0 Unsteady MHD Free Convection Flow Past … 67 2tM 1   t     1  z 30       2 M 1 1    erf (M 1 )t   eM1t   z 31 ea2t   (M 1 a 2 )erf (M 1 a 2 )t  t e(M1a2)t     S     S    z  ceKct S K erf Kt z ez2t  ce(Kcz2)t S (K z )erf (K z )t  10 t c c c 11 t c c 2 c 2      S    z ea2t  ce(Kca2)t S (K a )erf (K a )t  4 t c c 2 c 2   z    2tK c  S c  erf  (K )t   tS ce K c t   z   P r e  P F 1 r t  F erf   F 1 t     8     2 K c   c    26  t 1   P r   z     2tF 1 P r  erf   ( F 1)t   tP reP F r 1t  z   tP re    P F r 1z 12    t  Fz Perf   F 1z  t   27    2 F 1     P r      28    1 13 r  P r 13    (23) 5. NUSSELT NUMBER An important phenomenon in this study is to understand the effect of t, F and H on the Nusselt number. In non-dimensional form, the rate of heat transfer is given   Nu      y  y0  2tF  P    F   t P  F 1t   1 r erf   1 t   r e P r (24)   2 F 1      P r     6. SHERWOOD NUMBER Another important phenomenon in this study is to understand the effect of t, S andK c c on the Sherwood Number. In dimensionless form, the rate of mass transfer is given by  C   S    Sh   (1 (b  b )) c eKct  S K erf K t    y  2 4  t c c c  y0 68 A. J. Chamkha, M. C. Raju, T. S. Reddy et al.  P  F1t  F  (b b ) r e Pr  Ferf  1t 2 4  t 1   P r   (b b )ea2t   P r e    P F1 r a2    t  F a P erf     F 1 a  t     1 3   t 1 2 r    P r 2      2tF P    F   tP  F1t  b  1 r erf   1 t re Pr  5    2 F 1      P r        S    (b b )ea2t  c e(Kca2)t  S (K a )erf (K a )t  1 3 t c c 2 c 2   (25) b     2tK c  S c   erf  (K )t   tS c e Kct    5     2 K c   c    7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Numerical evaluation of the analytical results reported in the previous section was performed and a selective representative set of results is reported graphically in Figures 1-11. These results are obtained to illustrate the influence of the radiation parameter F, heat absorption parameter H, Soret number S and the chemical reaction parameter K . The values o c of the Prandtl number are chosen such that they represent water (P = 7.0) and air (P = 0.71). r r The values of the Schmidt number are chosen to represent the presence of species by Hydrogen (0.22), water vapor (0.60), ammonia (0.78), Ethyl benzene (2.01) and carbon dioxide (0.96), [see Ref. 18]. In the present study, the boundary condition for y   is replaced by y which is a max sufficiently large value of y where the velocity profile approaches the relevant free stream y velocity. A span-wise step distance of 0.01 is used with y = 2. In order to assess the max accuracy of our method, we have compared our results with accepted data sets for the velocity and the skin friction profiles for an exponentially accelerated vertical plate corresponding to the case computed by Rajesh and Varma [16]. The results of this comparison are found to be in a very good agreement. The influences of the heat absorption parameter H, chemical reaction parameter K and c the Soret number S are displayed through the velocity profiles in Figures 1-3, respectively. 0 The velocity distribution attains a distinctive maximum value in the vicinity of the plate surface and then decreases properly to approach the free stream value of zero. From these figures, it is seen that an increase in either of the heat absorption parameter or the chemical reaction parameter leads to a decay in the velocity field while it enhances with an increase in the value of the Soret number. Unsteady MHD Free Convection Flow Past … 69 Figure 1. Effects of H on velocity profiles. Figure 2. Effects of K on velocity profiles. c Figure 3. Effects of S on velocity profiles. o 70 A. J. Chamkha, M. C. Raju, T. S. Reddy et al. Figure 4. Effects of F on temperature profiles. Figure 5. Effects of H on temperature profiles. Figure 6. Effects of S on concentration profiles. o Unsteady MHD Free Convection Flow Past … 71 The temperature profiles for different values of the radiation parameter F, and the heat absorption parameter H are exhibited through Figures 4 and 5, respectively. It is observed that there is decay in the temperature field with increasing values of either F or H. The numerical results show that the effect of increasing values of F results in decreasing the thermal boundary layer thickness and more uniform temperature distribution across the boundary layer and that the heat absorption effects has the tendency to decrease the fluid temperature. The concentration field is studied for different values of parameters in Figures 6 and 7. From these figures, it is seen that the concentration increases with increasing values of either the Soret number S or the chemical reaction parameter K . The skin-friction coefficient is 0 c presented for different values of flow parameters against time t in Figures 8 and 9. From these figures, it is observed that the skin-friction coefficient decreases with an increase in the chemical reaction parameter K . It is interesting to note that the skin-friction coefficient c decreases up to a certain value of t (approximately 0.275) and increases later moving away from the plate with the increasing values of Soret number S . Finally, The Sherwood number 0 is presented in Figures 10 and 11 against time t. From these figures, it is noticed that the Sherwood number increases with an increase in the chemical reaction parameter K . Also, it c is observed that with an increase in the Soret number S , the Sherwood number increases up 0 to certain value of t (0.275) and decreases later moving away from the plate. Figure 7. Effects of K on concentration profiles. c The influences of the heat absorption parameter H, chemical reaction parameter K and c the Soret number S are displayed through the velocity profiles in Figures 1-3, respectively. 0 The velocity distribution attains a distinctive maximum value in the vicinity of the plate surface and then decreases properly to approach the free stream value of zero. From these figures, it is seen that an increase in either of the heat absorption parameter or the chemical reaction parameter leads to a decay in the velocity field while it enhances with an increase in the value of the Soret number. 72 A. J. Chamkha, M. C. Raju, T. S. Reddy et al. Figure 8. Effects of K on skin-friction coefficient profiles. c 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 t Figure 9. Effects of S on skin-friction coefficient profiles. o Figure 10. Effects of Sherwood number profiles.  S0 = 8 S0 = 6 S0 = 4 S0 = 2 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0. t hS S0 = 6 S0 = 4 S0 = 2 S0 = 8 Unsteady MHD Free Convection Flow Past … 73 The temperature profiles for different values of the radiation parameter F, and the heat absorption parameter H are exhibited through Figures 4 and 5, respectively. It is observed that there is decay in the temperature field with increasing values of either F or H. The numerical results show that the effect of increasing values of F results in decreasing the thermal boundary layer thickness and more uniform temperature distribution across the boundary layer and that the heat absorption effects has the tendency to decrease the fluid temperature. The concentration field is studied for different values of parameters in Figures 6 and 7. From these figures, it is seen that the concentration increases with increasing values of either the Soret number S or the chemical reaction parameter K . The skin-friction coefficient is 0 c presented for different values of flow parameters against time t in Figures 8 and 9. From these figures, it is observed that the skin-friction coefficient decreases with an increase in the chemical reaction parameter K . It is interesting to note that the skin-friction coefficient c decreases up to a certain value of t (approximately 0.275) and increases later moving away from the plate with the increasing values of Soret number S . Finally, The Sherwood number 0 is presented in Figures 10 and 11 against time t. From these figures, it is noticed that the Sherwood number increases with an increase in the chemical reaction parameter K. Also, it c is observed that with an increase in the Soret number S , the Sherwood number increases up 0 to certain value of t (0.275) and decreases later moving away from the plate. 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 t Figure 11. Effects of K on Sherwood number profiles. c CONCLUSION 1. The velocity decreased with the increase in either the radiation parameter F or the heat absorption parameter H. 2. The velocity increased with the increase in either the acceleration coefficient ‘a’ or the Soret number S . 0 hS Kc = 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 ,2.0 74 A. J. Chamkha, M. C. Raju, T. S. Reddy et al. 3. The skin-friction coefficient increased due to increases in the concentration buoyancy effects while it decreased due to increased in the magnetic parameter M. 4. The Nusselt number and the Sherwood number increased with increasing values of the radiation parameter F, the heat absorption parameter H or the chemical reaction parameter K c. REFERENCES [1] A. S. Gupta, I. Pop, V. M. Soundalgekar, Free convection effects on the flow past an accelerated vertical plate in an incompressible dissipative fluid, Rev. Roum. Sci. Techn. -Mec. Apl. 24 (1979) 561-568. [2] N. G. Kafoussias, A. A. Raptis, Mass transfer and free convection effects on the flow past an accelerated vertical infinite plate with variable suction or injection, Rev. Roum. Sci. Techn.- Mec. Apl. 26 (1981) 11-22. [3] A. K.Singh, N.Kumar, Free convection flow past an exponentially accelerated vertical plate, Astrophysics and Space science. 98(2000), 245-258. [4] V. M. Soundalgekar, N.S. Birajdar, V.K. Darwhekar, Mass transfer effects on the flow past an impulsively started infinite vertical plate with variable temperature or constant heat flux, Astrophysics and Space Science, 100(1984), 159-164. [5] M. A. Hossain, L.K. Shayo, The Skin friction in the unsteady free convection flow past an accelerated plate, Astrophysics and Space Science 125(1986) 315-324. [6] B. K. Jha, R.Prasad, S. Rai, Mass transfer effects on the flow past an exponentially accelerated vertical plate with constant heat flux, Astrophysics and Space Science, 181(1991),125-134. [7] R. Muthucumaraswamy, K.E. Sathappan, R. Natarajan, Mass transfer effects on exponentially accelerated isothermal vertical plate, Int. J. of Appl. Math. and Mech., 4(6) (2008) 19-25. [8] V. Rajesh, S.V.K.Varma, Effects of radiation and mass transfer effects on MHD free convection flow past an exponentially accelerated vertical plate with variable temperature, APRN J. of Enng. Appl. Sci. 8 (2009) 20-26. [9] R. Muthucumaraswamy, M. Muralidharan, Thermal radiation on linearly accelerated vertical plate with variable temperature and uniform mass flux, Int. J. of Sci. and Tech. 3 (4) (2010) 398-401. [10] V. Rajesh, S. V. K. Varma, Thermal diffusion and radiation effects on MHD flow past an impulsively started infinite vertical plate with variable temperature and mass diffusion, JP Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 3(2009) 72-39. [11] U.S. Rajput, P.S. Sahu, Effects of rotation and magnetic field on the flow past an exponentially accelerated vertical plate with constant temperature, Int. J. of Math. and Archive 2(12) (2011) 2831-2834. [12] R. Muthucumaraswamy, V. Visalakshi, Radiative flow past an exponentially accelerated vertical plate with variable temperature and mass diffusion, Int. J. of Enng. Annals. of Faculty Engineering Hunedoara .Tom IX, Fascicule 2 (2008) 137-140. [13] U.S. Rajput, S. Kumar, Radiation effects on MHD flow past an impulsively started vertical plate with variable heat and mass transfer, Int. J. of Appl. Math. and Mech. 8(1) (2012) 66-85. Unsteady MHD Free Convection Flow Past … 75 [14] P. L. Chambre, J.D. Young, On the diffusion of chemically reactive species in a laminal flow, The Physcics of Fluids, 1(1958) 48-54. [15] U.N. Das, R.K. Deka, V.M. Soundalgekar, The effect of homogeneous first order chemical reaction on the flow past impulsively started vertical plate with uniform heat flux and mass transfer, Foushung im ingenieurwesen 60(1994) 284-287. [16] U.N. Das, R.K. Deka, V.M. Soundalgekar, The mass transfer effects on moving isothermal vertical plate in the presence of chemical reaction, The Bulliten GUMA 5 (1999) 13-20. [17] A. G. V. Kumar, S. V. K. Varma, Thermal diffusion and radiation effects on unsteady MHD flow past an impulsively started exponentially accelerated vertical plate with variable temperature and variable mass diffusion, Int. J. Appl. Math. Anlys. and appl. 6(2011) 191-214. [18] J. Y. Kim, Unsteady MHD convective heat transfer past a semi-infinite vertical porous moving plate with variable suction, Int. Journ. Engg. Sci. 38 (2000) 833-845. [19] A. J. Chamkha, A.R. Khaled, Hydromagnetic combined heat and mass transfer by natural convection from a permeable surface embedded in fluid saturated porous medium, Int. J. of Num. Meth. Heat and Fluid Flow. 10(5) (2000) 455-476. [20] A. J. Chamkha, Thermal radiation and buoyancy effects on hydromagnetic flow over an accelerating permeable surface with heat source or sink, Int. Jour. Engg. Sci. 38 (2000) 1699-1712. [21] R. Kandasamy, K. Periasamy, K.K.S. Prabhu, Chemical reaction, heat and mass transfer on MHD flow over a vertical stretching surface with heat source and thermal stratification effects, Int. Jour. Heat and Mass Trans. 48 (2005) 4557–4561. [22] S. Srinivas, R. Muthuraj, MHD flow with slip effects and temperature-dependent heat source in a vertical wavy porous space, Chem. Eng. Comm., 197, 1387–1403, 2010. [23] M. C. Raju, S.V.K. Varma, P.V. Reddy, S. Suman, Soret effects due to natural convection between heated inclined plates with Magnetic field, J. of Mechanical Engg. 39 (2008) 43-48. [24] M. C. Raju, S. V. K. Varma, R.R.K. Rao, Unsteady MHD free convection and chemically reactive flow past an infinite vertical porous plate, i-manager Journal of Future Engg. and Tech. 8 (3) (2013), 35-40. [25] V. Ravikumar, M. C. Raju, G.S.S. Raju, A. J. Chamkha, MHD double diffusive and chemically reactive flow through porous medium bounded by two vertical plates, Int. Jour. of Energy & Techn. 5 (4) (2013), 1–8. [26] T. S. Reddy, M. C.Raju & S.V.K. Varma, Unsteady MHD radiative and chemically reactive free convection flow near a moving vertical plate in porous medium, JAFM, 6 (3) (2013), 443-451. [27] M. C. Raju, S.V.K Varma, N. Ananda Reddy, Radiation and mass transfer effects on a free convection flow through a porous medium bounded by a vertical surface, J. Future Engg. and Tech. 7 (2) (2012) 7-12. VViieeww ppuubblliiccaattiioonn ssttaattss"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on the stability of fuel blends (Ogogoro-Gasoline), a preliminary step before applying any combustion optimization technology [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Étude sur la stabilité des mélanges de carburants."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314400091 Combustion Enhancers in Diesel Engines: Magnetic Field Option Article · January 2013 DOI: 10.9790/1684-0552124 CITATIONS READS 9 35 1 author: Daniel Uguru-Okorie Landmark University 19 PUBLICATIONS 17 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Mechanical Production View project FTIR Investigation of the Effect of Storage on Ogogoro-Gasoline Blend’s Stability View project All content following this page was uploaded by Daniel Uguru-Okorie on 17 December 2018. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) e-ISSN: 2278-1684Volume 5, Issue 5 (Mar. - Apr. 2013), PP 21-24 www.iosrjournals.org Combustion Enhancers in Diesel Engines: Magnetic Field Option Daniel C. Uguru-Okorie1 and Ademola A. Dare2 1The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria. 2The Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Abstract: Particulate Matter (PM) is one of the major harmful substances in diesel exhaust gas. Technologies like the Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) have been positioned at the exhaust to reduce the quantity of harmful substances released to the environment. This paper highlights the factors that affect combustion in diesel engines and the potential of the introduction of electromagnetic field in the combustion chamber on the improvement of the diesel engine efficiency and reduction in the quantity of Particulate Matter (PM) produced. Keywords: Magnetic Field, Diesel Fuel, Sauter Mean Diameter, Viscosity, Combustion. I. Introduction In recent years, the issues of improving the power output of internal combustion engines per fuel, making the products of combustion exhausted from internal combustion (IC) engines environmental friendly, global warming and the rising cost of crude oil have been major sources of concern in the world. Diesel engines have been widely used, due to their high thermal efficiency and low pollutant formation characteristics but it has a serious drawback of having a comparative larger amount of exhaust gas particulate matter (PM) which is larger than that of a gasoline engine. The high thermal efficiency of diesel engines, mainly the direct injection diesel engine is mainly as a result of its high compression ratio, the lower pumping losses as a result of the absence of the throttle valve and the lean mixture required to achieving an efficient heterogeneous combustion process. The production of large particulate matters (PM) has been as a result of incomplete atomization of the diesel fuel spray and mixing with the oxidizer in the combustion chamber within the short time for mixture formation and combustion. This paper highlights various efforts at improving combustion efficiency and other potentials that can be explored. Some Efforts on Improving Combustion Efficiency Over the years, research has been conducted on internal combustion engines to see ways of reducing the emission of particulate matter (PM) and thereby improving the efficiency of Internal Combustion engines especially, diesel engines. The main factors that control combustion in diesel engines are the mixture formation and ignition delay. The mixture formation deals with the mixture of fuel and oxidizer in the combustion chamber. This is controlled by the characteristics of the injection system, Sauter mean diameter of spray drop size and air swirl and turbulence in the cylinder. Efforts are thus directed at improving combustion efficiency by controlling the associated parameters associated with it. These are hereby discussed. Characteristics of Injection The efficiency and output of diesel engines are affected by the characteristics of the fuel spray injected into the combustion chamber. Experiments have shown better atomization of diesel spray at higher injection pressure (Carsten Baumgarten, 2006). Diesel engine use in passenger cars was limited due to the black smoke, which was composed of soot, which is a major component of particulate matter (PM) and its large noise. The introduction of the Common-rail (CR) injection systems which is an electronically-controlled, high-pressure fuel injection system which provides better fuel atomization and multiple injections per cycle, these being advantages over the Jerk-type injection system (Kiyomi Nakakita, 2002) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_rail, 2012). Sauter Mean Diameter of Spray Drop Size The Sauter Mean Diameter is used to describe the average drop size of a spray. The smaller the average drop size of the injected spray, the greater the surface area of the fuel per volume exposed to the oxidizer and the faster and more complete the combustion process. When diesel fuel is injected into the combustion chamber at high pressure it breaks up into smaller droplets as it penetrates the ambient gas. A faster disintegration of these spray droplets gives room for a better www.iosrjournals.org 21 | Page Combustion Enhancers in Diesel Engines: Magnetic Field Option mixture formation as a result of a wider surface area of the spray droplets per volume mixing and reacting with the oxidizer. Various researchers have conducted experiments using various methods to determine the drop sizes of a diesel spray, both at high and low pressures. Drop sizes of diesel spray were measured by a laser diffraction technique in order to study the effects of viscosity and surface tension of the fuel and also the effect of ambient pressure on a diesel spray by Hiroyasu et al (1984). He observed that increasing the injection pressure, leads to a decrease in the Sauter Mean Diameter. Hiroyasu et. al(1984), also observed that the Sauter Mean Diameter increased with an increase in the viscosity of various fluids/liquids and also an increase of the nozzle diameter, increased the sauter mean diameter of the drop size of the spray. A decreased nozzle-orifice diameter is an effective means of reducing the Sauter Mean Diameter thereby reducing smoke. However, a decreased nozzle-orifice diameter below the optimum level, causes the momentum of the fuel spray to decrease and this reduces the spray penetration of the fuel spray. A further increase in the injection pressure is impossible in these conditions, even with a CR injection system (Kiyomi Nakakita, 2002). This leads to a decrease in the maximum output of the engine. Empirical equations for the sauter mean diameter in terms of the operating parameters and fuel properties were proposed by Tanasawa and Toyoda, (1955), Knight (1955), Elkotb, 1982, Hiroyasu Filipovic (1969), Shipinski et al. (1983), Takeuchi et al. (1983) and Kadota, (1974). Ignition Delay The duration of ignition delay is one of the most important criteria, having a great effect on the combustion process, mechanical stresses, engine noise and exhaust emission. For a complete combustion in the combustion chamber of a diesel engine a shortened ignition delay period is required. Ignition delay in diesel engines have been defined in different ways depending on the criteria used to determine the start of combustion. The two most commonly used definitions are pressure rise and illumination delays. The pressure rise delay is defined by the point at which pressure rise caused by combustion is detected on a cylinder pressure time record. The illumination delay is marked by the emission of visible radiation due to chemiluminescence or thermal radiation. Ignition delay processes may be divided into the physical and chemical processes. In the physical delay period, the fuel is atomized, vapourized, mixed with air and raised in temperature. In the chemical delay, reaction starts slowly and then accelerates until inflammation or ignition takes place. Experiments have shown that under temperature of 700 - 750˚K, temperature dependence for ignition is stronger and the chemical delay is longer than the physical delay. In a high temperature environment, temperature dependence for ignition delay is not so strong, because it is controlled by physical delay, which is the required time for mixture formation. For lighter fuel the physical delay is shorter while it is higher for heavy viscous fuels (Henein, N. and Bolt, J., 1969). Several formulations or formulas have been proposed for ignition delays in several conditions are recorded in Henein, N. and Bolt, J. (1969), Hamamoto, et al (1975) and M. Mbarawa (2003). Use of Nano-Materials Deborah Elcock (2007) tried to improve combustion in diesel engines by introducing nanoscale particles of cerium oxides in diesel engine. The nano-particles where to supply oxygen to regions in the mixture that were deficient to produce a more complete combustion. Other researchers like Walter R.M and Edward A.H. (2005) and Dongke Zhang (2009), have recorded improved performance in combustion by-products and efficiency of diesel engines with the introduction of metal and organic based nano-particles in diesel fuel. Prospects of Magnetic Field Researchers have found magnetic field to have an effect on the viscosity of liquids. Rongjia Toa (2004), observed a reduction in the viscosity of diesel fuel of 5.80cp at 10˚C to 5.64 cp when magnetic field of 1.1T was applied to the diesel fuel for 8 Seconds. Reductions in the viscosity of fluids were also observed with the passage of magnetic field through them Busch, K.W, (1976) stated that Chinese fishermen were said to have been applying magnets to engine fuel lines in fishing boats in order to improve fuel economy. Okoronkwo et al (2010), observed a reduction in exhaust gas emission and reduction in the diesel fuel consumption of a single cylinder, four stroke diesel engine; when magnetic field was passed through the fuel manifold. Ali A. Jazie Al-Khaledy (2008), observed an improvement in the combustion efficiency and reduction in exhaust pollutants from Perkins 1006 TAG2 generator when the generator’s fuel line was lined with permanent magnets. He attributed it to the transformation of the hydrogen ion in the hydrocarbon from parahydrogen to orthohydrogen which is more unstable and reactive as a result of the influence of magnetic field on the fuel flowing in the fuel line. Ruggero www.iosrjournals.org 22 | Page Combustion Enhancers in Diesel Engines: Magnetic Field Option (2000) observed that internal combustion engines emissions in general like CO, HC etc., can be reduced by fuel magnetization, stating that fuel is polarized which enhance the mixing of air and fuel thereby producing a complete combustion. Govindasamy, P. and Dhandapani, S. (2009), observed an increase in thermal efficiency and a reduction in NO emission in a magnetic field treated fuel (composed of a blend of Bio-Diesel and Diesel) x of in an Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) diesel engine. Deborah Elcock (2007), cited EnviroxTM Fuel Borne Catalyst, developed by Oxonica, Ltd, which is a product that improves diesel fuel combustion, reducing fuel consumption and harmful exhaust emission. This additive is made up of nanoscale (10 nm) particles of cerium oxide. Walter R.M and Edward A.H. (2005), found that iron-magnesium catalyst when added to diesel and heavy fuel oil supplies, promotes complete and more efficient combustion in the engine, resulting in increased power, improved fuel economy and radically reduced smoke emission. Some other metals like Mn, Fe, Cu, Ba, Ce and Pt where tested, but Fe-Mn gave better outcome. Dongke Zhang (2009) observed a 2.5% reduction in fuel consumption and improvement in the efficiency of all types of diesel engines, when FTC/FPC diesel combustion catalysts manufactured by Fuel Technology Pty Ltd were introduced into the diesel fuel. . II. Conclusion As observed and shown in various researches conducted, that the production of exhaust particulate matter (PM) in diesel and other incomplete combustion products are as a result of incomplete atomization of spray drops within the short time for mixture formation. Research is still needed, to find the best way to introduce a sustained magnetic field in the fuel line and combustion chamber of diesel engines. This will give an improved mixture formation by increasing the atomization process of the spray in the combustion chamber through increasing the rate of disintegration of the droplets as a result of reduction in the viscosity and surface tension of the fuel. An increase in the rate of disintegration of the spray droplets, will also give room for a wide surface area of the spray droplets per volume to react with the oxidizer. The more surface area of droplets per volume, the more effective its evaporation and mixture formation. This will lead to a reduction in the quantity of particulate matter (PM) and increase the engine efficiency. References [1] Ali A. Jazie Al-Khaledy, High Performance and Low Pollutant Emissions from a Treated Diesel Fuel using a Magnetic Field, Al- Qadisiya Journal For Engineering Sciences; Vol. 1, pp. 2, 2008. [2] Arai, M., Tabata, M., Hiroyasu, H. and Shimizu, M., Disintegrating Process and Spray Characterization of Fuel Jet Injected by a Diesel Nozzle, SAE Paper 85012, 1984. [3] Busch, K.W., Busch, R.E. Darling, S.,Design of a test loop for the evaluation of magnetic water treatment devices. Process safety and environmental protection, Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, 1976. [4] Carsten Baumgarten, Mixture Formation in Internal Combustion Engines, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, 2006. [5] Deborah Elcock, Potential Impacts of Nanotechnology on Energy Transmission Applications and Needs, Environmental Science Division Argonne National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy laboratory, Chicago, 2007. [6] Elkortb, M. M., Prog. Energy Comb. Sci; Vol. 8, pp. 61, 1982. [7] Filipovic, I., Analiza motornih parametara ubrizgavanja alternativnih goriva. PhD thesis, Masinski Fakultet University, Sarajevo, 1983. [8] Govindasamy, P. and Dhandapani, S., Effects of EGR & Magnetic Fuel Treatment System on Engine Emission Characteristics in A Bio Fuel Engine, Proceedings of the International Conference on Mechanical Engineering 2009 (ICME2009) 26- 28 December 2009, Dhaka, Bangladesh; pp. 2-3, 2009. [9] Hamamoto, Y., et al., Ignition Delay in Diesel Engines, Trans. of JSME; pp. 9, 1975. [10] Henein, N. and Bolt, J., Correlation of Air Charge Temperature and Ignition Delay for Several Fuels in a Diesel Engine, SAE Paper 690252, 1969. [11] Heywood J. B., Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1988. [12] Hiroyasu H, Arai M. Structures of Fuel Sprays in Diesel Engines. SAE-paper 900475, 1990. [13] Hiroyasu, H and Kadota, T., Fuel Droplet Size Distribution in Diesel Combustion Chamber, SAE Paper 740715, 1974. [14] Hiroyasu, H. and Arai, M., Fuel Spray Penetration and Spray Angle in Diesel Engines, Trans. Of JSME, Vol. 21; pp. 5, 1980. [15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_rail, Common Rail. Retrieved 9th of November, 2012. [16] Kiyomi Nakakita, Research and Development Trends in Combustion Aftertreatment Systems for Next-Generation HSDI Diesel Engines. Special Issue Challenges in Realizing Clean High-Performance Engines. R & D Review of Toyota CRDL; Vol. 37 No. 3, 2002. [17] Knight, B. E., Communication on the Performance of a Type of Swirl Atomizer, Proceedings IMechE; pp. 104, 1955. [18] Levich, V.G., Physicochemical Hydrodynamics, Prentice-Hall Inc.; 639, 1962. [19] Mbarawa, M., A Correlation for Estimation of lgnition Delay of Dual Fuel Combustion Based on Constant Volume Combustion Vessel Experiments, R & D Journal; vol.19 (3) , 2003. [20] Ohnesorge W., Die Bildung von Tropfen an Düsen und die Auflösung flüssiger Strahlen. Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik, Bd.16, Heft 6; pp.355–358, 1931. [21] Okoronkwo C. A , Nwachukwu, C.C, Ngozi –Olehi L.C and Igbokwe, J.O., The effect of electromagnetic flux density on the ionization and the combustion of fuel (An economy design project), American Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 2010; ISSN: 2153-649X doi:10.5251/ajsir.2010.1.3.527.531 [22] Reitz R.D. Atomization and other Breakup Regimes of a Liquid Jet. Ph.D. Thesis, Princeton University, 1978. [23] Rongjia Tao, Investigate Effects of Magnetic Fields on Fuels. Department of Physics, Temple University, Philadelpha, PA 19122; pp.7, 2004. www.iosrjournals.org 23 | Page Combustion Enhancers in Diesel Engines: Magnetic Field Option [24] Ruggero Maria Santilli, Recycling liquid wastes and Crude oil into Magnegas and MagneHydrogen, Hydrogen International Conference Hy2000, Munich, German, 2000. [25] Schweitzer, P. H., Penetration of Oil Spray, Pennsylvania State College Bulletin, 1937, p46. [26] Shipinski, J, Myers, P. S. and Uyehara, A., A spray droplet model for diesel combustion. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs; 184, pp. 25 – 28, 1969. [27] Takeuchi, K., Murayama, H., Senda, J. and Yamada, K. , Droplet size distribution in diesel fuel spray. Bull. Jap. SOC. Mech. Enyrs; 26, pp. 215, 1983. [28] Tanasawa, Y. and Toyoda, S., On the Atomization of Liquid Jet Issuing from a Cylindrical Nozzle, Technical Report of Tohoku Univ., 1955. [29] Wakuri, Y., Fujii, M., Amitani, T. and Tsuneya, R., Studies of the Peneteration of Fuel Spray in Diesel Engine, Bulletin of JSME, pp.3-9, 1960. [30] Walter R.M and Edward A.H., Catalyst for Improving the Combustion Efficiency of Petroleum Fuels in Diesel Engines, Presented to th the 11 Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction Conference, August 21-25, Chicago, IL, 2005. [31] www.most.gov.mm/techuni/media/ME05023_249_280.pdf. Combustion in compression ignition engines. Retrieved 4th July, 2012. www.iosrjournals.org 24 | Page VViieeww ppuubblliiccaattiioonn ssttaattss"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Contextual research on spray atomization in Diesel injection systems, highlighting the link between spray fineness (magnetically influenced) and combustion efficiency [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Étude sur l'importance de la pression d'injection pour l'atomisation dans un moteur Diesel."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) e-ISSN: 2278-1684Volume 5, Issue 5 (Mar. - Apr. 2013), PP 21-24 www.iosrjournals.org Combustion Enhancers in Diesel Engines: Magnetic Field Option Daniel C. Uguru-Okorie1 and Ademola A. Dare2 1The Department of Mechanical Engineering, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria. 2The Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Abstract: Particulate Matter (PM) is one of the major harmful substances in diesel exhaust gas. Technologies like the Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) have been positioned at the exhaust to reduce the quantity of harmful substances released to the environment. This paper highlights the factors that affect combustion in diesel engines and the potential of the introduction of electromagnetic field in the combustion chamber on the improvement of the diesel engine efficiency and reduction in the quantity of Particulate Matter (PM) produced. Keywords: Magnetic Field, Diesel Fuel, Sauter Mean Diameter, Viscosity, Combustion. I. Introduction In recent years, the issues of improving the power output of internal combustion engines per fuel, making the products of combustion exhausted from internal combustion (IC) engines environmental friendly, global warming and the rising cost of crude oil have been major sources of concern in the world. Diesel engines have been widely used, due to their high thermal efficiency and low pollutant formation characteristics but it has a serious drawback of having a comparative larger amount of exhaust gas particulate matter (PM) which is larger than that of a gasoline engine. The high thermal efficiency of diesel engines, mainly the direct injection diesel engine is mainly as a result of its high compression ratio, the lower pumping losses as a result of the absence of the throttle valve and the lean mixture required to achieving an efficient heterogeneous combustion process. The production of large particulate matters (PM) has been as a result of incomplete atomization of the diesel fuel spray and mixing with the oxidizer in the combustion chamber within the short time for mixture formation and combustion. This paper highlights various efforts at improving combustion efficiency and other potentials that can be explored. Some Efforts on Improving Combustion Efficiency Over the years, research has been conducted on internal combustion engines to see ways of reducing the emission of particulate matter (PM) and thereby improving the efficiency of Internal Combustion engines especially, diesel engines. The main factors that control combustion in diesel engines are the mixture formation and ignition delay. The mixture formation deals with the mixture of fuel and oxidizer in the combustion chamber. This is controlled by the characteristics of the injection system, Sauter mean diameter of spray drop size and air swirl and turbulence in the cylinder. Efforts are thus directed at improving combustion efficiency by controlling the associated parameters associated with it. These are hereby discussed. Characteristics of Injection The efficiency and output of diesel engines are affected by the characteristics of the fuel spray injected into the combustion chamber. Experiments have shown better atomization of diesel spray at higher injection pressure (Carsten Baumgarten, 2006). Diesel engine use in passenger cars was limited due to the black smoke, which was composed of soot, which is a major component of particulate matter (PM) and its large noise. The introduction of the Common-rail (CR) injection systems which is an electronically-controlled, high-pressure fuel injection system which provides better fuel atomization and multiple injections per cycle, these being advantages over the Jerk-type injection system (Kiyomi Nakakita, 2002) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_rail, 2012). Sauter Mean Diameter of Spray Drop Size The Sauter Mean Diameter is used to describe the average drop size of a spray. The smaller the average drop size of the injected spray, the greater the surface area of the fuel per volume exposed to the oxidizer and the faster and more complete the combustion process. When diesel fuel is injected into the combustion chamber at high pressure it breaks up into smaller droplets as it penetrates the ambient gas. A faster disintegration of these spray droplets gives room for a better www.iosrjournals.org 21 | Page Combustion Enhancers in Diesel Engines: Magnetic Field Option mixture formation as a result of a wider surface area of the spray droplets per volume mixing and reacting with the oxidizer. Various researchers have conducted experiments using various methods to determine the drop sizes of a diesel spray, both at high and low pressures. Drop sizes of diesel spray were measured by a laser diffraction technique in order to study the effects of viscosity and surface tension of the fuel and also the effect of ambient pressure on a diesel spray by Hiroyasu et al (1984). He observed that increasing the injection pressure, leads to a decrease in the Sauter Mean Diameter. Hiroyasu et. al(1984), also observed that the Sauter Mean Diameter increased with an increase in the viscosity of various fluids/liquids and also an increase of the nozzle diameter, increased the sauter mean diameter of the drop size of the spray. A decreased nozzle-orifice diameter is an effective means of reducing the Sauter Mean Diameter thereby reducing smoke. However, a decreased nozzle-orifice diameter below the optimum level, causes the momentum of the fuel spray to decrease and this reduces the spray penetration of the fuel spray. A further increase in the injection pressure is impossible in these conditions, even with a CR injection system (Kiyomi Nakakita, 2002). This leads to a decrease in the maximum output of the engine. Empirical equations for the sauter mean diameter in terms of the operating parameters and fuel properties were proposed by Tanasawa and Toyoda, (1955), Knight (1955), Elkotb, 1982, Hiroyasu Filipovic (1969), Shipinski et al. (1983), Takeuchi et al. (1983) and Kadota, (1974). Ignition Delay The duration of ignition delay is one of the most important criteria, having a great effect on the combustion process, mechanical stresses, engine noise and exhaust emission. For a complete combustion in the combustion chamber of a diesel engine a shortened ignition delay period is required. Ignition delay in diesel engines have been defined in different ways depending on the criteria used to determine the start of combustion. The two most commonly used definitions are pressure rise and illumination delays. The pressure rise delay is defined by the point at which pressure rise caused by combustion is detected on a cylinder pressure time record. The illumination delay is marked by the emission of visible radiation due to chemiluminescence or thermal radiation. Ignition delay processes may be divided into the physical and chemical processes. In the physical delay period, the fuel is atomized, vapourized, mixed with air and raised in temperature. In the chemical delay, reaction starts slowly and then accelerates until inflammation or ignition takes place. Experiments have shown that under temperature of 700 - 750˚K, temperature dependence for ignition is stronger and the chemical delay is longer than the physical delay. In a high temperature environment, temperature dependence for ignition delay is not so strong, because it is controlled by physical delay, which is the required time for mixture formation. For lighter fuel the physical delay is shorter while it is higher for heavy viscous fuels (Henein, N. and Bolt, J., 1969). Several formulations or formulas have been proposed for ignition delays in several conditions are recorded in Henein, N. and Bolt, J. (1969), Hamamoto, et al (1975) and M. Mbarawa (2003). Use of Nano-Materials Deborah Elcock (2007) tried to improve combustion in diesel engines by introducing nanoscale particles of cerium oxides in diesel engine. The nano-particles where to supply oxygen to regions in the mixture that were deficient to produce a more complete combustion. Other researchers like Walter R.M and Edward A.H. (2005) and Dongke Zhang (2009), have recorded improved performance in combustion by-products and efficiency of diesel engines with the introduction of metal and organic based nano-particles in diesel fuel. Prospects of Magnetic Field Researchers have found magnetic field to have an effect on the viscosity of liquids. Rongjia Toa (2004), observed a reduction in the viscosity of diesel fuel of 5.80cp at 10˚C to 5.64 cp when magnetic field of 1.1T was applied to the diesel fuel for 8 Seconds. Reductions in the viscosity of fluids were also observed with the passage of magnetic field through them Busch, K.W, (1976) stated that Chinese fishermen were said to have been applying magnets to engine fuel lines in fishing boats in order to improve fuel economy. Okoronkwo et al (2010), observed a reduction in exhaust gas emission and reduction in the diesel fuel consumption of a single cylinder, four stroke diesel engine; when magnetic field was passed through the fuel manifold. Ali A. Jazie Al-Khaledy (2008), observed an improvement in the combustion efficiency and reduction in exhaust pollutants from Perkins 1006 TAG2 generator when the generator’s fuel line was lined with permanent magnets. He attributed it to the transformation of the hydrogen ion in the hydrocarbon from parahydrogen to orthohydrogen which is more unstable and reactive as a result of the influence of magnetic field on the fuel flowing in the fuel line. Ruggero www.iosrjournals.org 22 | Page Combustion Enhancers in Diesel Engines: Magnetic Field Option (2000) observed that internal combustion engines emissions in general like CO, HC etc., can be reduced by fuel magnetization, stating that fuel is polarized which enhance the mixing of air and fuel thereby producing a complete combustion. Govindasamy, P. and Dhandapani, S. (2009), observed an increase in thermal efficiency and a reduction in NO emission in a magnetic field treated fuel (composed of a blend of Bio-Diesel and Diesel) x of in an Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) diesel engine. Deborah Elcock (2007), cited EnviroxTM Fuel Borne Catalyst, developed by Oxonica, Ltd, which is a product that improves diesel fuel combustion, reducing fuel consumption and harmful exhaust emission. This additive is made up of nanoscale (10 nm) particles of cerium oxide. Walter R.M and Edward A.H. (2005), found that iron-magnesium catalyst when added to diesel and heavy fuel oil supplies, promotes complete and more efficient combustion in the engine, resulting in increased power, improved fuel economy and radically reduced smoke emission. Some other metals like Mn, Fe, Cu, Ba, Ce and Pt where tested, but Fe-Mn gave better outcome. Dongke Zhang (2009) observed a 2.5% reduction in fuel consumption and improvement in the efficiency of all types of diesel engines, when FTC/FPC diesel combustion catalysts manufactured by Fuel Technology Pty Ltd were introduced into the diesel fuel. . II. Conclusion As observed and shown in various researches conducted, that the production of exhaust particulate matter (PM) in diesel and other incomplete combustion products are as a result of incomplete atomization of spray drops within the short time for mixture formation. Research is still needed, to find the best way to introduce a sustained magnetic field in the fuel line and combustion chamber of diesel engines. This will give an improved mixture formation by increasing the atomization process of the spray in the combustion chamber through increasing the rate of disintegration of the droplets as a result of reduction in the viscosity and surface tension of the fuel. An increase in the rate of disintegration of the spray droplets, will also give room for a wide surface area of the spray droplets per volume to react with the oxidizer. The more surface area of droplets per volume, the more effective its evaporation and mixture formation. This will lead to a reduction in the quantity of particulate matter (PM) and increase the engine efficiency. References [1] Ali A. Jazie Al-Khaledy, High Performance and Low Pollutant Emissions from a Treated Diesel Fuel using a Magnetic Field, Al- Qadisiya Journal For Engineering Sciences; Vol. 1, pp. 2, 2008. [2] Arai, M., Tabata, M., Hiroyasu, H. and Shimizu, M., Disintegrating Process and Spray Characterization of Fuel Jet Injected by a Diesel Nozzle, SAE Paper 85012, 1984. [3] Busch, K.W., Busch, R.E. Darling, S.,Design of a test loop for the evaluation of magnetic water treatment devices. Process safety and environmental protection, Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, 1976. [4] Carsten Baumgarten, Mixture Formation in Internal Combustion Engines, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, 2006. [5] Deborah Elcock, Potential Impacts of Nanotechnology on Energy Transmission Applications and Needs, Environmental Science Division Argonne National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy laboratory, Chicago, 2007. [6] Elkortb, M. M., Prog. Energy Comb. Sci; Vol. 8, pp. 61, 1982. [7] Filipovic, I., Analiza motornih parametara ubrizgavanja alternativnih goriva. PhD thesis, Masinski Fakultet University, Sarajevo, 1983. [8] Govindasamy, P. and Dhandapani, S., Effects of EGR & Magnetic Fuel Treatment System on Engine Emission Characteristics in A Bio Fuel Engine, Proceedings of the International Conference on Mechanical Engineering 2009 (ICME2009) 26- 28 December 2009, Dhaka, Bangladesh; pp. 2-3, 2009. [9] Hamamoto, Y., et al., Ignition Delay in Diesel Engines, Trans. of JSME; pp. 9, 1975. [10] Henein, N. and Bolt, J., Correlation of Air Charge Temperature and Ignition Delay for Several Fuels in a Diesel Engine, SAE Paper 690252, 1969. [11] Heywood J. B., Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1988. [12] Hiroyasu H, Arai M. Structures of Fuel Sprays in Diesel Engines. SAE-paper 900475, 1990. [13] Hiroyasu, H and Kadota, T., Fuel Droplet Size Distribution in Diesel Combustion Chamber, SAE Paper 740715, 1974. [14] Hiroyasu, H. and Arai, M., Fuel Spray Penetration and Spray Angle in Diesel Engines, Trans. Of JSME, Vol. 21; pp. 5, 1980. [15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_rail, Common Rail. Retrieved 9th of November, 2012. [16] Kiyomi Nakakita, Research and Development Trends in Combustion Aftertreatment Systems for Next-Generation HSDI Diesel Engines. Special Issue Challenges in Realizing Clean High-Performance Engines. R & D Review of Toyota CRDL; Vol. 37 No. 3, 2002. [17] Knight, B. E., Communication on the Performance of a Type of Swirl Atomizer, Proceedings IMechE; pp. 104, 1955. [18] Levich, V.G., Physicochemical Hydrodynamics, Prentice-Hall Inc.; 639, 1962. [19] Mbarawa, M., A Correlation for Estimation of lgnition Delay of Dual Fuel Combustion Based on Constant Volume Combustion Vessel Experiments, R & D Journal; vol.19 (3) , 2003. [20] Ohnesorge W., Die Bildung von Tropfen an Düsen und die Auflösung flüssiger Strahlen. Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik, Bd.16, Heft 6; pp.355–358, 1931. [21] Okoronkwo C. A , Nwachukwu, C.C, Ngozi –Olehi L.C and Igbokwe, J.O., The effect of electromagnetic flux density on the ionization and the combustion of fuel (An economy design project), American Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 2010; ISSN: 2153-649X doi:10.5251/ajsir.2010.1.3.527.531 [22] Reitz R.D. Atomization and other Breakup Regimes of a Liquid Jet. Ph.D. Thesis, Princeton University, 1978. [23] Rongjia Tao, Investigate Effects of Magnetic Fields on Fuels. Department of Physics, Temple University, Philadelpha, PA 19122; pp.7, 2004. www.iosrjournals.org 23 | Page Combustion Enhancers in Diesel Engines: Magnetic Field Option [24] Ruggero Maria Santilli, Recycling liquid wastes and Crude oil into Magnegas and MagneHydrogen, Hydrogen International Conference Hy2000, Munich, German, 2000. [25] Schweitzer, P. H., Penetration of Oil Spray, Pennsylvania State College Bulletin, 1937, p46. [26] Shipinski, J, Myers, P. S. and Uyehara, A., A spray droplet model for diesel combustion. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs; 184, pp. 25 – 28, 1969. [27] Takeuchi, K., Murayama, H., Senda, J. and Yamada, K. , Droplet size distribution in diesel fuel spray. Bull. Jap. SOC. Mech. Enyrs; 26, pp. 215, 1983. [28] Tanasawa, Y. and Toyoda, S., On the Atomization of Liquid Jet Issuing from a Cylindrical Nozzle, Technical Report of Tohoku Univ., 1955. [29] Wakuri, Y., Fujii, M., Amitani, T. and Tsuneya, R., Studies of the Peneteration of Fuel Spray in Diesel Engine, Bulletin of JSME, pp.3-9, 1960. [30] Walter R.M and Edward A.H., Catalyst for Improving the Combustion Efficiency of Petroleum Fuels in Diesel Engines, Presented to th the 11 Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction Conference, August 21-25, Chicago, IL, 2005. [31] www.most.gov.mm/techuni/media/ME05023_249_280.pdf. Combustion in compression ignition engines. Retrieved 4th July, 2012. www.iosrjournals.org 24 | Page"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "CFD analysis of ignition timing effects on engine performance. This document highlights the need for rigorous analysis of systematic errors in experimental data.", "fr_vulgarise": "Contexte sur l'impact du calage de l'allumage sur les performances et les émissions."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257787606 Study and the effects of ignition timing on gasoline engine performance and emissions Article in European Transport Research Review · June 2013 DOI: 10.1007/s12544-013-0099-8 CITATIONS READS 19 5,201 2 authors: Javad Zareei Amirhasan Kakaee Iran University of Science and Technology Iran University of Science and Technology 5 PUBLICATIONS 43 CITATIONS 34 PUBLICATIONS 459 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Javad Zareei on 10 April 2014. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Eur.Transp.Res.Rev.(2013)5:109–116 DOI10.1007/s12544-013-0099-8 ORIGINAL PAPER Study and the effects of ignition timing on gasoline engine performance and emissions J. Zareei&A.H. Kakaee Received:1November2011/Accepted:31March2013/Publishedonline:25April2013 #TheAuthor(s)2013.ThisarticleispublishedwithopenaccessatSpringerLink.com Abstract 1 Introduction Introduction Ignition timing, in a spark ignition engine, is theprocessofsetting thetime that anignitionwilloccur in The performance of spark ignition engines is a function of the combustion chamber (during the compression stroke) many factors. One of the most important ones is ignition relative to piston position and crankshaft angular velocity. timing. Also it is one of the most important parameters for Setting the correct ignition timing is crucial in the perfor- optimizingefficiencyandemissions,permittingcombustion manceandexhaustemissionsofanengine.Theobjectiveof enginestoconformtofutureemissiontargetsandstandards the present work is to evaluate whether variable ignition [1]. Since the advent of Otto’s first four stroke engine, the timingcanbeeffectonexhaustemissionandengineperfor- development of the spark ignition engine has achieved a mance ofan SI engine. high level of success. In the early years, increasing engine Method For achieving this goal, at a speed of 3400 rpm, power and engine working reliability were the principal the ignition timing has been changed in the range of aimsforenginedesigners.Inrecentyears,however,ignition 41° BTDC to 10° ATDC and for optimize operation, timing has brought increased attention to development of ignition timing has been designed at wide-open throttle advanced SI enginesfor maximizing performance [2, 3]. and at last, the performance characteristics such as pow- Chan and Zhu worked on modeling of in-cylinder ther- er, torque, BMEP, volumetric efficiency and emissions modynamics under high values of ignition retard, in partic- are obtained and discussed. ular the effect of spark retard on cylinder pressure Results The results show optimal power and torque is distribution. In- cylinder gas temperature and trapped mass achieved at 31°CA before top dead centre and volumetric under varying spark timing conditions were also calculated efficiency, BMEP have increased with rising ignition [4].SoyluandGerpendevelopedatwozonethermodynam- timing.O 2 ,CO 2 ,COhasbeenalmostconstant,butHCwith ic model to investigate the effects of ignition timing, fuel advanceofignitiontimingincreasedandthelowestamount composition, and equivalence ratio on the burning rate and NO x isobtainedat 10 BTDC. cylinder pressure for a natural gas engine [5]. Burning rate Conclusions In conclusion, it obtained that ignition timing analysis was carried out to determine the flame initiation can be used as an alternative way for predicting the perfor- period and the flame propagation period at different engine mance of internal combustion engines. Also engine speed operatingconditions [5]. andthrottlepositionwereallfoundtosignificantlyinfluence A zero-dimensional thermodynamic cycle model with performance in this engine. two zone burnt/unburned combustion model, mainly based on Ferguson’s and Krikpatrick work [6], was developed to Keywords Ignitiontiming .Performance .Emission .Spark predict the cylinder pressure, work done, heat release, en- ignitionengine thalpy of exhaust gas, and so forth. The zero-dimensional modelisbasedonthefirstlawofthermodynamicsinwhich an empirical relationship between the fuel burning rate and : crank angle positionisestablished. J.Zareei(*) A.H.Kakaee Nowadaysustainingacleanenvironmenthasbecomean DepartmentofAutomotive,IranUniversityofScienceand importantissueinanindustrializedsociety.Theairpollution Technology,Tehran,Iran e-mail:[email protected] caused by automobiles and motorcycles is an important 110 Eur.Transp.Res.Rev.(2013)5:109–116 environmentalproblemtobesolved.Forthispurpose,find- ingnewalternative energysourcesinplaceofpetroleumin internal combustion engines is becoming a necessity more than ever. 2 Test engine Facilities to monitor and control engine variables (such as: engine speed, engineload, water andlube oiltemperatures, fuelandairflowsetc.)areinstalledonafullyautomatedtest bed, experimental standard SI engine, located at the Iran Khodro Company Laboratory. The first set of performance data was taken varying timing angle, the intake manifold pressure was 100Kpa and equivalence was held at unity. The specifications of thetest engine are given in Table 1. Theengineismountedonafullyautomatedtestbedand coupled to a Schenck W130 eddy current dynamometer, Fig.1 Controlpanelandtestengineondynamometer having load absorbing and motoring capabilities. There is one electric sensor for speed and one for load, with these signals fed to indicators on the control panel and to the controller. Via knobs on the control panel, the operator can Hydrocarbons (HC). The smoke (soot) level in the ex- setthedynamometertocontrolspeedorload.Thereisalsoa haust gas was measured with an ‘AVL Di Gas’ the capabilityofsettingtheignitiontimingfromaswitchonthe readings of which are provided as Hart ridge units (% control panel. The coolant and lube oil circulation is opacity) or equivalent smoke (soot) density (milligrams achievedbyelectricallydrivenpumps,withthetemperature of soot per cubic meter of exhaust gases). The nitrogen controlledbywaterfedheatexchangers.Heatersareusedto oxides concentration in ppm (parts per million, by vol- maintain the oil and coolant temperatures during warm up ume) in the exhaust was measured with a ‘Signal’ and light load conditions. Figure 1 is the control panel and Series-4000 analyzer and was fitted with a thermostati- test engine ondynamometer. cally controlled heated line. 3.2 Experimental errors 3 Method Nophysicalquantitycanbemeasuredwithperfectcertainty; 3.1 Exhuastgas analisis aparatus therearealwayserrorsinanymeasurement.Thismeansthat ifwemeasuresomequantityand,then,repeatthemeasure- The exhaust gas analysis apparatus consists of a series of ment,wewillalmostcertainlymeasureadifferentvaluethe analyzers for measuring soot, NOx, CO and total unburned second time. However, as we take greater care in our measurements Table1 Enginespecifications and apply ever more refined experimentalmethods, we can reduce the errors and, thereby, gain greater confidence that Enginetype TU3A our measurements approximate ever more closely the true value [7]. Numberofstrokes 4 Numberofcylinders 4 3.2.1 Combining errors incalculations Cylinderdiameter(mm) 75 Stroke(mm) 77 When several measurements are taken and combined in Compressionratio 10.5:1 formulas, the resultant error will be a combination of indi- Maximumpower(kW) 50 vidual errors. Although errors may cancel, we must calcu- MaximumTorque(NM) 160 late the maximum possible error assuming that errors are Maximumspeed(rpm) 6500 additive [8, 9]. Displacement(cc) 1360 First convert absolute errors to % errors, The maxi- Fuel 97-octane mum possible error is determined by adding the % Eur.Transp.Res.Rev.(2013)5:109–116 111 Table 2 Accuracy of measurements and uncertainty of computed atic effects. So should be considered errors of apparatus results before testing. Measurements Accuracy 3.2.2 Calculation combined error Sootdensity ±1mg/m3 NOx ±5ppm Rateofprobableerrorineachmeansobtainfromcombina- CO ±3ppm tion errors of each part. Assuming M is u , u , …u inde- 1 2 n HC ±2ppm pendent variable nfunction ofquantity[11,12] Time ±0.5% Speed ±2rpm fðu1 (cid:1)Δu 1 ; u 2 (cid:1)Δu 2 ; …; u n (cid:1)Δu n Þ (cid:1) ¼ fðu 1 ; u 2 ; …; (cid:3)u n Þþ ∂f ∂f ∂f 1 ∂2f Torque ±0.1Nm Δu1∂u þΔu 2∂u þ…þΔu n∂u þ 2 ðΔu!Þ2 ∂u þ… þ… 1 2 n 1 ComputedresultsUncertainty ð1Þ Fuelvolumetricrate ±1% Power ±1% Specificfuelconsumption ±1.5% M ¼ fðu ; u ; u ; …Þ ð2Þ 1 2 3 Efficiency ±1.5% Probablyerror sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (cid:5) (cid:6) (cid:5) (cid:6) (cid:5) (cid:6) ∂f 2 ∂f 2 ∂f 2 errors together, If a reading is raised to a power in a σ ¼ σ þ σ þ…þ σ M ∂u u1 ∂u u2 ∂u un calculation, then the % error for that part is the power 1 2 n times the % error. Generally, errors can be divided into ð3Þ two broad and rough but useful classes: systematic and Probablyerror in themeasurements obtained random. (cid:5) (cid:6) Systematic errors are errors which tend to shift all mea- σ σ prob x−1:96pffiffiffi ≤S≤xþ1:96pffiffiffi ¼0:95 ð4Þ surements in a systematic way so their mean value is n n displaced. This may be due to such things as incorrect calibration of equipment, consistently improper use of Probableerror of each measurement vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi e [1 q 0 u ] i . pment or failure to properly account for some effect u u u Xn (cid:7) x−x (cid:8) 2 t i Sources of systematic errors are external effects S ¼ i¼1 ð5Þ which can change the results of the experiment, but n−1 for which the corrections are not well known. In sci- Averageamountofprobableerrorwith99%confidence ence, the reasons why several independent confirmations of experimental results are often required (especially 2:54S q¼(cid:1) pffiffiffi ð6Þ using different techniques) is because different apparatus n at different places may be affected by different system- Fig.2 Therelationbetween IMEP&BMEPandignition timing-Wideopenthrottle; Equivalencerationofone 112 Eur.Transp.Res.Rev.(2013)5:109–116 Fig.3 Therelationship betweenexhausttemperature andIncylinderpeakpressure versusignitiontiming-wide openthrottle;equivalence rationofone Averageamountofprobableerrorwith95%confidence ignitiontiming(advance)of41crankanglebeforeTDCand at full load. Owing to the differences among the calorific 1:96S q¼(cid:1) pffiffiffi ð7Þ values and oxygen content of the fuels tested, the compar- n ison mustbeeffectedatthesame engine brake mean effec- Once there are some experimental measurements, they tive pressure, i.e. load, and not at air/fuel ratio. in this also usually combine according to some formula to arrive at a tests are considered accuracy of measurements and the be- desired quantity. To find the estimated error for a calculated low table shoes accuracy of measurements and uncertainty resultonemustknowhowtocombinetheerrorsintheinput of computed results. quantities.Thesimplestprocedurewouldbetoaddtheerrors. Ineachtest,volumetricfuelconsumption,exhaustsmok- Thiswouldbeaconservativeassumption,butitoverestimates inessandexhaustregulatedgasemissions,suchasNitrogen theuncertaintyintheresult.Clearly,iftheerrorsintheinputs Oxides (NOx), Carbon monoxide (CO) and total unburned are random, they will cancel each other at least some of the Hydrocarbons (HC), are measured. From the first measure- time.Iftheerrorsinthemeasuredquantitiesarerandomandif ment,specificfuelconsumptionandbrakethermalefficien- they are independent can be obtained from a few simple cy are computed using the sample density and lower formulas. In this research, average amount of probableerror calorificvalue.Table2showstheaccuracyofthemeasure- with99%confidencehaveobtained. ments and the uncertainty of the computed results of the variousparameters. 3.2.3 Conditionand parameters tested-experimental procedure 4 Results and discussion Theseriesoftests areconductedusing variationofignition The first adjust of performance data was taken varying timingwiththeengineworkingataspeedof3400rpmata throttle position. By changing the Position of the throttle, Fig.4 Therelationship betweenBMEPandignition timing.Enginespeedof3400 RPM,intakemanifoldpressure of100kPa Eur.Transp.Res.Rev.(2013)5:109–116 113 Fig.5 Therelationship betweenBSFCandignition timingat3400RPMand equivalenceratioofunity the intake manifold pressure was varied to 100 kPa- on The above figure shows that Indicated Mean Effective position wide-open throttle. Speed was held at 3400 RPM Pressure (IMEP) tends to increase with ignition timing ad- and equivalence ratio was held atunity. vance between 21 and 41° BTDC. It is expected that IMEP The results show that Brake Mean Effective Pressure shouldincreasewithtimingangleadvancetoapoint,andthen (BMEP) tends to increase with ignition timing till 31° dropoff.Bestperformancewillbeachievedwhenthegreatest Before Top Dead Centre (BTDC) and then drop off. portionofthecombustiontakesplaceneartopdeadcenter.If Best performance will be achieved when he greatest the ignition timing is not advanced enough, the piston will ignition 31° BTDC. If ignition timing isn’t advance alreadybemovingdownwhenmuchofthecombustiontakes enough, original portion of the maximum pressure will place.Inthiscasewelosetheabilitytoexpandthisportionof creative in the expand stroke and in this case we lose thegasthroughthefullrange,decreasingperformance.Ifthe useful efficiency and decreasing performance. ignitiontimingistooadvanced,toomuchofthegaswillburn The maximum BMEP is at an ignition timing whilethepistonisstillrising.Theworkthatmustbedoneto 31°BTDC minimum advance for Maximum Brake compressthisgaswilldecreasethenetworkproduced.These Torque (MBT) is defined as the smallest advance that competingeffectscausetheretobeamaximumintheIMEP achieves 99 % of the maximum power. asafunctionofignitiontimingadvance. It should be noted that MBT will vary with both As is evident in Fig. 3 the peak pressure increases with throttle position and engine speed under more throttle increasingignitiontimingbeforetop deadcenter. Maximum condition; the density of charge in the cylinder in less pressure would be reached if all of gas were burned by the dense mixtures, a not very large ignition timing advance timethepistonreachedTDC.Butpressuredecreaseswithless will be required. In this case ignition occurs and gives a advancedignitiontimingbecause;gasdoesn’tburncomplete- suitable performance (Fig. 2). lyuntilthepistonisonitswaydownontheexpansionstroke. Fig.6 Therelationship betweenO andHC 2 concentrationversusignition timingat3400RPMandintake manifoldpressureof100kPa 114 Eur.Transp.Res.Rev.(2013)5:109–116 Fig.7 Therelationship betweenO ,COandHC 2 concentrationversusignition timingintakemanifoldpressure of100kPaandequivalence ratioofunity The Above figure also shows that the exhaust tempera- beforetopdeadcentre.ItshouldbenotedthatwhenBMEP ture decrease with close to TDC and ATDC. IMEP repre- increase,BSFC follows inversely. sents the work done on the piston. The exhaust gas Figure6showsO andHCconcentrationasafunctionof 2 temperature represents the enthalpy of the exhaust gas for timing angle. Advance timing angle causes higher in cylin- ideal gases. The enthalpy is a function of temperature only der peak pressure. This higher pressure pushes more of the and energy released by combustion of fuel must go into fuel- air mixture into crevices (most significantly the space expansion work. The temperatures of the exhaust gas also between the piston crown and cylinder walls) where the decrease if energyistobeconserved (Fig. 4). flame is quenched and mixture is left unburned. Additionally, The results show that BMEP increased with ignition thetemperaturelateinthecycle,whenthemixturecomesoutof timing advance. This expected that BMEP decrease with thesecrevices,isloweratmoreadvanceignitiontiming.Thelater closing ignition time to top dead center. If the ignition is temperature means that the hydrocarbons and oxygen do not not advanced enough, the piston will already be moving react.Thisincreasethe concentration ofoxygenintheexhaust downwhenmuchofthecombustiontakeplace.Inthiscase andunburnedhydrocarbons. we lose the ability to expend this portion of the gas and In above figure carbon monoxide, oxygen and carbon decreasingperformance.Iftheignitionistooadvance,much dioxideconcentrationchangeverylittlewithignitiontiming portion of gas will burn while the piston is still rising; the inthe range studied (Fig. 7). work that must be done to compress this gas will decrease Inhere,theequivalenceratiowasheldconstantandatratio the net work produced. Also, results show that maximum ofunity,sotherewasenoughoxygentoreactmostofcarbon BMEPisbetween−21°to41°andthedatehasamaximum to CO . CO concentration increased and CO concentration 2 2 BMEP atignition timing at 31°BTDC. decreased when there isn’t enough oxygen. Some carbon Figure 5 Shows that Brake Specific Fuel Consumption monoxidedoesappearintheexhaustduetofrozenequilibri- (BSFC) tend to improve with increase of ignition timing umconcentrationofCO,O andCO . 2 2 Fig.8 Therelationship betweenNOconcentrations versusignitiontiming.Engine speedat3400RPMandintake manifoldpressureof100kPa 50 120 115 45 110 105 40 100 35 95 90 30 85 80 25 75 20 70 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 FigureshowsNOconcentrationintheexhaustgasversus Also it shows that the torque increases with increasing ignition timing. NO formation is function of temperature. ignition advance. This is due to increasing pressure in the With advancing the ignition timing, the in- cylinder peak compression stroke and consequently more net work is pressure increase. The ideal gas law tells that increase in produced.Itisnecessarytomentionthatbyfurtherincrease peak pressure must correspond to an increase in peak tem- in spark advance, torque will not rise largely due to in- perature, and higher temperature causes the NO concentra- cylinder peak pressure during compression period and a tion to behigher (Fig. 8). decrease of pressure in expansion stroke. For this reason, Theresultsshowthatpowertendstoincreasewithspark determiningtheoptimumignitiontimingisoneofthemost advance between 17 and 35°CA BTDC. It is expected that importantcharacteristics for an SI engine (Fig. 9). power should increase with spark advance to a point, and Figure 10 presents the predicted results of thermal effi- then drop off. Best performance will be achieved when the ciencyincomparisonwithexperimental data.Thermaleffi- greatestportionofthecombustiontakesplaceneartopdead ciencyiswork-outdividedbyenergy-in.Itcanbeseenthat centre. If the spark is not advanced enough, the piston will the net work increases with rising ignition advance to a already be moving down when much of the combustion point, and then reduces slightly. This is due to increasing takes place. In this case, we lose the ability to expand this friction at high values of ignition advance and therefore portionofthegasthroughthefullrange,decreasingperfor- reducingnetwork.AccordingtoFig.6,thehighestamount mance.Ifignitionistooadvanced,toomuchofthegaswill of thenet work occurs at 31°CA BTDC. burnwhilethepistonisstillrising.Asaresult,theworkthat must be done to compress this gas will decrease the net workproduced.Thesecompetingeffectscausetheretobea 5 Conclusion maximum inthe power asa functionof spark advance. The aim of this paper was effects of ignition timing of a spark- ignition engine using different initial timing and engine speeds on engine performance by experimental. The overall results show that ignition timing can be used as an alternative way for predicting the performance of internal combustion engines. In this paper, the best results were obtained at 31°BTDC for 3400RPM. Also engine speed and throttle position were all found to significantly influenceperformanceinthisengine.Volumetricefficiency, BMEP have increased with rising ignition timing. HC with advanceofignitiontimingincreased,O ,CO ,COhasbeen 2 2 almost constant and the lowest amount NOx is obtained at 10°BTDC.Forfuturework,itrecommendedignitiontiming and valve timing be controlled together and change throttle position indifferent speeds. )wK(rewoP )mN(euqroT Fig.9 Therelationship betweenpowerandtorque versusignitiontiming Power Torque Ignition timing(BTDC) 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 )%(ycneiciffE Eur.Transp.Res.Rev.(2013)5:109–116 115 Ignition Timing(BTDC) Fig.10 Therelationshipbetweenefficiencyversusignitiontiming 116 Eur.Transp.Res.Rev.(2013)5:109–116 OpenAccessThisarticleisdistributedunderthetermsoftheCreative 5. SoyluS,VanGerpenJ(2004)Developmentofempiricallybased CommonsAttributionLicensewhichpermitsanyuse,distribution,and burningratesub-modelsforanaturalgasengine.EnergyConvers reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the Manage45(4):467–481 sourcearecredited. 6. FergusonCR,KrikpatrickAT(2001)Internalcombustionengines- Appliedthermosciences.Wiley,NewYork 7. Choia GH, Chungb YJ, Hanc SB (2005) Performance and emis- sionscharacteristicsofahydrogenenrichedLPGinternalcombus- References tionengineat1400rpm.IntJHydrogenEnergy30:77–82 8. TeterWD(2007)InstrumentsandControlsProfessor,Department 1. Golcu M, Sekmen Y, Salman MS (2005) Artificial neural-network ofCivilEngineering,CollegeofEngineering,UniversityofDela- based modeling of variable valve-timing in a spark-ignition engine. ware.Section16 AppliedEnergy81:187–197 9. UKASpublicationM3003(1997)Theexpressionofuncertainty 2. Chan SH, Zhu J (2001) Modeling. Int J Therm Sci 40(1):94– andconfidenceinmeasurementEdition1,December 103 10. HarrisonMD(2011)Erroranalysisinexperimentalphysicalscience 3. SoyluS,VanGerpenJ(2004)Developmentofempiricallybased 11. Taylor JR (1997) An introduction to error analysis: the study of burningratesub-modelsforanaturalgasengine.EnergyConvers uncertainties in physical measurements, 2nd Edition, University Manage45(no.4):467–481.doi:10.1016/S0196-8904(03)00164-X ScienceBooks 4. ChanSH,ZhuJ(2001)Modelingofenginein-cylinderthermody- 12. Bevington PR, Robinson DK (1992) Data reduction and error namics under high values of ignition retard. Int J Therm Sci analysis forthe physical sciences, 2nd Edition, WCB/McGraw- 40(1):94–103 Hill VViieeww ppuubblliiccaattiioonn ssttaattss"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Research on using the magnetic field to facilitate the air-oxygen mixture (AFR) in IC engines, essential for complete combustion [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "L'aimant aide le carburant à s'entremêler activement avec l'oxygène pour une combustion plus complète."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287207759 Fuel Energizer: The Magnetizer (A Concept of Liquid Engineering) Article · April 2013 CITATIONS READS 4 8,479 2 authors: Rajan Garg Assoc. Prof. Ajay Kumar Agarwal Maharshi Dayanand University JB Knowledge Park 1 PUBLICATION 4 CITATIONS 35 PUBLICATIONS 34 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: M.Tech. Dissertation View project Research Work for both PG & UG Students View project All content following this page was uploaded by Assoc. Prof. Ajay Kumar Agarwal on 27 June 2017. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 ISSN: 2278 – 0211 (Online) Fuel Energizer: The Magnetizer (A Concept of Liquid Engineering) Rajan Garg Assistant Professor & H.O.D, Mechanical Engineering Department SDITM, Israna (Panipat, Haryana), India Ajay Kuma r Agarwal Assistant Professor, Mechani cal Engineering Department RIMT, Chidana, Gohana ( Sonipat, Haryana), India Abstract: The Fuel Energizer has been tested and dev eloped for the Indian Market. The fact that taken into account a vehicle's performance is often affected by the level of adulteration in the fuel used. The Fuel En ergizer has been adapted and developed with Indian conditions in mind and it is th e first such device in India that can make this claim. “FUEL ENERGIZER” helps to reduce fuel consumption up to 30%. When fuel flows through powerful magnetic fiel d created by Magnetizer inter molecular forces is considerably reduced or depressed hence oil particles are finely divided. This has the effect of ensuring that fuel ac tively interlocks with oxygen producing a more complete burn in the combustion cha mber. Hence by establishing correct fuel burning parameters through proper magnetic means (Fuel Energizer) we can assume that an internal combustion engine is gett ing maximum energy per litre as well as environment with lowest possible level to xic. This result in higher engine output, better fuel economy and a reduction in the exhaust emission of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen through m uffler. The magnetic ionization of the fuel also helps to dissolve the carbon build-up in carburetor jets, fuel injectors and combustion chambers and thus keeping the e ngine in a cleaner condition. Key words: BTU, Ortho, Dipole, Para, Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, light-off temperature etc. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 617 www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 1.Introduction Fossil fuels leave a natural deposit of carbon content that choke carburetor, fuel injector, leading to decrease the mileage and wastage of fuel. Most fuels for internal combustion engine are liquid, fuels do not combust until they are vaporized and mixed with air. Most emission motor vehicle consists of unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen (NO ). The same is true of home heating units where improper x combustion wasted fuel and cost, money in poor efficiency and repairs due to build-up. Unburned hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen react in the atmosphere and create smog. Smog is prime cause of eye and throat irritation, noxious smell, plat damage and decreased visibility. Oxides of nitrogen are also toxic. Generally fuels for internal combustion engine are compound of molecules. Each molecule consists of a number of atoms made up of number of nucleus and electrons. Magnetic movements already exist in their molecules and therefore, in them already have positive and negative electrical charges. However these molecules have not been realigned, the fuel is not actively interlocked with oxygen during combustion, the fuel molecule or hydrocarbon chains must be ionized and realigned. The ionization and realignment is achieved through the application of magnetic field created by ‘Magnetizer’. The ionization fuel also helps to dissolve the carbon build-up in carburetor, jets, fuel injector and combustion chamber, thereby keeping the engines clear condition. 1.1.Key Features Of Fuel Energizer  Increase fuel economy per liter  Higher initial torque.  Reduced knocking & detonation.  Decrease smoke emission.  Faster A/C cooling.  No fuel wastage.  Smooth running & long term maintenance free engine. 2.The Hydrocarbon Fuel Simplest of hydrocarbons, methane, (CH ) is the major (90%) constituent of natural gas 4 (fuel) and an important source of hydrogen. From the energy point of view, the greatest amount of releasable energy lies in the hydrogen atom. Why? In octane (C H ) the 8 18 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 618 www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 carbon content of the molecule is 84.2%. On combustion the carbon portion of the molecule will generate 12,244 BTU (per pound of carbon) and on the other hand, the hydrogen, which comprises only 15.8% of the molecular weight, will generate an amazing 9,801 BTU of heat per pound of hydrogen. Hydrogen, the lightest and most basic element known to man, is the major constituent of hydrocarbon fuels besides carbon and smaller amount of sulphur and inert gases & dipole formation is shown in figure 1. It has one positive charge (proton) and one negative charge (electron), i.e. it possesses a dipole moment. It can be either diamagnetic or paramagnetic (weaker or stronger response to the magnetic flux) depending on the relative orientation of its nucleus spins. Even though it is the simplest of all elements, it occurs in two distinct isomeric varieties (forms) - Para and Ortho. Figure 1: Relative Orientation of Dipole & its Nucleus It is characterized by the different opposite nucleus spins The liquid hydrogen fuel that is used to power the space shuttle or rockets is stored, for safety reasons, in the less energetic, less volatile, less reactive para-hydrogen form. During the start of the shuttle the ortho-hydrogen form is beneficial since it allows intensifying the combustion INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 619 www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 processes. To secure conversion of para to ortho state, it is necessary to change the energy of interaction between the spin states of the H molecule. 2 3.Para & Ortho State Of Hydrogen The principle has been utilized, and the effect has been achieved by the action of the Magnetizer where a strong enough flux fields is developed to substantially change the hydrocarbon molecule from its para state to the higher energized ortho state.  In the para H molecule, which occupies the even rotation levels (quantum 2 number), the spin state of one atom relative to another is in the opposite direction (\"counterclockwise\", \"anti-parallel\", \"one up & one down\"), rendering it diamagnetic.  In the ortho molecule, which occupies the odd rotational levels, the spins are parallel (\"clockwise\", \"coincident\", \"both up\"), with the same orientation for the two atoms; therefore, is paramagnetic and a catalyst for many reactions. It has one positive charge (proton) and one negative charge (electron), i.e. it possesses a dipole moment. It can be either diamagnetic or paramagnetic (weaker or stronger response to the magnetic flux) depending on the relative orientation of its nucleus spins. The interesting fact is that the ortho-hydrogen is more reactive than its para-hydrogen counterpart. The spin effect of the fuel molecules can be ascertained optically, based on refraction of light rays passing through liquid fuel as had been demonstrated by scientists while using infrared cameras installed, e.g. in metallurgical ovens where the Magnetizer’s had been effectively working. Furthermore, the conversion of hydrogen into ortho H has been found highly advantageous in many 2 technologies, especially those where hydrogen is used. Hydrocarbons have basically a \"cage-like\" structure as shown in figure 2. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 620 www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 Figure 2: Atomic Orientation Oxidizing of inner carbon atoms in HC during the combustion process is hindered. Furthermore, they bind into larger groups of pseudo compounds. Such groups form clusters. The access of oxygen in the right quantity to the interior of the groups of molecules is hindered. (It has nothing to do with incoming air from the manifold in the fuel mixture when even though there may be excess of it, this will not provide the required hydrocarbon-oxygen binding.) In order to combust fuel, proper quantity of oxygen from air is necessary for it to oxidize the combustible agents. The peculiar problem in designing engines for air pollution is that in order to fully burn all the hydrocarbons in the combustion chamber, operating temperatures of the cylinders have had to be increased. 4.Working Of Magnetizer When hydrocarbon fuel (CH ) is combusted, the firstly the oxidation of hydrogen atoms 4 will have electrons in their outer shell will takes place. Further carbon atoms are subsequently burned (CH + 2O = CO + 2H O). Since it takes less time to oxidize 4 2 2 2 hydrogen atoms in a high-speed internal combustion process, in normal conditions some of the carbon will be only partially oxidized; this is responsible for the incomplete combustion. Oxygen combines with hydrogen readily; however, the carbon-oxygen reaction is far less energetic. The optimum combustion efficiency (performance) obtained from the Magnetizer application on fuel is first indicated by the amount of increase in carbon dioxide (CO ) produced, which has been validated by state emissions 2 control devices. The schematic diagram of Fuel Energizer is shown in figure 3. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 621 www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 Figure 3: Schematic Diagram of Fuel Energizer The fuel flows through magnetic flow line & hydrocarbons change their orientation and molecules of hydrocarbon change their configuration. This has the effect of ensuring that the fuel actively interlocks with the oxygen, producing a more complete burn in the combustion chamber. The result is higher engine output, better fuel economy and a reduction in the hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen that are emitted through the exhaust. The ionization of the fuel also helps to dissolve the carbon build-up in carburetor jets, fuel injectors and combustion chambers, thereby keeping the engine in a cleaner condition. The working of sending unit is located in the fuel tank of the car shown in figure 4. It consists of a float, usually made of foam, connected to a thin, metal rod. The end of the rod is mounted to a variable resistor. A resistor is an electrical device that resists the flow of electricity. The more will be the resistance the less will be the current flow. In a fuel tank, the variable resistor consists of a strip of resistive material connected on one side to the ground. A wiper connected to the gauge slides along this strip of material, conducting the current from the gauge to the resistor. If the wiper is close to the grounded side of the strip, there is less resistive material in the path of the current, so the resistance is small. If the wiper is at the other end of the strip, there is more resistive material in the current's path, so the resistance is large. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 622 www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 Figure 4: Fuel Level Sender \\ The Magnetizer's extremely strong magnetic field, with sufficient flux density to have the required affect on fluid passing through it, substantially changes the isomeric form of the hydrocarbon atom from its Para-hydrogen state to the higher energized, more volatile, ortho state, thus attracting additional oxygen. Fuel structure and properties, such as e.g. electrical conductivity, density, viscosity, or light extinction are changed; its macrostructure beneficially homogenized we attach the Magnetizer unit to the fuel line of an automobile (before carburetor, in tandem series, placed 1/4\" apart, or in Fuel Injection Systems - on fuel line to the injectors + before the injection pump; make sure it is not in contact with the engine's metal parts), one can see an immediate (approx. after 5 min., 4-5 miles/6-8 kms upon start-up) drop in unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide due to the magnetic conditioning of the fuel which makes it more reactive. Upon the Magnetizer installation (5-10 minutes thereafter) engine will undergo the so- called \"Stabilization Period\", i.e. the time of the gradual disappearance of prior carbon varnish sediments and the total magnetic saturation of all ferromagnetic metal parts of the feeding system between the installed energizer and the combustion chamber in order INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 623 www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 to fully activate fuel. The initial saturation lasts about a week while the complete engine cleaning from the carbon residue lasts about 30 to 70 days (old engines). 5.Comparative Study Magnetizer Catalytic Converter Warranty Lifetime None Installation 5 minutes 45 minutes to 1.5 hours 20 to 50,00 miles depending on the vehicle it Product Life Never wears out is fitted on Get Vehicle’s Power Less Power Improvement Gets Vehicle’s Economy Less economy Improvement love the Customer Opinion Poor acceptance due to loss benefits Air Pump Required No Yes Light-off Temperature No Yes Required Table 1: Magnetizer Vs Catalytic Converter 6.Result & Discussion One of the chief reasons for the Magnetizer to have possibility to lower the NO level, as x reported elsewhere, is due to the low reactivity of nitrogen gas. If we can bind up all the available oxygen with the hydrocarbon fuel, there simply will be no oxygen left over to form the unwanted nitrogen compounds. The emission control of various vehicles after installing magnetizer is as shown in Table 2. The test is carried out over the period of 7 weeks & over the mileage of 9,653 Km. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 624 www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 HC HC % HC CO CO % CO Make Model Before After Decreas Before After Decreas Maruti, India (vehicle) 100 60 40 2.6 1.6 30 Hyundai 4 Cylinder 18 14 22 5.6 0.02 99 Suzuki 4 Cylinder 170 100 41 1.6 0.15 91 Jeep 38 7 81 0.16 0.05 68 Table 2: Emission tested by using Magnetizer fuel Energizer (Prescribed Government Emission Norms: CO max. 1% and HC max. 300 ppm) It appears that magnetic treatment is the simplest means of achieving this feat. There is very little oxygen left to produce any additional toxic compounds with nitrogen. The drop of HC & CO emissions is easily proven by comparative gas flue analysis & Opacimeter Emissions Tests. The stoichiometric tests indicate reduction in hydrocarbon HC (unburned fuel) approx. 75% - up to 92% and carbon monoxide (CO) up to 99.9%, due to the use of Magnetizer. (The saving is 13% of the Total Fuel) Figure 5: Comparison: Fuel Consumption after Magnetizer installed with Average fuel Consumption 7.Conclusion After having stoichiometric fuel burning parameters through proper magnetic lines of forces the internal combustion engine is getting maximum energy per litre as well as environment with lowest possible level toxic emission. HC goes down, mileage goes up. This result in scientifically measurable emission reduction/combustion efficiency ratio INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 625 www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 and an average increase in mileage of 15% - 25%. Since the Fuel Energizer saves fuel by increasing combustion efficiency, less CO is being emitted; thereby, less fuel is being used. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 626 www.ijird.com April, 2013 Vol 2 Issue 4 8.Reference 1. Bessee, G.B. and S.R. Westbrook, \"ECO KAT Fuel Energizer Evaluation,\" Letter Report No.BFLRF-94-001, March 2002. 2. Lacey, P.I. and S.R. Westbrook, \"The Effect of Increased Refining on the Lubricity of Diesel Fuel.\" Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Stability and Handling of Liquid Fuels October March 2005. 3. Colket, M.D., D.W. Naegeli, F. Dryer, and I. Glassman, \"Flame Ionization Detection of the Carbon Oxides and Hydrocarbon Oxygenates, \"Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 8, p. 43, April 2007. 4. International Journal on “Fuel Energizer” & Fuel Technology, Vol. 8, p. 43, April 2009. 5. RE: 35689, 5829420, Further Worldwide patents pending California Air Resource Board: CARB#EOD-174-3 U.S. Military Stock Number: NSN 2910- 01390-0004. 6. Vee three Electronics and Marine LLC, 2420 Trailmate Drive, Sarasota, Florida 34243 USA. 7. J. Cheung, \"Investigation of the effects of the use of Magno-Flo magnets on diesel engines\", M. Sc. thesis, Bolton Institute School of Engineering, Bolton, BL3 5AB, UK, 1997. 8. I. G. Tretyakov, M. A. Rybak and E. Y. Stepanenko, \"Method of monitoring the effectiveness of magnetic treatment for liquid hydrocarbons\", Sov Surf Engg. Applied Electrochem, Central Electrochemical Research Institute, Karaikudi, India, Vol. 6, pp. 80-83, 1985. 9. Ortec Incorporation, \"Report on EPA-13: Mode steady state tests\", Emission testing services Inc., California, USA, pp. 23a-44a, 2004. 10. B. P. Ramesh, N. Nagalingam and K. V. Gopalakrishnen, \"Effect of certain catalysts in the combustion chamber of a two-stroke engine on exhaust emissions\", Institution of Mechanical Engineer, UK, Issue C448/067, pp. 241- 246, 1992. 11. Z. Hu and M. Ladommatos, \"In-cylinder catalysts-a novel approach to reduce hydrocarbon emissions from spark ignition engines\", SAE-UK, paper 952419, pp.1-8, 1995. 12. M. B. Young, \"Cyclic dispersion in the homogenous charge spark ignition engine - a literature survey\", SAE –International, USA, Paper 810020, pp.1-13, 1981. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Page 627 VViieeww ppuubblliiccaattiioonn ssttaattss"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Analysis of real-world driving data (NDD) to assess fuel efficiency variability under non-ideal conditions, relevant for validating magnetization technologies [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Étude contextuelle sur la mesure de l'efficacité réelle du carburant en conditions de conduite naturelle."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "UMTRI-2010-34 DECEMBER 2010 (cid:1) (cid:1) U N D D SING ATURALISTIC RIVING ATA TO A V F E SSESS ARIATIONS IN UEL FFICIENCY I D AMONG NDIVIDUAL RIVERS DAVID J. LEBLANC MICHAEL SIVAK SCOTT BOGARD USING NATURALISTIC DRIVING DATA TO ASSESS VARIATIONS IN FUEL EFFICIENCY AMONG INDIVIDUAL DRIVERS David J. LeBlanc Michael Sivak Scott Bogard The University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2150 U.S.A. Report No. UMTRI-2010-34 December 2010 Technical Report Documentation Page 1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient(cid:1)s Catalog No. UMTRI-2010-34 4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date Using Naturalistic Driving Data to Assess Variations in Fuel December 2010 Efficiency among Individual Drivers 6. Performing Organization Code 383818 7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No. David J. LeBlanc, Michael Sivak, and Scott Bogard UMTRI-2010-34 9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit no. (TRAIS) The University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute 11. Contract or Grant No. 2901 Baxter Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2150 U.S.A. 12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered The University of Michigan 14. Sponsoring Agency Code Sustainable Worldwide Transportation 15. Supplementary Notes The current members of Sustainable Worldwide Transportation include Autoliv Electronics, Bosch, FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society, General Motors, Honda R&D Americas, Meritor WABCO, Nissan Technical Center North America, Renault, and Toyota Motor Engineering and Manufacturing North America. Information about Sustainable Worldwide Transportation is available at: http://www.umich.edu/~umtriswt 16. Abstract Fuel consumption rates were studied from a naturalistic driving data set employing a fleet of identical passenger vehicles with gasoline engines and automatic transmissions. One hundred and seventeen drivers traveled a total of over 342,000 kilometers (213,000 miles), unsupervised, using one of the experiment’s instrumented test vehicles as their own. Continuous monitoring of hundreds of data signals, including fuel flow rate, provides a unique data set of driving behavior with a common vehicle. The results are presented for both the overall fuel consumption as well as fuel consumption for speed- keeping and accelerating-from-rest events. A substantial variation in the overall fuel consumption rate was observed. The differences between the mean consumption rate and the fuel consumption rates for the 10th and 90th percentile drivers were 13 and 16 percent, respectively, of the mean value. The corresponding differences between the 10th and 90th percentiles and the mean for both speed-keeping events and accelerating-from-rest events were up to 10 percent. While some of the obtained variation in fuel economy is likely due to uncontrolled or unmeasured factors, such as passenger and fuel weight, and wind, the data imply that the behavior of real-world drivers adds significant variation to fuel consumption rates. The present findings suggest the possibility of substantial potential gains in real-world efficiencies through modification of driver behavior itself (e.g., through training), or for electronic modulation technology between the driver’s foot and the throttle to modify a relatively wasteful driver into a more efficient one. 17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement Fuel consumption, individual variations, naturalistic driving Unlimited 19. Security Classification (of this report) 20. Security Classification (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price None None 16 i Acknowledgments This research was supported by Sustainable Worldwide Transportation (http://www.umich.edu/~umtriswt). The current members of this research consortium are Autoliv Electronics, Bosch, FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society, General Motors, Honda R&D Americas, Meritor WABCO, Nissan Technical Center North America, Renault, and Toyota Motor Engineering and Manufacturing North America. The data used in this study are from the Integrated Vehicle-Based Safety System Field Operational Test, a project conducted by UMTRI under a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Department of Transportation. Jim Sayer of UMTRI was the project director. UMTRI’s partners included Honda R&D Americas, Inc., who made possible the collection of data that enabled this analysis. ii Contents (cid:1) Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................................ii(cid:1) Introduction.....................................................................................................................................1(cid:1) Overall fuel consumption rates of drivers.......................................................................................3(cid:1) Fuel consumption as a function of speed and acceleration.............................................................4(cid:1) Fuel consumption variation among drivers when acceleration is near zero...................................7(cid:1) Fuel consumption in accelerating-from-rest events........................................................................9(cid:1) Conclusions...................................................................................................................................12(cid:1) References.....................................................................................................................................13(cid:1) iii Introduction This study seeks to quantify and characterize the variation in fuel consumption across automobile drivers in a naturalistic driving experiment. The study addresses use of passenger vehicles by the general public, and is designed to estimate the magnitude of variation that may be attributable to individual drivers, including overall fuel consumption rates and those for two key driving scenarios. Reducing fuel consumption has become a critical issue in American society because it is related to goals of reducing dependency on foreign oil sources, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and increasing economic vitality. Many approaches are being pursued to improve the efficiency of passenger vehicles. Vehicle designers are producing lighter and more aerodynamic vehicles, more efficient gasoline engines, new diesel technology, more efficient transmissions, tires with reduced rolling resistance, and hybrid-electric and all-electric powertrains. Vehicle designers, aftermarket providers, and even Internet sites are promoting eco-routing and eco- driving assistants to drivers. Among the technologies or services available are navigation devices to select fuel-efficient routes (manufacturer- or aftermarket-installed), real-time feedback related to instantaneous fuel usage, post-trip estimates of fuel use relative to peers, and so on. Many factors influence actual fuel consumption, including the vehicle design; roadway factors such as grade and pavement; environmental factors including wind, air pressure, and temperature; traffic factors that influence the speed and variability of speed; and the individual driver’s behavior. This study focuses on the individual driver factors. Previous studies of this topic have included studies in which a small number of drivers (typically 20 or less) were asked to drive along fixed routes, using either passenger vehicles (Evans et al., 1979, Lennar, 1995) or heavy vehicles (Ishiguro, 1997). In these and other studies, it has been shown that speed and speed variability—typically due to traffic and traffic control devices—have a significantly greater effect on fuel consumption than have the individual differences between drivers. Another study focused on the impact of an eco-driving aid and used drivers in their own vehicles (Boriboonsomsin, 2009). In this latter study, the differences among the diverse vehicle models prevent insight into quantitative measures of individual driver differences. In this study, use is made of a new data set with a large number of drivers traveling in an unconstrained method for several weeks each. This data set is far greater in scope than any that 1 were found in the literature. Thus, the differences between drivers can be extracted with more confidence. This data set consists of 117 drivers, each driving one of 16 identical instrumented vehicles in a naturalistic setting–that is, using the vehicle as their own, without supervision or instruction. Most of the drivers (103 of 117) drove the vehicles for 36 to 42 days. Seven drivers drove for longer periods–up to 49 days in one case. Seven drivers had a vehicle for less time, with two of those drivers having only 11 and 20 days, respectively, with the vehicle. During the drivers’ travel, continuous data collection was done with an onboard system, capturing fuel use, speed, location, video, and hundreds of other variables. The data set originates from an experiment conducted to study the safety impact and driver acceptance of an integrated set of crash warning devices. The project, Integrated Vehicle-Based Safety System (IVBSS) Field Operational Test, generated an archive of 342,941 kilometers (km) (or 213,139 miles (mi)) of data, with 33,788 liters (L) (or 8,926 gallons (gal)) of fuel consumed (Sayer et al., 2010). The average distance traveled over the 40-day period was 3,175 km (1,973 mi), with drivers traveling as little as 911 km (566 mi) and as much as 8,901 km (5,532 mi). The vehicles were model year 2006 or 2007 Honda Accord SE (V6) with gasoline engines and automatic transmissions, purchased from a dealer. Cosmetic changes involving trim and other details were the only differences between the 2006 and 2007 model years. The fuel flow rate data was collected from the manufacturer’s onboard system that reports to a resolution of 0.2 cc at a frequency of 10 Hz. The drivers included residents of southeast Michigan, a region that includes metropolitan Detroit, suburban areas, and rural areas. The large majority of driving was done in this region, an area of approximately 6,400 square miles of rather flat terrain. Less than 10% of travel was outside this region and included individuals traveling to other areas within Michigan and 12 other states. The drivers were initially contacted using records provided by the Michigan Secretary of State, the licensing agency. Because this data set uses virtually identical vehicles, the effects of individual drivers are easy to isolate. Several reports describe the recruitment and driver- management procedures, including Sayer et al. (2008). The presence of the crash-warning devices is presumed to have little impact on drivers’ use of the vehicles, including their speed and acceleration behaviors. The tested devices issued audio and haptic warnings to drivers and did not include active control of braking or steering. 2 Overall fuel consumption rates of drivers The overall average fuel consumption of each driver was computed by dividing the driver’s total fuel usage by his or her distance traveled. Figure 1 shows a histogram of the average fuel consumption rates of the drivers in this data set. The mean of the individual drivers’ fuel consumption values is 10.1 liters (L) per 100 km (or 4.29 gal per 100 mi). (This is equivalent to 9.90 km/L or 23.6 mi/gal.) The percent difference between the mean and the fuel consumption values for the 10th and 90th percentile drivers are 13 and 16 percent, respectively, of the mean value. Thus, the variation in consumption is substantial. (cid:4)(cid:6) (cid:4)(cid:2) (cid:3)(cid:6) (cid:3)(cid:2) (cid:6) 3 (cid:21)(cid:20)(cid:13)(cid:24)(cid:15)(cid:20)(cid:9)(cid:1)(cid:14)(cid:18)(cid:1)(cid:20)(cid:13)(cid:12)(cid:17)(cid:23)(cid:11) (cid:2) (cid:7) (cid:7)(cid:1)(cid:6) (cid:8) (cid:8)(cid:1)(cid:6) (cid:3)(cid:2) (cid:3)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:6) (cid:3)(cid:3) (cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:1)(cid:6) (cid:3)(cid:4) (cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:1)(cid:6) (cid:3)(cid:5) (cid:10)(cid:15)(cid:22)(cid:13)(cid:20)(cid:21)(cid:1)(cid:19)(cid:13)(cid:20)(cid:1)(cid:3)(cid:2)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:16)(cid:17) Figure 1. Average fuel consumption rates by individual drivers. The variation in overall fuel consumption rates can be attributed to differences in routes, travel times, and driver choices about the speed and pedal behaviors along those routes. Route choices are important because the vehicle efficiency is related to speed when driving at constant speed, as will be shown later. Time spent idling is also a factor. Further variation is likely attributable to relatively small differences in the weight of the payload, i.e., the driver, passengers, cargo, and fuel in the tank. The differences in payload mass are not likely to be more than 70 kg from the average, which is less than 4% of the average mass, thereby contributing no more than a few percent of the overall fuel-consumption variation. Other smaller, random variations affecting efficiency include wind and snow cover. The vehicle and tires themselves were checked between drivers, with tire pressure and wear monitored and tires replaced in some instances. Fuel consumption as a function of speed and acceleration Fuel consumption rates vary considerably with speed, as is well known. For the IVBSS test, the dependence of fuel consumption rate on speed is illustrated in Figure 2, along with the travel exposures at different speeds. This figure was generated by considering the time, fuel use, and travel that was observed in the field test within 1 kph bins. Figure 2 shows that the traces of travel time and the fuel volume consumed share a common shape when plotted against travel speed, with peaks near zero speed (idling), 65 kph (travel on surface streets), and twin peaks between 110 and 120 kph (highway speeds). The distance trace mirrors the travel time trace (except, of course, there is very little travel distance at speeds near zero), and the distance trace is directly proportional to speed. The fuel consumption rate, in liters per 100 km, is also shown using a secondary vertical axis. This curve shows the classic inefficiency of conventional powertrains near zero speed, with increasing efficiency as speed increases, until the consumption rate is 7.44 liters per 100 km at 98 kph, as indicated by the arrow on the figure. (This point equates to 3.18 gal per 100 mi at 61 mph.) As speed increases further, the system becomes less efficient, with rates climbing to about 10 liters per 100 km near 145 kph. The most travel in this field test occurred at 119 kph (or 74 mph). 4 1000 50 900 45 800 40 700 35 600 30 500 25 400 20 300 15 200 10 100 5 5 mk fo s01 ,sretiL ,01x sruoH mk 001 rep sretiL Hours with ignition on Liters consumed 10s of km traveled Liters per 100 km 0 0 0 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 001 011 021 031 041 051 Hours with ignition on Liters consumed 10s of km traveled Liters per 100 km Speed (kph) Figure 2. Travel and fuel consumption as a function of speed. To find the driving modes that consume the majority of fuel, consider Table 1, which shows the percentage of all fuel consumed within 24 bins. These bins each correspond to a range of speeds and a range of accelerations. The speed bins range from a near-zero bin (less than 2.5 kph) to a bin for speeds of over 120 kph. The acceleration bins correspond to significant acceleration (more than 1.05 m/sec2); notable acceleration (between 0.55 and 1.05 m/sec2), approximately constant speed driving (between -0.55 and 0.55 m/sec2), and notable decelerations (less than -0.55 m/sec2). Fuel use in reverse gear accounted for less than 0.5% of all fuel consumed, and is not shown in this table. Table 1 Liters of fuel consumed within speed-acceleration bins. Speed bins (kph) Accelerations 2.5 to 31 to 61 to 90 to over All Mode <2.5 (m/sec2) 3.0 60 90 120 120 speeds Significant more than 0.1% 4.6% 5.2% 1.0% 0.2% 0.1% 11% acceleration 1.05 Notable 0.55 to 1.05 0.1% 1.6% 4.0% 2.3% 0.8% 0.2% 9% acceleration Speed almost -0.55 to 0.55 5.7% 3.3% 10.1% 20.0% 27.9% 10.7% 78% constant Notable less than -0.55 0.2% 1.3% 0.5% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 2% deceleration All modes 6% 11% 20% 23% 29% 11% 100% The following observations are made from Table 1 regarding fuel use in naturalistic driving: • Only 6% of fuel is consumed at very low speeds. (Half of fuel represented in this number is while the vehicle is in “Park” gear, and the other half in “Drive” gear, which may in turn be dominated by time stopped at traffic signals, stop signs, congested roadways, and so on.) • Twenty percent of fuel is consumed during acceleration events. The data show that only 6% of travel distance is accumulated during these acceleration events, so that acceleration events represent particularly high rates of fuel consumption, as expected. Most of that fuel is consumed at lower and moderate speeds; acceleration events above 90 kph account for only 1.3% of all fuel consumed in the test. • Seventy-eight percent of fuel is consumed during times at which the speed is approximately constant. Travel during this type of driving accounts for 88% of all travel distance. • Very little fuel (2%) is consumed during braking operations or non-braking situations in which the acceleration is less than -0.55 m/sec2. 6 Fuel consumption variation among drivers when acceleration is near zero To gain insight into the role of individual driving styles in the variation of fuel consumption, two modes of driving are studied further: • Constant speed travel • Accelerations from rest to a constant speed These modes are selected because they represent the dominant activities that consume fuel. Travel with small accelerations accounts for 78% of all fuel used, and acceleration events consume 20% of all fuel (but account for only 6% of all distance). To study the variation among drivers during constant speed travel, two sets of speed- keeping events are isolated from the field test data. The first set is centered on 98 kph (the most fuel-efficient speed, as stated earlier), and the second set is centered on 119 kph (the most common travel speed). Both sets include periods of steady-state speed-keeping in which the average speed is close to those two speeds (plus or minus 2 kph). Average fuel consumption rates for those events are computed for individual drivers, in order to examine the variation of fuel use across drivers. Each event must last for at least 20 seconds, and only drivers with at least 10 events are considered. A histogram of the individuals’ average rates is shown in Figure 1. The two histograms represent over 16,000 events. Table 1 shows statistics of the individuals’ fuel consumption for the steady-state speed- keeping process. As expected, the higher speed of 119 kph results in a higher fuel consumption rate than that observed at 98 kph. At both speeds, there is significant variation among individual drivers, with the 10th and 90th percentile drivers being about 10% lower and higher, respectively, than the mean value for the events at that travel speed. 7 30 25 20 15 10 5 8 srevirD fo rebmuN 98 kph (most efficient speed) 119 kph (most common speed) 0 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 More Liters per 100 km Figure 3. Individual drivers’ mean fuel consumption rates while driving in speed-keeping mode at 98 and 119 kph. Table 2 Individuals’ mean fuel consumption rates for speed-keeping events (liters / 100 km). Mean of 10th percentile value 90th percentile value Travel Number of Standard individuals’ (and difference (and difference speed events deviation means from mean) from mean) 96 drivers 0.78 5602 8.58 10.65 98 kph 9.52 (8.2% of events (-9.9%) (11.8%) mean) 29.2 hours 95 drivers 0.79 11016 8.82 10.75 119 kph 9.82 (8.1% of events (-10.2%) (9.5%) mean) 47.8 hours Fuel consumption in accelerating-from-rest events Earlier, Table 1 showed that acceleration events associated with at least 0.55 m/sec2 account for 20% of the fuel consumed in drivers’ travel. To understand the variation across drivers in fuel usage for acceleration events, the events were examined to identify a common type of event for which many factors could be held constant. The decision was made to isolate events in which the vehicle was accelerating from rest (or very low speed) to approximately 65 kph, with several restrictions in order to reduce the effects of known and measurable influences. The events were required to have the following attributes: • the initial speed is between 0 and 7 kph, and the final speed is between 60 and 67 kph, • the final speed remains within 4.6 kph for at least 10 seconds, • acceleration was sustained throughout the period from initial speed to the final speed, • no vehicle was ahead to hinder the driver’s choice of speed or acceleration (distance to preceding vehicle must remain at least 40 m away), • the average grade cannot exceed 1%, either uphill or downhill, and • the vehicle is not turning as it accelerates. In addition, the fuel that is consumed is observed over both the acceleration period and a constant speed period that follows, until the total travel distance is 370 m. This distance is that needed for the slowest accelerating events to reach the required final speeds. By including the final, constant-speed period in the analysis, the comparison of events is a fair one that also uses the metric being used throughout this analysis, the volume of fuel consumed per unit distance traveled. Over the entire data set, 1003 events met the criteria above. The fuel consumed varied from 0.041 to 0.099 gal, so that the fuel consumption rate varied from to 11.2 to 26.8 liters per 100 km. A histogram of the rate is shown in Figure 4. 9 (cid:4)(cid:7) (cid:4)(cid:2) (cid:3)(cid:7) (cid:3)(cid:2) (cid:7) 10 (cid:26)(cid:25)(cid:17)(cid:29)(cid:19)(cid:25)(cid:12)(cid:1)(cid:18)(cid:23)(cid:1)(cid:25)(cid:17)(cid:15)(cid:21)(cid:28)(cid:14) (cid:3)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:1)(cid:16)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:29)(cid:17)(cid:25)(cid:26) (cid:3)(cid:2)(cid:2)(cid:5)(cid:1)(cid:17)(cid:29)(cid:17)(cid:22)(cid:27)(cid:26) (cid:2) (cid:3)(cid:6) (cid:3)(cid:6)(cid:1)(cid:7) (cid:3)(cid:7) (cid:3)(cid:7)(cid:1)(cid:7) (cid:3)(cid:8) (cid:3)(cid:8)(cid:1)(cid:7) (cid:3)(cid:9) (cid:3)(cid:9)(cid:1)(cid:7) (cid:3)(cid:10) (cid:3)(cid:10)(cid:1)(cid:7) (cid:3)(cid:11) (cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:1)(cid:7) (cid:13)(cid:19)(cid:27)(cid:17)(cid:25)(cid:26)(cid:1)(cid:24)(cid:17)(cid:25)(cid:1)(cid:3)(cid:2)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:20)(cid:21) Figure 4. Individuals’ fuel consumption rates during accelerating-from-rest events. The events were then grouped by individual driver, and an average consumption rate was computed for each driver by averaging the fuel consumed (milliliters) for that driver’s acceleration events. If there were at least three events for a driver, then the driver was included in a study set representing 101 of the drivers. The statistics of that study set are shown in Table 3. The mean of the individuals’ means is 16.62 liters per 100 km traveled, with a standard deviation of 1.46 liters per 100 km. The driver averages corresponding to the 10th and 90th percentile for the study set are 7% below and 10% above the mean, respectively. This variation is slightly less than that for speed keeping. This may be due to the fact that the acceleration events were limited to relatively flat roads (average grade less than 1%), while the speed-keeping events were not. Table 3 Individuals’ mean fuel consumption rates for acceleration-from-rest events (liters per 100 km). Mean of 10th percentile value 90th percentile value Number of Standard individuals’ (and difference from (and difference from events deviation means mean) mean) 1.46 101 drivers 15.40 18.29 16.62 (8.8% of 1003 events (-7.4%) (10.0%) mean) 11 Conclusions Fuel consumption rates were studied from a naturalistic driving data set employing a fleet of identical passenger vehicles with gasoline engines and automatic transmissions. One hundred and seventeen drivers traveled a total of over 342,000 kilometers (213,000 miles), unsupervised, using one of the experiment’s instrumented test vehicles as their own. Continuous monitoring of hundreds of data signals, including fuel flow rate, provides a unique data set of driving behavior with a common vehicle. The main findings are as follows: (1) A substantial variation in the overall fuel consumption rate was observed. The average fuel consumption rate for the individuals was 10.1 liters per 100 km (equivalent to 23.6 mpg). The differences between the mean consumption rate and the fuel consumption rates for the 10th and 90th percentile drivers were 13 and 16 percent, respectively, of the mean value. (2) Seventy eight percent of the fuel consumed occurred during times when the acceleration or deceleration did not exceed 0.55 m/sec2 (i.e., at constant speed travel). Twenty percent of fuel consumed occurs during those relatively short durations in which acceleration exceeds positive 0.55 m/sec2. The remaining two percent of fuel is used while the vehicle is decelerating or accelerating only slightly. (3) The differences between the 10th and 90th percentiles and the mean for both speed- keeping events and accelerating-from-rest events were up to 10 percent. While some of the obtained variation in fuel economy is likely due to uncontrolled or unmeasured factors, such as passenger and fuel weight, and wind, the data imply that the behavior of real-world drivers adds significant variation to fuel consumption rates. The present findings suggest the possibility of substantial potential gains in real-world efficiencies through modification of driver behavior itself (e.g., through training), or for electronic modulation technology between the driver’s foot and the throttle to modify a relatively wasteful driver into a more efficient one. 12 References Boriboonsomsin, K., Vu, A., and Barth, M. (2009). Eco-driving: pilot evaluation of driver behavior changes among U.S. drivers (Working paper 1595386). Riverside, CA: University of California Transportation Center. Evans, L. (1979). Driver behavior effects on fuel consumption in urban driving. Human Factors, 21(4), 389-398. Ishiguro, S. (1997). Heavy-duty truck fuel economy test in actual road traffic (SAE Technical Paper 973183). Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. Lenner, M. (1995). Measurement by on-board apparatus of passenger car’s real-world exhaust emissions and fuel consumption (Report No. 771A). Linkoping, Sweden: Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute. Sayer, J., LeBlanc, D,. Bogard, S., Hagan, M., Sardar, H., Buonarosa, M. L., and Barnes, M. (2008). Integrated Vehicle-Based Safety Systems field operational test plan (Report No. DOT HS 811 058). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Transportation. Sayer, J., Bogard, S., Buonarosa, M. L., LeBlanc, D., Funkhouser, D., Bao, S., Blankespoor, A., and Winkler, C. (2010). Integrated Vehicle-Based Safety Systems light vehicle field operational test methodology and results report (Report No. UMTRI-2010-30). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute. 13"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Review on the effect of electromagnetic flux density, confirming that the magnetic field is essential for hydrocarbon chain realignment and ionization, which promotes complete reaction with oxygen.", "fr_vulgarise": "L'utilisation de champs électromagnétiques pour ioniser le carburant et améliorer l'efficacité est une technologie clé."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH © 2010, Science Huβ, http://www.scihub.org/AJSIR ISSN: 2153-649X doi:10.5251/ajsir.2010.1.3.527.531 The effect of electromagnetic flux density on the ionization and the combustion of fuel (An economy design project) 1Engr. Okoronkwo C. A , 2Engr. Dr. Nwachukwu, C.C, 3Engr. Dr. Ngozi –Olehi L.C and 4Engr. Igbokwe, J.O 1Department Of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State. E-MAIL: [email protected] Phone: 08035448120 2Lecturer, Department of Project Management Technology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State. GSM; 08033289740, E-Mail [email protected] 3Deparment of Chemistry, Alvan Ikoku Federal College Of Education ,Owerri E-Mail: [email protected], 08030886970 4Department of Mechanical Engineering Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State. 08037757484 ABSTRACT A comprehensive experimental study on the effect of electromagnetic field on the ionization and combustion of fuel in an internal combustion engine is presented. The major aim is for the user economy and environmental friendly especially as it may affect climate change. The experimental set up consist a HGA 200 computerized exhaust gas analyzer, one cylinder 4 stroke engine, a copper wire wound round a hollow cylindrical rod which is connected to a DC 12 V battery. The exhaust product was channeled to the HGA 200 for proper analysis of the exhaust constituent .The set up was allowed to run for one hour without the electromagnetic device to serve as a base line for comparison. Series of test runs were conducted using the device along the fuel line of the engine. Results obtained during the test, gave a 50% reduction in the hydrocarbon constituent of the exhaust product in PPM and 35% reduction in the carbon monoxide. These results clearly indicate that the introduction of an electromagnetic field within the fuel line of an I.C engine enhances the combustion process thereby economizing fuel consumption and reducing gas emission making it environmental friendly engine. They study suggest that the materials for the inlet manifold and the top cylinder of the engine be made from a magnetic material. This will create a permanent magnet around the combustion chamber for proper mixing and the burning of the fuel. Keywords: ionization, exhaust gas analyzer, emission control, economic design project etc. INTRODUCTION hydrocarbon have long branched geometric chains of carbon atom, which have tendency to fold over unto For many years, researchers tried to design which a themselves and on adjoining molecules due to combustion system has low air pollution through intermolecular electromagnetic attraction existing completely combustion hydrocarbon. Various between them. Fuel molecules have tendency to techniques, such as air-fuel mixing, ignition, interlock with other compounds temporally forming temperature controlling combustion chamber and pseudo-compounds, subjecting these pseudo- catalyst that have been developed, are not able to compound to magnetic field of appropriate strength completely resolve the problems yet [1]. Low and direction tends to un-cluster the molecular efficiency of combustion heat, unburned fuel and air grouping resulting in a reduction of fluid viscosity at pollution (like CO, NOx, SOx and shoot) are still the macroscopic levels, hence proper mixing, and the problem now. It is caused by which some aspects are reduction in the delay period of combustion ensues. not explored yet, they are Van der Waals applied a magnetic field to fuel molecules and found out that the viscosity of the fuel The concept of exposing fuel molecules to magnetic decreases with the application of the field and field dates back to J.D Van-der Waals and his consequently an increase in the flow rate of the fuel. experiments in the field. It is well know that This is because all substances according to faraday Am. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 2010, 1(3): 527-531 are affected by a magnetic field though; in most present work aims to provide experimental data to cases, this influence may be insignificant. Fuel prove that magnetic field affects the fuel combustion molecules subjected to external magnetic field, are of internal combustion engines. As cited in numerous usually excited, which in turn causes mole scientific reports the principle causes of Global reorientation in order to accommodate the applied Warming are worldwide increases in carbon dioxide external magnetic field [2]. The above phenomenon (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane, water vapor, is attributed to the fact that on the molecular level, a CFCs, and ozone. Highway vehicles are estimated to spinning electron subjected to a precise amount of constitute 77% of the total Green House Gas (GHG) electromagnetic energy absorbs that energy and emissions for the United States by mobile sources spin-flip into an aligned state. The present study and an equal percentage can be extrapolated to became imperative because of the inherent pollution other regions using this form of emissions reduction. to the environment due incomplete combustion of It is interesting to note, according to Hal Campbell[6] fuel. In this paper, the authors sought to investigate ,that the from 1990 to 2001, GHG (Green House the effect of electromagnetic field on the combustion Gas) for the United States, as a result of mobile process. sources of related emissions, increased by 24.3%, from 1,172 to 1,456 (Gg). This increases in GHG Electromagnetic field and emission control: emissions comes despite the fact that from 1990 to Vehicles contribute to the pollution of the 2001, CO emissions from mobile combustion in the environment from several sources such as the U.S. have decreased from 98,328 to 66, 857 (Gg), unburned HC coming from the fuel tank, the exhaust and NOx emissions have declined by 5.746 to 3.942 from the product of combustion. This produces CO, (Gg). Even with these reductions, Green House Gas CO 2 , NO X and particulates into the atmosphere. emissions have risen by 24.3 percent. A strong When these pollutants are in place, an atmospheric correlation between the use of catalytic converters as phenomenon called smog is created by the action of a source of emissions control as measured by the sunlight on hydrocarbon (HC) in the atmosphere, and mean number of vehicles equipped with such the main source of HC is the exhaust gases of motor technology, as compared to increases in GHG is vehicles, the rapid increase in traffic causes the evident. So to, is the relationship that exists in increase in the percentage of smog. Several elevating GHG emissions and mean global approaches has been adopted to control exhaust temperatures. The use of catalytic converters in emission to a manageable extent, some of these passenger cars, light trucks, and heavy-duty trucks includes, increasing the air /fuel ratio, and re- since 1973 to present times has seen a complete circulating part of the exhaust gas through the reversal, from practically no such devices being used cylinder, reduces CO and HC output ,controls NOx in 1973 to nearly all vehicles manufactured being but does not improve the fuel consumption efficiency. equipped with these devices today. Clearly the explanation for the global increase in GHG emissions Nevertheless, the most contributing factor for the is multivariate in nature and due (partly) to the discharge of HC, CO and NOx to the atmosphere is aggregate effect of a variety of variables that include the excessive introduction of clustered fuel molecules (a) an increase in vehicle miles driven annually, (b) into the combustion chamber within a short period. an increase in the number of vehicles produced The above, leads to a situation where the fuel particle annually, but also and perhaps most significantly to passes through the combustion chamber un-burnt, (c) the percentage of vehicles now in use equipped thereby releasing the CO, HC, and NOx constituent with catalytic converters. [4] of the exhaust product into the atmosphere. Efforts to reduce this abnormality lead to the introduction of To further mitigate the effect of global warming canister and catalytic converters along the exhaust caused by the use of catalytic converters, it has been line to reduce exhaust pollution. For newer vehicles, discovered that treatment of fuels by short pulse problems of exhaust pollution has reduced to the magnetic field, prior to combustion, can affect lowest minimum, but for older vehicles this problem changes in the molecular structure of crude oil and still exist especially in the developing countries[3]. derivative fuels, thereby resulting in a decrease in surface tension and favorable alteration in viscosity Several US patents have shown that magnetic field levels. Nelson Saksono [5], in his study on the can improve complete combustion, but most of these influence of Magnetization on the thermal efficiency claims are intuitively based without any strong of kerosene pressurized stove, discovered that, experimental data to support their validity. The 528 Am. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 2010, 1(3): 527-531 magnetization can increase the thermal efficiency of provide a practical method by which to lower the kerosene pressurized stove. Subsequently, the volume of unburned gases requiring incineration by process of exposing fuel to electric or magnetic fields catalytic converter. subsequent to carburetion or fuel injection and just prior to combustion, can enhance the combustion MATERIALS AND METHODS process thereby increasing the exposure of fuel molecules so that oxygen molecules can bond with The experimental set up is consist of digital exhaust more individual fuel molecules. This enhanced level gas analyzer, a one cylinder 4 stroke Imex 160 of combustion, results in more fuel molecules, per engine, battery, stop watch etc. These components cluster, and subsequently lessening the amount of are connected together see fig 1. At the beginning, 4 unburned fuel from the engine. This enhanced litres of fuel was fed into the engine tank and the combustion process also decreases the amount of engine was allowed to run for one hour. The essence unburned fuel waste requiring incineration by the of using a measured amount of fuel is to establish an catalytic converter. Such an increase in engine assessment criterion, which will serve as a baseline effectiveness also results in improved gas mileage, for comparison with and without the electromagnetic because more particles of fuel (per cluster) are being device. After the first one hour, the exhaust tail pipe combusted, thereby requiring fewer clusters of fuel by was connected to the gas analyzer with a transparent the engine, per mile of travel. Since CO2 is a natural flexible hose. The exhaust constituent measured by-product of the incineration of CO, the only includes the HC, CO and CO2. The analyzer effective way to reduce the production of this GHG is presents the HC constituent in Parts per Million to incinerate less CO. Additionally, since N O is a (PPM).The CO was measured in percentage 2 composition. The readings were taken at 5 minutes natural by-product of incineration of NO , the only X intervals. Two sets of experiments were carried out way to reduce the production of this GHG is also to one with the device and the other without the device. incinerate less NO . [6] X Magnetic and electric treatment of fuels prior to combustion can serve to achieve this objective and Fig 1. Experimental set up 529 Am. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 2010, 1(3): 527-531 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The experimental results for the present study are presented in fig 2-5 (see appendix). Fig 2 shows the HC constituents measured by the exhaust gas analyzer without the magnetic device. This figure serves as a baseline for comparison between the introduction of the magnet device, and when it is not in use. The reason for the present study is to evaluate the appropriateness of the device to reduce tailpipe emission. The evaluation of the difference between the data collected will serve as a yardstick for comparison. Fig 3 is the emission of CO with the device in place. Fig 4 is the comparison between the HC emitted with and without the device; a closer look shows at all Fig 3 Showing the CO constituent without the time that the emission without the device is higher device than with the device. This is a clear indication that magnetic field effects the combustion of fuel. Similarly, in fig 5, the variation between the CO emitted with and without the device, shows a similar trend like the HC constituent in fig 4. By using the mean deviation analysis, a 50% reduction in the HC was obtained, while 35% reduction was obtained for the CO constituent. Fig 4 comparison of HC with and without device Fig 2 showing the HC constituent without the device Fig 5 showing the comparison between CO with and without the device 530 Am. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 2010, 1(3): 527-531 CONCLUSION: REFERENCES This present work has shown that complete [1]. Mundimex. Inc , Hydrocarbon Fuel Research Div & combustion of fuel may be obtained using a magnetic Publish USA 1997;http://www. undi.com field around the fuel line of an internal combustion [2]. Ki Hoon Song, Pratyush Nag, LitzingerA T and Daniel engine. It is scientific way of reducing fuel intake in C, Effects of oxygenated additives on aromatic species an engine design project, making it fuel economy and in fuel rich, premixed ethane combustion, Combustion reducing the rate of gas emission to the environment and Flame, Volume 135, Issue 3, November 2003, from engine combustion. The result from the Pages 341-349 experiment described in this paper, shows that the [3]. Okoronkwo C. A ,Okoro ,D , Osuala ,P(2007) The fuel consumption of the engine used for the same Effect Of Electromagnetic Field On Combustion Of period are not the same. At the end of the three Fuel ( Final Year Project Work Mechanical Engineering hours that this experiment lasted, the amount of fuel Department Federal University Of Technology, Owerri remaining in the tank were not the same though they ,Nigeria). were at the beginning. This paper concludes by [4] United States Environmental Protection Agency, suggesting that both the inlet manifold and the top Methodology for Estimating Emissions of CH4, N2O, cylinder be made of magnetic material in future and Criteria Pollutants from Mobile Combustion, Annex engine design projects. E, 2001 [5] Nelson Saksono (2005) Magnetizing Kerosene For Increasing Combustion Efficiency JURNAL TEKNOLOGI, Edisi No. 2, Tahun XIX, Juni 2005, 155- 162 ISSN 0215-1685 [6] (Save the World Air Inc., 2001) 531"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Patent describing a magnetic device for fuel treatment (Gasoline, Diesel, LPG, CNG) using magnets positioned in repulsion (\"repulsion constraint\") to maximize flux and effect on hydrocarbons.", "fr_vulgarise": "Brevet sur une configuration d'aimants créant une \"contrainte d'éloignement\" (répulsion) pour une combustion plus efficace."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "(12) DEMANDE INTERNATIONALEPUBLIEE EN VERTUDU TRAITE DE COOPERATION ENMATIÈREDEBREVETS (PCT) (19) Organisation MondialedelaPropriété Intellectuelle Bureau international (43) Datedelapublication internationale (10) Numéro depublication internationale PCT 30 avril 2009 (30.04.2009) WO 2009/053559 A2 (51) Classificationinternationaledesbrevets: AT,AU,AZ,BA,BB,BG,BH,BR,BW,BY,BZ,CA,CH, F02M27/04(2006.01) CN,CO,CR,CU,CZ,DE,DK,DM,DO,DZ,EC,EE,EG, ES, FI, GB, GD, GE,GH, GM, GT,HN,HR, HU, ID, IL, (21) Numéro de la demande internationale : IN, IS, JP,KE, KG, KM, KN, KP,KR, KZ, LA, LC, LK, PCT/FR2008/001174 LR, LS, LT,LU, LY,MA, MD, ME, MG, MK, MN, MW, (22) Datededépôtinternational : 6août2008 (06.08.2008) MX,MY,MZ,NA,NG,NI,NO,NZ,OM,PG,PH,PL,PT, RO,RS,RU,SC,SD,SE,SG,SK,SL,SM,ST,SV,SY,TJ, (25) Languededépôt: français TM,TN,TR,TT,TZ,UA,UG,US,UZ,VC,VN,ZA,ZM, (26) Languedepublication : français ZW (30) Donnéesrelativesàlapriorité : (84) États désignés (sauf indication contraire, pour tout titre 0705826 10août2007 (10.08.2007) FR deprotection régionale disponible) : ARIPO (BW, GH, GM, KE, LS, MW, MZ, NA, SD, SL, SZ, TZ, UG, ZM, (71) Déposantet ZW), eurasien (AM,AZ,BY,KG,KZ,MD,RU,TJ,TM), (72) Inventeur : BARONJackie-Jean [FR/FR]; 6bisAvenue européen (AT,BE,BG, CH,CY,CZ,DE,DK,EE,ES,FT, Debrousse, F-69005 Lyon (FR). FR,GB,GR,HR,HU,IE,IS,IT,LT,LU,LV,MC,MT,NL, (74) Mandataire : MARTIN, Didier; CABINET DIDIER NO,PL,PT,RO, SE,SI,SK,TR), OAPI (BF,BJ,CF,CG, MARTIN, 50 Chemin des Verrières, F-69260 Charbon CI,CM, GA,GN,GQ,GW,ML,MR,NE, SN,TD,TG). nières Les Bains (FR). Publiée : (81) Étatsdésignés(saufindicationcontraire,pourtouttitrede — sans rapport de rechercheinternationale, sera republiée protectionnationaledisponible) :AE, AG,AL, AM, AO, dès réceptiondecerapport (54) Title: DEVICE FOR PROCESSING FUEL USING AMAGNETIC FTELD (54) Titre: DISPOSITIF DETRAITEMENT DTJNCARBURANT UTILISANT UNCHAMP MAGNETIQUE (57) Abstract: The invention relates toadevice forprocessing fuel,wherein saiddevice istobeintegrated inafuel supply circuit ofamachine forburning fuelinorder toprovide energy,andcomprises: aduct forsupplying themachine with fuel; atleastafirst andasecondmagnetprovided attheperiphery ofsaidduct,saidfirstandsecondmagnets being located opposite eachotherandone behind theotheralong saidduct,characterised inthatthefirstandsecondmagnets aresituated soastocreateadistance stressofsaid magnets, saidmagnets being maintained inposition byaconstraint means made ofamagnetic-field conducting non-magnetisable material. The invention canbeused indevices forprocessing fuel. [Suitesurlapage suivante] (57) Abrégé: L'inventionconcerneundispositifdetraitementd'uncarburant,leditdispositifétantdestinéàêtreintégrédans un circuit d'alimentation encarburantd'une machine assurant unecombustion ducarburantpourfournir de l'énergie, ledit dispositif comprenant : -unconduit d'alimentation de lamachine encarburant, -au moins unpremier et un deuxième aimants disposés à lapériphérie duditconduit, lesditspremier etdeuxièmeaimantsétantenvis-à-vis etl'underrièrel'autrelelongduditconduit, ca ractérisé ence quelesdits premier et deuxième aimants sontpositionnés de manière àcréerunecontrainte d'éloignement desdits aimants,lesditsaimantsétantmaintenusenpositionparunmoyendecontrainte,réaliséàbased'unmatériauconductibleduchamp magnétiqueetnonmagnétisable. -Dispositifsdetraitementdecarburants. FR2008/001174 DISPOSITIF DE TRAITEMENT D'UN CARBURANT UTILISANT UN CHAMP MAGNETIQUE DOMAINE TECHNIQUE La présente invention se rapporte au domaine technique général des dispositifs de traitement d'un carburant, utilisés notamment dans des machines assurant une combustion du carburant pour fournir de l'énergie, en particulier dans des moteurs de véhicules. La présente invention se rapporte en particulier au domaine technique des dispositifs de traitement d'un carburant, utilisés notamment en vue de réduire l'émission de particules toxiques et/ou d'améliorer le rendement énergétique de machines assurant une combustion du carburant pour fournir de l'énergie, en particulier des moteurs de véhicules. La présente invention concerne un dispositif de traitement d'un carburant, ledit dispositif étant destiné à être intégré dans le circuit d'alimentation en carburant d'une machine assurant une combustion du carburant pour fournir de l'énergie, et comprenant un conduit d'alimentation de la machine en carburant et au moins deux aimants à aimantation axiale disposés en vis-à- vis et à la périphérie dudit conduit. TECHNIQUE ANTERIEURE II est bien connu de l'art antérieur d'utiliser des dispositifs de traitement du carburant et notamment ceux comprenant des aimants. De tels dispositifs sont généralement utilisés pour réduire la consommation des moteurs en carburant et/ou pour limiter les émissions de particules toxiques de ces moteurs. En effet, le champ magnétique créé par des aimants permet notamment de neutraliser la charge électrostatique des molécules, induite par frottement, d'un carburant traversant le champ magnétique, en vue d'améliorer sa compatibilité avec l'oxygène et en conséquence sa combustion. Les émissions de particules toxiques dans l'atmosphère, notamment par les moteurs des véhicules, par les chaudières et par tout type de machines, lors de la combustion d'un carburant, sont l'une des causes principales de la pollution environnementale. Les émissions excessives de particules toxiques sont à associer principalement à une consommation en progression de carburants et à une faible qualité de la combustion du carburant qui conduit à unfaible rendement énergétique de la combustion. En effet, le frottement que subit le carburant lors de sa circulation avant sa combustion entraîne la création de charges électriques négatives au sein du carburant. Le carburant s'oppose alors naturellement à l'oxygène, également chargé négativement, auquel il doit pourtant se mélanger avant sa combustion. Cette opposition de charges réduit bien évidemment l'efficacité de la combustion du carburant et conduit à de nombreuses émissions de particules toxiques et/ou à un rendement énergétique faible du moteur. On a donc cherché à modifier la structure moléculaire des particules du carburant et à modifier sa polarité, par des mesures techniques aussi simples que possible, notamment en faisant passer le carburant dans un champ magnétique. C'est pour ces raisons que l'homme du métier a été amené à considérer les systèmes à flux magnétique de réduction de la pollution. 01174 A cet effet, les dispositifs de l'art antérieur prévoient un tube sur lequel sont fixés des aimants et à l'intérieur duquel circule le carburant. Un tel dispositif est généralement disposé dans le circuit d'alimentation du moteur, de préférence à proximité des chambres à combustion. Le passage du carburant à l'intérieur de ce dispositif permet de maintenir le carburant plus longtemps en contact avec le champ magnétique, augmentant ainsi l'efficacité du traitement, et notamment les modifications de charges souhaitées. C'est d'ailleurs pour cette raison que les dispositifs de l'art antérieur prévoient de disposer plusieurs aimants sur la longueur du tube afin d'augmenter la surface de contact. Toutefois, ces dispositifs de l'art antérieur présentent un certain nombre d'inconvénients. En effet, ils utilisent généralement des aimants à aimantation axiale de faible puissance magnétique, de préférence de type ferrite. Or, ce type d'aimants limite l'efficacité du dispositif puisque le champ magnétique créé est de faible puissance et conduit en conséquence à un faible traitement du carburant. De surcroît, les dispositifs de l'art antérieur ne permettent pas une concentration du champ magnétique. Au contraire, ces dispositifs connaissent déjà des pertes non négligeables de flux magnétiques. EXPOSE DE L'INVENTION L'invention a en conséquence pour objet de remédier aux différents inconvénients énumérés précédemment et de proposer un nouveau dispositif de traitement du carburant comprenant des aimants et capable de réduire la consommation en carburant d'une machine de manière simple et efficace. Un autre objet de l'invention vise à proposer un nouveau dispositif de traitement du carburant simple à mettre en œuvre et efficace dans la réduction des émissions de particules toxiques lors de la combustion du carburant. Un autre objet de l'invention vise à proposer un nouveau dispositif de traitement du carburant pouvant être fabriqué facilement àgrande échelle. Un autre objet de l'invention vise à proposer un nouveau dispositif de traitement du carburant facile à mettre en place dans une machine utilisant un carburant pour produire de l'énergie. Un autre objet de l'invention vise à proposer un nouveau dispositif de traitement du carburantfabriqué à partir de matériaux facilement disponibles. Un autre objet de l'invention vise à proposer un nouveau dispositif de traitement du carburant efficace et compatible avec différents types de carburant pour véhicules ou machines. Les objets assignés à l'invention sont atteints à l'aide d'un dispositif de traitement d'un carburant, ledit dispositif étant destiné à être intégré dans un circuit d'alimentation en carburant d'une machine assurant une combustion du carburant pour fournir de l'énergie, et ledit dispositif comprenant : - un conduit d'alimentation de la machine en carburant, - au moins un premier et un deuxième aimants disposés à la périphérie dudit conduit, lesdits premier et deuxième aimants étant en vis-à-vis et l'un derrière l'autre le long dudit conduit, caractérisé en ce que lesdits premier et deuxième aimants sont positionnés de manière à créer une contrainte d'éloignement desdits aimants, lesdits aimants étant maintenus en position par un moyen de contrainte réalisé à base d'un matériau conductible du champ magnétique et non magnétisable. DESCRIPTIF SOMMAIRE DES DESSINS D'autres particularités et avantages de l'invention apparaîtront et ressortiront plus en détails à la lecture de la description faite ci-après, en référence aux dessins annexés donnés à titre purement illustratif et non limitatif, dans lesquels : - la figure 1 illustre, selon une vue générale éclatée en perspective, une portion d'un dispositif de traitement du carburant conforme à un premier mode de réalisation de l'invention. - la figure 2 illustre, selon une vue schématique en perspective, une portion d'un dispositif de traitement du carburant conforme à un premier mode de réalisation de l'invention. - la figure 3 illustre, selon une vue schématique de face, un dispositif de traitement du carburant conforme à un premier mode de réalisation de l'invention. - la figure 4 illustre, selon une vue schématique en perspective, une portion d'un dispositif de traitement du carburant conforme à un deuxième mode de réalisation de l'invention. - la figure 5 illustre, selon une vue schématique en perspective, un dispositif de traitement du carburant conforme à l'invention. 74 6 MEILLEURE MANIERE DE REALISER L'INVENTION Le dispositif de traitement du carburant 1conforme à l'invention est destiné à être intégré dans un circuit d'alimentation en carburant d'une machine assurant une combustion du carburant pour fournir de l'énergie. On entend par « carburant » au sens de l'invention, un combustible qui alimente un moteur ou une machine. De manière préférentielle, le terme « carburant» inclut selon l'invention non seulement des carburants d'origine fossile mais également des carburants non fossiles issus de la biomasse. De manière préférentielle, on peut utiliser de l'essence et du supercarburant mais aussi du gas-oil. Alternativement, on peut utiliser tout autre carburant d'origine fossile, de préférence une essence avec différents taux d'octane, un GPL, un fioul, un kérosène, un GNV, un Iso-octane, un Iso-heptane ou tout autre carburant d'origine non fossile, de préférence des biocarburants. Conformément à l'invention, on entend par « machine » tout instrument capable d'utiliser la combustion du carburant pour fabriquer de l'énergie. L'énergie fournie par la machine peut être de différente nature ; il s'agit préférentiellement d'énergie mécanique. Avantageusement, le dispositif 1 de l'invention est destiné au traitement du carburant utilisé pour une machine du type moteur de véhicule. Le dispositif de traitement du carburant 1conforme à l'invention est constitué d'un conduit d'alimentation 2 qui représente la pièce centrale dudit dispositif 1. Le conduit d'alimentation 2 est positionné en amont de la zone de combustion du carburant, préférentiellement à proximité de la zone de combustion du carburant dans un moteur de véhicule. Le conduit d'alimentation 2 est de section et de taille quelconque, de préférence de section circulaire. Toute autre section, notamment une section carrée, rectangulaire, de géométrie complexe, pourra être avantageusement envisagée sans sortir du cadre de la présente invention. Le dispositif de traitement du carburant 1conforme à l'invention est constitué également d'au moins un premier et un deuxième aimants 5. Conformément à l'invention lesdits au moins un premier et un deuxième aimants 5 sont disposés à la périphérie dudit conduit 2, lesdits premier et deuxième aimants étant en vis-à-vis et l'un derrière l'autre le long dudit conduit d'alimentation 2. De manière préférentielle, lesdits premier et deuxième aimants sont disposés selon une même direction parallèle à l'axe d'extension principale dudit conduit 2. Les aimants 5 sont disposés à la périphérie du conduit d'alimentation 2. De manière préférentielle, les aimants 5 sont disposés dans au moins deux gorges 3 situées en périphérie du conduit d'alimentation 2, lesdites gorges s'étendant par exemple longitudinalement le long de l'axe d'extension principal dudit conduit 2 et permettant de maintenir les aimants 5 en position stable sur le conduit d'alimentation 2. De manière préférentielle, lesdites au moins deux gorges 3 ont une forme adoptant sensiblement la forme desdits aimants 5. De manière préférentielle, lesdites gorges 3 ont chacune deux côtés 3A formant préférentiellement une sorte de gouttière dans laquelle les aimants 5 sont insérés, tel qu'illustré à la figure 1. Préférentiellement, le dispositif comprend entre 2 et 8 gorges, contenant chacune au moins deux aimants 5. De manière alternative, il est également envisageable de disposer les aimants 5en périphérie du conduit d'alimentation 2 par tout moyen autre que les gorges 3, sans sortir du cadre de l'invention, et par exemple à l'aide d'encoches ponctuelles disposées sur le conduit d'alimentation 2 à sa périphérie ou à l'aide d'un matériau adhésif maintenant les aimants 5 fixés à la périphérie dudit conduit 2. De manière préférentielle, on peut utiliser un 800H74 8 deuxième conduit 8 recouvrant le conduit d'alimentation 2 et maintenant les aimants 5 à la périphérie du conduit d'alimentation 2. Conformément à l'invention, lesdits au moins un premier et un deuxième aimants 5 sont positionnés de manière à créer une contrainte d'éloignement entre lesdits aimants 5. En d'autres termes, lesdits premier et deuxième aimants 5 sont préférentiellement disposés de manière à ce qu'ils s'éloignent l'un de l'autre. De manière connue en soi, les aimants 5 subissent une contrainte d'opposition préférentiellement au niveau de leurs extrémités 5B. Conformément à l'invention, lesdits premier et deuxième aimants 5 sont maintenus en position par un moyen de contrainte 6. De manière préférentielle, le moyen de contrainte 6 permet de maintenir à la périphérie du conduit d'alimentation 2 lesdits premier et deuxième aimants 5 qui sont soumis à une contrainte magnétique d'éloignement. Avantageusement, le moyen de contrainte 6 maintient en position relative deux desdits aimants 5 l'un par rapport à l'autre. Le principe général qui sous-tend l'invention repose donc sur l'idée d'utiliser un moyen de contrainte 6 pour maintenir à la périphérie d'un conduit d'alimentation 2 au moins un premier et un deuxième aimants 5, une contrainte d'éloignement s'exerçant au niveau de leurs extrémités 5B. Le moyen de contrainte 6 est réalisé à base d'un matériau conductible du champ magnétique et non magnétisable. De préférence, au sens de l'invention, un matériau non magnétisable est un matériau qui ne devient pas un aimant au contact d'un champ magnétique. De manière préférentielle, le dispositif de traitement d'un carburant de l'invention comprend au moins un troisième aimant disposé à la périphérie du conduit d'alimentation. Lesdits premier, deuxième et troisième aimants 74 sont positionnés avantageusement de manière à créer une contrainte d'éloignement entre ledit premier et ledit troisième aimant et/ou entre ledit deuxième et ledit troisième aimant, ladite contrainte d'éloignement s'exerçant selon une direction sensiblement perpendiculaire à l'axe d'extension principale du conduit d'alimentation. En d'autres termes, les aimants 5 sont positionnés le long du conduit 2 de manière à subir une contrainte d'éloignement selon une première direction sensiblement parallèle à l'axe d'extension principale du conduit 2 mais aussi selon une deuxième direction sensiblement perpendiculaire à l'axe d'extension principale du conduit 2. Le moyen de contrainte 6 permet de maintenir en position les aimants s'éloignant selon une direction sensiblement parallèle à l'axe d'extension principale du conduit 2. De manière avantageuse, le moyen de contrainte 6 est interposé librement entre lesdits aimants 5. En d'autres termes et comme illustré aux figures 1 à4, le moyen de contrainte 6 est de préférence un élément libre que l'on dispose entre deux aimants 5 et qui ne comporte pas ou n'est pas associé à des moyens de fixation spécifiques. De manière avantageuse, le moyen de contrainte 6 est un élément indépendant du conduit d'alimentation 2 et des aimants 5. Conformément à l'invention, le moyen de contrainte 6 est préférentiellement en fer pur ou en mu-métal (alliage de nickel et de fer). De manière alternative, le moyen de contrainte 6 peut être en tout autre matériau ou alliage de matériaux conductible d'un champ magnétique et non magnétisable, sans pour autant que l'on sorte du cadre de l'invention. Préférentiellement, le moyen de contrainte 6 est une plaque 6A. Au sens de l'invention, la plaque 6A est de préférence une pièce sensiblement plate d'épaisseur variable, interposée entre deux aimants 5. Ladite plaque 6A FR2008/001174 10 permet avantageusement de rapprocher les aimants 5 et de les rendre solidaires les uns des autres. Ladite plaque 6A est de préférence de forme identique à la section des aimants 5 entre lesquelles elle est interposée. Par exemple, elle peut être de forme rectangulaire, de forme carrée ou de toute autre forme géométrique. Il est bien connu que le maintien d'aimants en opposition dégrade leurs propriétés magnétiques, leur puissance et peut à terme les détruire complètement. Dans la présente invention, de manière préférentielle, ladite plaque 6A présente l'avantage de rapprocher les aimants 5 alors qu'ils sont en opposition magnétique, tout en préservant la puissance et les propriétés magnétiques desdits aimants 5. Avantageusement, la plaque 6A a une épaisseur comprise entre sensiblement 0,2 mm et 1 mm, de préférence entre sensiblement 0,3 mm et 0,5 mm, de manière préférée sensiblement égale à 0,4 mm. Conformément à l'invention, les aimants 5 ont de préférence une forme parallélépipédique et les extrémités 5B des aimants maintenues par le moyen de contrainte 6 ont une section sensiblement identique entre eux, et de préférence identique à la forme de la plaque 6A. Les extrémités 5B des deux aimants 5 qui s'opposent sont préférentiellement disposées les unes enface des autres. Tel que cela est illustré aux figures 1à 3, selon un premier mode préférentiel de réalisation de l'invention, les aimants 5 sont insérés dans au moins une première et une deuxième gorges 3 situées à la périphérie du conduit d'alimentation 2, lesdites première et deuxième gorges 3 étant disposées l'une en face de l'autre selon une direction sensiblement perpendiculaire à l'axe d'extension principale dudit conduit 2. Lesdits aimants 5 de l'invention contiennent préférentiellement du néodyme, de préférence un mélange de néodyme, de fer et de bore. Au sens de l'invention, le néodyme est utilisé pour obtenir de manière avantageuse des aimants permanents de très forte puissance magnétique, communément appelés des « aimants néodyme ». En d'autres termes, l'intensité du champ magnétique produit par un aimant contenant du néodyme ou un mélange néodyme-fer-bore est plus grande que celle d'un aimant classique de type ferrite, utilisé dans les dispositifs de traitement d'un carburant de l'art antérieur. De manière préférée, l'intensité d'un champ magnétique produit par l'aimant contenant le mélange néodyme-fer-bore est de 1,3 Tesla (l'unité dérivée d'induction magnétique du système international) alors qu'elle est de seulement 0,2 à 0,4 Tesla pour l'aimant en ferrite. La force nécessaire pour séparer deux aimants est fonction de l'intensité de leur champ magnétique exprimée en Tesla. Ainsi, il est particulièrement difficile de séparer deux aimants contenant du néodyme, tels que ceux utilisés dans la présente invention. Dans l'exemple illustré aux figures 1 et 2, les aimants 5 sont de forme parallélépipédique et sont disposés dans six gorges 3 à la périphérie du conduit d'alimentation 2, chaque gorge 3 contenant au moins deux aimants 5 maintenus associés par un moyen de contrainte 6 interposé entre lesdits au moins deux aimants 5. Lesdits aimants 5 de forme parallélépipédique sont préférentiellement à aimantation axiale. L'ensemble formé par le conduit d'alimentation 2, les gorges 3, les aimants 5 et le moyen de contrainte 6 peut être maintenu en position à l'aide du conduit 8. Alternativement et comme représenté à la figure 4, sans pour autant sortir du cadre de l'invention, les aimants 5 peuvent être de forme cylindrique et disposés à la périphérie du conduit d'alimentation 2. Dans ce deuxième mode de réalisation, les aimants 5 sont de préférence cylindriques ou R2008/001174 12 hémicylindriques, disposés autour du conduit d'alimentation 2 de manière perpendiculaire à l'axe dudit conduit 2. Dans ce deuxième mode de réalisation de l'invention, les aimants cylindriques sont de préférence à aimantation radiale. De manière préférentielle, le moyen de contrainte 6 est également interposé entre deux aimants cylindriques étant soumis à une contrainte d'opposition. Avantageusement, le moyen de contrainte 6 prend la forme d'une rondelle 6B sensiblement plate intercalée entre lesdits aimants cylindriques positionnés en opposition, tel que cela est illustré à la figure 4. Alternativement, dans le cas où l'on utilise des aimants hémicylindriques, les aimants positionnés en opposition au niveau de leur pôle sont reliés deux à deux par un moyen de contrainte 6, lesdits aimants formant ainsi une paire d'aimant de forme sensiblement identique à la forme d'un aimant cylindrique. Préférentiellement, le moyen de contrainte 6 est une plaque 6C interposée librement entre les deux aimants hémicylindriques, au niveau de leurs pôles en opposition. De préférence, un moyen de contrainte en forme de rondelle 6B est ensuite disposé entre deux paires d'aimants en opposition, l'ensemble formé par les deux paires d'aimants et le moyen de contrainte étant disposé autour du conduit d'alimentation 2. II est bien évidemment envisageable, sans pour autant que l'on sorte du cadre de la présente invention, de disposer une pluralité d'aimants cylindriques et/ou hémicylindriques le long du conduit d'alimentation 2 et de les maintenir en opposition à l'aide d'un ou plusieurs moyens de contrainte 6 tels que des rondelles 6B et/ou des plaques 6C décrites dans ce qui précède. Conformément à l'invention, le conduit d'alimentation 2 est de forme avantageusement tubulaire, de préférence de forme cylindrique. Le T/FR2008/00H74 13 carburant passe à travers ledit conduit d'alimentation 2 au niveau de son centre 4,tel qu'illustré aux figures 1à4. Avantageusement, le conduit d'alimentation 2 est à base d'un matériau non conductible du champ magnétique et non magnétisable, de préférence à base d'une matière plastique, de manière préférentielle à base de polypropylène ou d'aluminium. Ces matériaux présentent l'avantage d'être parfaitement compatibles avec un carburant, ce qui n'est pas le cas du PVC, parfois utilisé dans l'art antérieur et ayant tendance à se dégrader au contact du carburant. Avantageusement, le carburant qui passe à travers le conduit d'alimentation 2 subit une modification de sa charge. Par ailleurs, selon le dispositif de traitement d'un carburant 1, des particules de métal contenues dans un carburant ont tendance à préférentiellement se fixer sur la paroi interne du conduit d'alimentation 2 lors de la circulation du carburant à travers ledit conduit d'alimentation 2. En effet, de manière avantageuse, le dispositif de traitement d'un carburant 1conforme à l'invention joue le rôle de filtre à particules métalliques du carburant, limitant ainsi certains effets négatifs de ces particules dans un moteur utilisant un carburant. Dans un mode de réalisation préféré de la présente invention, le dispositif de traitement d'un carburant 1 comprend préférentiellement au moins un élément 7 permettant de confiner le flux magnétique généré par les aimants 5 vers l'intérieur du dispositif 1 et d'augmenter le maintien desdits aimants 5, ledit élément 7 étant fabriqué dans un matériau conductible du champ magnétique, non magnétisable, et ledit élément 7 recouvrant au moins en partie ledit au moins un aimant ou un groupe d'aimants 5. En outre, ledit au moins un élément 7, tel qu'illustré aux figures 1 à 3, permet avantageusement d'éviter qu'une partie du champ magnétique créé par lesdits aimants 5 ne s'échappe du dispositif de traitement d'un carburant 1 800H74 14 et/ou ne parasite les dispositifs électroniques disposés à proximité du dispositif 1de l'invention. De surcroît, ledit au moins un élément 7 permet avantageusement de concentrer le flux magnétique vers l'intérieur du dispositif de traitement d'un carburant 1pour rendre notamment le traitement du carburant plus efficace. Avantageusement, ledit au moins un élément 7 est en fer pur ou en mu- métal. De manière alternative sans sortir du cadre de l'invention, ledit au moins un élément 7 peut être à base de tout matériau ou alliage de matériau conductible du champ magnétique et non magnétisable. De manière préférentielle, ledit au moins un élément 7 a la forme d'une gouttière, de préférence d'un rail ou d'un capot. Avantageusement, la forme dudit au moins un élément 7 lui permet d'être positionné sur les aimants 5 disposés à la périphérie du conduit d'alimentation 5, de manière à les recouvrir au moins en partie et de les maintenir en place. De manière préférentielle et comme représenté sur la figure 3, ledit élément 7 recouvre en partie les aimants 5, la partie recouverte de l'aimant 5 par l'élément 7 dépassant de la gorge 3. Dans un mode de réalisation préféré de réalisation de la présente invention et tel qu'illustré aux figures 1et 3, le dispositif de traitement d'un carburant 1 comprend préférentiellement également un deuxième conduit 8 qui maintient les aimants 5 recouverts au moins en partie par au moins un élément 7 à la périphérie du conduit d'alimentation 2. Préférentiellement, le deuxième conduit 8 a pour principaux objectifs de maintenir les aimants 5 en position et de protéger le dispositif 1 selon l'invention. De manière avantageuse, le deuxième conduit 8 est réalisé à 74 15 base d'un matériau non conductible du champ magnétique et non magnétisable, de préférence à base de plastique ou d'aluminium, de préférence à base de polypropylène. Le deuxième conduit 8 a avantageusement une section quelconque, de préférence légèrement supérieure à celle du conduit d'alimentation 2 afin que les aimants 5 dudit conduit d'alimentation 2 viennent préférentiellement en butée contre ledit deuxième conduit 8. Le deuxième conduit 8 est avantageusement fermé à ses deux extrémités par des bouchons 9. Lesdits bouchons 9 sont à base d'un matériau non conductible du champ magnétique et non magnétisable, destinés à maintenir fermé le dispositif de traitement d'un carburant 1. Les deux bouchons 9 fermant le dispositif sont traversés par des embouts de liaison 10 permettant de relier le dispositif au circuit d'alimentation en carburant, tel que cela est illustré à la figure 5. Selon un mode de réalisation préférentiel de l'invention, le dispositif de traitement d'un carburant 1 assure préférentiellement la filtration d'un carburant, de préférence de l'essence et du gazole. On entend par filtration d'un carburant, au sens de l'invention, un traitement d'un carburant à travers un champ magnétique en vue notamment de modifier la charge électrostatique des molécules, induite par frottement, d'un carburant le traversant et d'en éliminer les particules métalliques. De manière préférée, le dispositif 1de la présente invention est positionné à proximité de la zone de combustion du carburant de la machine ou du moteur dans lequel il est installé, de manière à optimiser son fonctionnement. En effet, le fonctionnement du dispositif de traitement 1 n'est pas optimisé lorsque ce dernier se trouve éloigné de la zone de combustion, en raison notamment d'une possible nouvelle polarisation du carburant entre le dispositif 1et la zone de combustion. Avantageusement, les caractéristiques de réduction des émissions de particules toxiques et d'amélioration du rendement énergétique des machines équipées avec le dispositif de traitement d'un carburant 1 décrit dans la présente invention ont été testées au cours d'un essai dont le détail est exposé ci-après. TEST Un test a été conduit en janvier 2007 dans un garage de Cessieu (Isère, France) afin de mettre en évidence les propriétés d'un dispositif de traitement d'un carburant selon l'invention. Matériel et méthode Un véhicule de marque ISUZU®, modèle D-Max Crew Cab LS, a été testé. Ce véhicule présente un kilométrage de 36 500 km, un moteur diesel 3 L de cylindrée et n'a subit aucune modification par rapport à la motorisation d'origine. Le véhicule est passé sur le banc de puissance, de type Bosch® FLA 203. La température ambiante lors de l'essai est de 16°C. Un dispositif de traitement d'un carburant selon l'invention équipe le véhicule et est monté sur la durite d'alimentation en carburant juste avant la pompe d'injection du moteur du véhicule testé. Il comprend des aimants à aimantation axiale de type néodyme. La puissance initiale avant le test et sans dispositif de traitement d'un carburant selon l'invention est de 130 ch. Une nouvelle mesure de puissance est prise après la mise en place du dispositif. R2008/001174 17 Deux contrôles d'opacité des gaz d'échappement sont également réalisés par la mesure du coefficient moyen d'absorption, selon la norme NF R10- 0.25 (norme française tiomologuée sur la mesure de l'opacité des gaz d'échappement émis par les moteurs à allumage par compression diesel). Résultats La puissance du véhicule mesurée avec l'utilisation du dispositif selon l'invention est de 149 ch. Le dispositif de traitement d'un carburant de l'invention a donc permis d'augmenter de 19 ch. environ la puissance du moteur duvéhicule testé. Le premier et le deuxième contrôles d'opacité des gaz donnent respectivement 0,05 ppm et 0,05 ppm. Le coefficient moyen d'absorption de 0,05 ppm est sensiblement 10 fois moins important qu'un coefficient moyen d'absorption obtenu sur un véhicule à motorisation équivalente non équipé du dispositif de traitement d'un carburant de l'invention. Le dispositif de traitement d'un carburant selon l'invention a donc eu pour effet de réduire sensiblement par 10 la quantité de particules toxiques émises lors de la combustion du carburant dans un véhicule à motorisation diesel. De surcroît, la puissance du moteur a été améliorée et le dispositif a permis d'augmenter cette puissance de sensiblement 19 ch. Ce test a permis de mettre en évidence les caractéristiques d'un dispositif de traitement d'un carburant contenant unfiltre à aimants néodyme. Cette nouvelle technologie appliquée aux moteurs des véhicules présente de nombreux avantages, notamment celui de modifier la charge électrostatique induite par frottement d'un carburant traversant le filtre pour améliorer la combustion. Cette nouvelle technologie permet également d'améliorer le 01174 18 mélange de l'oxygène avec le carburant avant la combustion et de capter les particules métalliques du carburant pouvant nuire à la qualité de la combustion du carburant. Par ailleurs, ce nouveau dispositif de traitement du carburant permet de réduire l'usure des pièces en mouvement et des injecteurs. Il présente en outre l'avantage de réduire la consommation en carburant du moteur, et ce notamment grâce à un gain de puissance. Ce dispositif de traitement du carburant permet en outre d'élargir la gamme des dispositifs présents sur le marché pour réduire la pollution et/ou améliorer le rendement énergétique des moteurs de véhicules. Cette nouvelle technologie présente également l'avantage de pouvoir s'utiliser dans tous les types de motorisation de véhicule, diesel et essence et sur toutes les machines utilisant un carburant pour produire de l'énergie. En outre, ce nouveau filtre peut être mis en place dans le circuit d'alimentation n carburant de manière simple et rapide sans modifier les caractéristiques constructeur. POSSIBILITE D'APPLICATION INDUSTRIELLE L'invention trouve son application industrielle dans la conception et la fabrication d'un dispositif pour le traitement d'un carburant, en particulier pour le traitement d'un carburant utilisé dans un moteur de véhicule. 74 19 REVENDICATIONS 1- Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1), ledit dispositif (1) étant destiné à être intégré dans un circuit d'alimentation en carburant d'une machine assurant une combustion du carburant pour fournir de l'énergie, ledit dispositif (1) comprenant : - un conduit d'alimentation (2) de la machine en carburant, - au moins un premier et un deuxième aimants (5) disposés à la périphérie dudit conduit (2), lesdits premier et deuxième aimants (5) étant envis-à-vis et l'un derrière l'autre le long dudit conduit (2), caractérisé en ce que lesdits premier et deuxième aimants (5) sont positionnés de manière à créer une contrainte d'éloignement desdits aimants (5), lesdits aimants (5) étant maintenus en position par un moyen de contrainte (6) réalisé à base d'un matériau conductible du champ magnétique et non magnétisable. 2 - Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon la revendication 1 caractérisé en ce qu'il comprend au moins un troisième aimant (5) disposé à la périphérie du conduit d'alimentation (2) et en ce que lesdits premier, deuxième et troisième aimants (5) sont positionnés de manière à créer une contrainte d'éloignement entre ledit premier et ledit troisième aimant (5) et/ou entre ledit deuxième et ledit troisième aimant (5), ladite contrainte d'éloignement s'exerçant selon une direction sensiblement perpendiculaire à l'axe d'extension principale du conduit d'alimentation (2). 3 - Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon la revendication 1 ou 2 caractérisé en ce que ledit moyen de contrainte (6) est interposé librement entre lesdits aimants (5). - Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon l'une des revendications 1 à 3 caractérisé en ce que le moyen de contrainte (6) est en fer pur ou en mu-métal. - Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon l'une des revendications 1 à 4 caractérisé en ce que ledit moyen de contrainte (6) est une plaque (6A). - Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon la revendication 5 caractérisé en ce que ladite plaque (6A) a une épaisseur comprise entre sensiblement 0,2 mm et 1 mm, de préférence entre sensiblement 0,3 mm et 0,5 mm, de manière préférentielle sensiblement égale à 0,4 mm. - Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon la revendication 5 ou 6 caractérisé en ce que lesdits aimants (5) ont une forme parallélépipédique et en ce que les extrémités des aimants (5B) maintenus par le moyen de contrainte (6) ont une section sensiblement identique entre eux, et de préférence identique à la forme de la plaque (6A). - Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon l'une quelconque des revendications 1 à 7 caractérisé en ce que lesdits aimants (5) contiennent du néodyme, de préférence un mélange de néodyme, de fer et de bore. - Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon l'une des revendications 1 à 8 caractérisé en ce que le conduit (2) est de forme tubulaire, de préférence de forme cylindrique. 74 21 0 -Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon l'une quelconque des revendications 1 à 9 caractérisé en ce qu'il comprend au moins un élément (7) permettant de confiner le flux magnétique généré par les aimants (5) vers l'intérieur du dispositif (1) et d'augmenter le maintien desdits aimants (5), ledit élément (7) étant fabriqué dans un matériau conductible du champ magnétique, non magnétisable, et ledit élément (7) recouvrant au moins en partie ledit au moins un aimant (5) ou un groupe d'aimants (5). 11-Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon la revendication 10 caractérisé en ce que ledit au moins un élément (7) est en fer pur ou en mu-métal. 12 -Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant (1) selon la revendication 10 ou 11 caractérisé en ce ledit au moins un élément (7) a la forme d'une gouttière, de préférence d'un rail ou d'un capot. 13 -Dispositif de traitement d'un carburant selon l'une quelconque des revendications 1 à 12 caractérisé en ce qu'il assure la filtration d'un carburant, de préférence de l'essence et du gazole."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Reference study on the effects of a strong permanent magnetic field (2500 Gauss) on CI engine BSFC and emissions, with the objective of improving combustion [129, Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Étude de base sur l'impact de champs magnétiques puissants (2500 Gauss) pour améliorer les performances des moteurs CI."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels, 73(7): 2009-2013; 2025. DOI: 10.18311/jmmf/2025/49144 Print ISSN : 0022-2755 Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels Contents available at: www.informaticsjournals.co.in/index.php/jmmf Optimization of Multi-Cylinder Four-Stroke SI Engine Performance under Magnetic Field Interference Using CNG Fuel Nilesh R. Pawar1,2*, Sanjeev Reddy K. Hudgikar3, Sandeep S. Sarnobat4, Shylesha V. Channapattana5 and Kamalkishor G. Maniyar6 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, VTU, Belagavi - 590018, Karnataka, India 2Department of Mechanical Engineering, PVPIT Bavdhan, Pune - 411021, Maharashtra, India; [email protected] 3Mechanical Engineering Department, Sharnbasva University Kalaburagi - 585103, Karnataka, India 4Department of Mechanical Engineering, D. Y. Patil College of Engineering, Akurdi, Pune - 411044, Maharashtra, India 5Mechanical Engineering Department, KLS, Vishwanathrao Deshpande Institute of Technology, Haliyal -581329, Karnataka, India 6Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology, Pimpri, Pune- 411018, Maharashtra, India Abstract In this work, a permanent magnet creates a strong magnetic field that enhances Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) combustion, which lowers exhaust emissions and improves IC engine performance. The inlet pipe and manifold of the four-stroke S I engine are designed to allow the CNG fuel to flow through magnetic flux. A powerful magnetic flux is influencing the gasoline flow via the pipe. These tests are regularly carried out with various engine loads and Revolutions Per Minute (RPM). It has been noted that the CNG fuel becomes magnetized when exposed to a high magnetic field, which reduces the fuel’s viscosity prior to entering the combustion chamber. Exhaust emissions including incomplete combustion of CNG fuel contain higher levels of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulfur oxides (Sox). Fuel’s robust and stable structure prevents the right quantity of oxygen from being present during combustion, which leads to an excess of carbon molecules, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides being released through exhaust, increasing atmospheric pollution. The steady fuel structure is altered by a strong permanent magnetic flux surrounding the fuel pipe, improving the air-fuel combination and allowing oxygen to fully join with it. Ortho state separated the CNG fuel into fine particles with reduced intermolecular interactions, which improved atomization and allowed for maximal fuel burning. It has been noted that both the observation and the existence of a magnetic field affect the engine’s performance. Major Findings: It was found that the SI Engine reduces air pollution and produces more energy per unit of CNG fuel when fuel is subjected to a strong magnetic impact. According to the overall data, treating CNG fuel with a high magnetic impact increases fuel burning efficiency while reducing fuel consumption and exhaust pollutants. Key words: Fuel Consumption, Fuel Line, Para and Ortho State, Pollutants, Stable Structure, Strong Magnetic Field *Author for correspondence Optimization of Multi-Cylinder Four-Stroke SI Engine Performance under Magnetic Field Interference Using CNG Fuel 1.0 Introduction There are several factors that contribute to atmospheric air pollution, including vehicle exhaust fumes16. The As a result of industrialization and modernization, cause is incorrect fuel burning, which has an impact on there are a growing number of cars in use worldwide in the environment, human health, other living things, and a variety of sectors, necessitating a massive amount of climate change17. There are numerous initiatives being gasoline1 . Both the strong demand and the constant daily made worldwide to improve fuel in order to prevent such increase in consumption are expected. In the upcoming inappropriate burning of fuel in the combustion chamber18. year, meeting the increasing fuel consumption of cars and The results of these efforts include improved combustion, reducing pollution will be extremely challenging2. More decreased emissions, and increased economy. smoke is produced by stationary and automotive engines when they discharge partially burned hydrocarbons (HC), 1.1 Literature Summary carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOx)3. For By aligning the fuel molecules in the Para and Ortho states many years, several research teams have been trying to and creating a strong magnetic field surrounding the fuel improve combustion by various means, such as altering lines of the inlet port, some recent studies19 have shown to the combustion chamber’s design4, changing the engine’s increase fuel efficiency by reducing molecular attraction design , or raising the fuel’s inlet pressure to achieve the and promoting more proper fuel combustion20,21 further highest possible fuel atomization2. lessen smoke from an engine’s exhaust. Fuel particles are The goal of the current research is to improve the widely dispersed in order to combine as much oxygen as environmental character of IC engines while increasing possible with the fuel for optimal combustion22. the efficiency of fuel combustion. The configuration is really small, easy to use, and dependable. Fuel is processed 2.0 Methodology and changed before being added to the IC engine’s combustion chamber5. The goal of the current study is to The IC’s fuel the majority of engines are liquid, and they create a regular magnetic field that is perpendicular to the don’t burn until they atomize. In this experimental setup, fuel flow direction in order to enhance or create a more powerful permanent magnets with an intensity of 2000 laminar fuel flow in the engine’s inlet manifold before it is Gauss are employed. The Maruti Suzuki 800cc water- admitted into the combustion chamber. Such a powerful cooled, three-cylinder, four-stroke Multi Point Fuel magnetic field’s function provides organized constraints Injection (MPFI) CNG engine is being tested. It has a fuel- on combustion performance as well as a way to minimize entering mechanism, a self-governing panel box with a fuel incomplete combustion. container, a digital temperature indicator, a manometer, a According to recent research, the magnetic field may fuel-measuring unit, and an air container. A temperature be beneficial to the fuel burning system’s operation6-9. gauge indicates the temperature of the engine’s hot water exit The fuel molecules that are present in the dipole affect and cooling water input. A rota meter is a tool for measuring how well fuel burns10. The fuel molecules in the dipole the flow of cooling water calorimeters. The system makes it are positively and negatively charged, but they are not possible to evaluate the engine for heat balance, SPA, AFR, correctly aligned or combined with oxygen to allow for Brake Power (BP), Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP), full combustion11,12. and Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE). Fuels for internal combustion engines are typically found in compound form. Due to their positive and 2.1 Experimental Setup negative charges, magnetic field lines can pass through accessible particles with ease (Dipoles).The fuel particle CNG fuel is adequately filled in the fuel tank. Make sure or hydrocarbons must be ionized13 and realigned since, the calorimeter, engine, and hydraulic dynamometer all because such particles have not been realigned, the fuel have proper cooling water circulation. Launch the engine did not energetically interlock with oxygen (O) molecules into its setup and run it at its optimal speed with no load 2 during ignition14. These mechanisms are accomplished by until it reaches a steady state. Five minutes are needed to pre-aligning fuel molecules and ionizing them with the attain the steady state condition. Following that, readings aid of a persistent magnetic field15. were taken on time. When the engine was loaded, increase 2010 Vol 73 (7) | July 2025 | http://www.informaticsjournals.co.in/index.php/jmmf Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels and Kamalkishor G. Maniyar et al., the throttle. Initially, no magnetic field was applied to the Both the amount of fuel used during engine running CNG fuel, and all results were obtained by progressively and the amount left over after it was finished were increasing the load. A powerful permanent magnet is measured. To examine the exhaust gases, a digital exhaust positioned in front of the fuel injectors in the second gas analyzer is supplied. The pollution level of burned configuration. In addition, the magnetic field’s load fuel can be easily checked with the digital gas analyzer. intensity of 2000 Gauss will grow in relation to CNG fuel. Repetition was done three times for the same thing. The For the configuration shown above, every reading was trials where a permanent magnet is installed on the IC recorded. All of the measurements were made using the engine’s fuel time are displayed in Figure. 1. On an engine, identical setups for the whole experimental configuration— observations were made sporadically at 2000, 3000, and that is, applying a magnetic field both with and without 4000 Gauss, respectively. An additional fuel quantity it—as the load decreased. Carbon monoxide (CO) and was measured for every Revolution Per Minute (RPM). hydrocarbons (HC) exhaust gas values were obtained Additionally, measurements were obtained using 2000 in relation to loads, Revolutions Per Minute (RPM), and Gauss magnets. magnet count. Continuous readings were taken under various load and magnetic intensity circumstances. The 3.0 Result and Discussion engine takes a varied amount of time to burn fuel at a given load and RPM. Fuel usage is also recorded at the same time. Strong magnetic flux supplied at the inlet port had an For improved outcomes, each condition was repeated three effect on the fuel burning process employed in the SI times. In addition, exhaust gas temperature is monitored Engine, and its potential effects on exhaust gas were under the various situations previously indicated. noted. Figure 1 depicts the engine setup layout. Figure 1. Link between engine RPM and brake thermal efficiency. 2011 Vol 73 (7) | July 2025 | http://www.informaticsjournals.co.in/index.php/jmmf Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels Optimization of Multi-Cylinder Four-Stroke SI Engine Performance under Magnetic Field Interference Using CNG Fuel 5.0 References 1. Ugare V, Dhoble A, Lutade SK, Mudafale K. Performance of Internal Combustion (CI) engine under the influence of stong permanent magnetic field. IOSR J Mech Civ Eng. 2014:11-17. 2. Kumar AR, Raju GJ. Experimental investigation of a magnetic fuel ionization method in a diesel engine to improve the performance and emissions. J Phys Conf Ser. 2021; 1817. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742- 6596/1817/1/012028 3. Abdul-Wahhab HA, Al-Kayiem HH, Aziz ARA, Nasif MS. Survey of invest fuel magnetization in developing internal combustion engine characteristics. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2017; 79:1392-1399. https://doi. Figure 2. Link between engine RPM and brake specific org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.121 fuel consumption. 4. Pathak SK, Nayyar A, Goel V. Optimization of EGR effects on performance and emission parameters of a The link between engine RPM and brake thermal dual fuel (Diesel + CNG) CI engine: An experimental efficiency is depicted in Figure 1. According to investigation. Fuel. 2021; 291:120183. https://doi. observations, BTE improves when the combustion org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.120183 chamber temperature rises as a result of the fuel and air 5. Wallington TJ, Kaiser EW, Farrell JT. 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Amato F, Cassee FR, Denier van der Gon HAC, Gehrig combustion and emissions properties of advanced R, Gustafsson M, Hafner W, Harrison RM, Jozwicka transportation biofuels and their impact on existing and W, Kelly FJ, Moreno T, Prevot ASH, Schaap M, Sunyer future engines. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2015; 42: J, Querol X. Urban air quality: The challenge of traffic 1393-1417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.034 non-exhaust emissions. J Hazard Mater. 2014; 275:31- 22. Wei J, Zeng Y, Pan M, Zhuang Y, Qiu L, Zhou T, Liu 36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.04.053 PMid: Y. Morphology analysis of soot particles from a modern 24837462. diesel engine fueled with different types of oxygenated 17. Miraglia M, Marvin HJP, Kleter GA, Battilani P,Brera fuels. Fuel. 2020; 267:117248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. C, Coni E, Cubadda F, Croci L, De Santis B, Dekkers S, fuel.2020.117248 Filippi L, Hutjes RWA, Noordam MY, Pisante M, Piva 23. Zheng Y, Li S, Xing K, Zhang X. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on the use of a 9000 Gauss magnet on a 2-stroke SI engine. The treatment aimed to reduce cyclic combustion variations and CO (up to 29.00%) and HC (up to 44.20%) emissions [116, 128, Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Utilisation d'un aimant de 9000 Gauss pour stabiliser la combustion dans un moteur à essence."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "GOVINDASAMY & DHANDAPANI: PERFORMANCE OF MAGNETIC ENERGIZER ON TWO STROKE SI ENGINE 457 Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research Vol. 66, June 2007, pp. 457-463 Performance and emissions achievements by magnetic energizer with a single cylinder two stroke catalytic coated spark ignition engine P Govindasamy1,* and S Dhandapani2 1Kongu Engineering College, Erode 638 052 2Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 641 014 Received 20 September 2006; revised 29 December 2006; accepted 17 January 2007 This paper presents work conducted on a zirconia (catalyst) activated two-stroke spark ignited engine to investigate the effect of high gauss magnetic energy on cyclic variation of combustion parameters. A 9000 gauss magnet, made up of Neodymium-Iron-Boron, is fixed on fuel line before carburetor. The coating is carried out by thermal evaporation technique on the inside surface of combustion chamber walls and piston crown. In-cylinder pressures were recorded for 500 continuous cycles using a piezo electric pressure pickup and PC based data acquisition system. Magnetic flux activates preflame reaction and shortens combustion duration. Cyclic variation of combustion parameters due to magnetic energy were 25.1% less than the base engine and mean value of the peak pressures were found to have upper shift of 13.6%. Magnetically energized zirconia coated engine performed better than the base engine during running. Keywords: Catalyst, Emission, Energizer, Spark ignition engine IPC Code: F02P5/14 Introduction turbulence inside the combustion chamber and Cyclic variation1-11 in combustion of spark ignition distribution of air/fuel ratio. (SI) engine is influenced by both mixture strength and This study presents variations of magnetic flux on the turbulence in tile cylinder. Laminar flame speed at combustion17,18 of normal lean combustion and the spark plug region was found to be a major cause of catalytically activated lean combustion19-26 and various cyclic variation in early flame development. Winsor & other in-cylinder activities using Zirconia as catalyst in Patterson12 suggested that by improving mixture a two stroke SI engine. turbulence, cyclic variation of combustion can be minimized. Urushihara et al13 employed combination of Magnetic Energizer –Working Principle Mono Pole Technology swirl flow and tumble flow, generated by swirl control The most important factors in the monopole value. Whitelaw & Xu14 used an intake shroud to create technology are the magnetic field intensity and the tumble flow and increased swirl ratio. Dhandapani15 collimation of the lines of magnetic flux27,28. Intensity applied copper coating over piston crown and inside of of magnetic field is far superior to that generated by cylinder head wall, and reported that the catalyst improves fuel economy and increases combustion stabilization. Results16 of a computer model for NiCoCr alloy coated combustion chamber showed a slight increase in peak pressures and the rate of heat release. But most of these studies were aimed to understand the problem of cyclic variation and the influence of either one or more number of parameters such as air/fuel ratio, *Author for correspondence E-mail: [email protected] Fig. 1— Magnetic fuel energizer38 458 J SCI IND RES VOL 66 JUNE 2007 Fig. 3— Schematic view of experimental setup [1 Engine, 2 AVL make eddy current dynamometer, 3 Control panel, 4 Vibro- Fig. 2— Atomic orientation meter model charge amplifier, 5 AVL data acquisition system, 6 Load cell, 7 AVL crank angle encoder, 8 Muffler, 9 Exhaust freezer, 10 Fuel tank, 11 Fuel recirculation unit, 12 Radiator Table 1— Engine specifications core, 13 Fuel line assembly, 14 Air consumption box, Engine make Bajaj 150 CC 15 Coupling, 16 cooling water in, 17 Cooling water out, 18 Cylinder bore/stroke 57.5 /58 mm AVL make (Digas 4000 light) gas analyzer, 19 Fuel line changer, 20 Magnet, 21 Solenoid valve, 22 Fuel metering rod, Power 4.5 kW @ 5500 rpm 23 MBT timing wheel, 24 Kistler make pressure transducer] Connecting rod length 110 mm Materials and Methods Compression ratio 7.4:1 In a single cylinder air-cooled two-stroke SI engine Carburetor Jetex, downdraft (Table 1) provisions were fabricated and installed in the Lubrication Petroil engine setup to vary ignition timing and fuel quantity. To facilitate operating the engine under maximum best regular permanent magnets and the collimation of torque (MBT) timing mode, a timing gear was magnetic fields (Fig. 1) renders the lines of magnetic designed in such a way that for one complete rotation flux exactly parallel to each other at extremely high of hand wheel, the timing advance/retard is exactly densities (to the order of millions of lines of flux per measures one degree. By adjusting this hand wheel cm2). These devices are external online installations mechanically, spark timing could be varied at will, without cutting or modifying the fuel pipes. even at engine in operation. For a given quantity and quality of the mixture under a given load setting, the Ortho-Para Orientation timing which gives the maximum speed, was taken In Para H molecule, which occupies even rotation as the MBT timing. Fuel quantity is varied by 2 levels (quantum number), spin state of one atom relative adjusting fabricated metering rod, inserted in to another is in the opposite direction rendering it carburetor jet. These two arrangements help the engine diamagnetic. In ortho molecule, which occupies odd to run on MBT operation mode in each load of its rotational levels, spins are parallel with the same operations. orientation for the two atoms, and therefore is An AVL Electrical Eddy Current dynamometer paramagnetic and a catalyst for many reactions has been coupled to the engine. It has the facility to (Fig. 2). control speed and load externally by a computer and provision to record speed and torque fluctuations This spin orientation has a pronounced effect on (Fig. 3). An automatic fuel flow meter with digital physical properties (specific heat, vapour pressure), as clock allows accurate fuel flow measurements. well as behavior of the gas molecule29,30. The coincident Commercially available petrol mixed with proper spins render o-H exceedingly unstable and more 2 grade lubricant is used as fuel. A separate fuel tank is reactive than its p-H counterpart. To secure conversion 2 maintained beside the main fuel tank. Fuel is drawn of p to o state, it is necessary to change energy of from the bottom of the tank by an electronic fuel pump interaction between spin states of H molecule31-33. 2 GOVINDASAMY & DHANDAPANI: PERFORMANCE OF MAGNETIC ENERGIZER ON TWO STROKE SI ENGINE 459 Fig. 5— Different gauss values of magnets [1) 9000 gauss magnet, 2) 4500 gauss magnet, 3) Radiator core, Fig. 4— Location and function of energizer38 4) 3000 gauss magnet] and discharged to the top of the tank. High gauss sample size of 500 cycles was selected for further magnet is placed facing North Pole34,35 towards the analysis. Fuel line changer with solenoid valves helps radiator core surface, which is placed next to the fuel to change the fuel line to pass fuel in to variety of pump. This arrangement is properly shielded for energized bank. This magnetic source magnetizes36-38 the safeguarding the data acquisition system. The pump fuel coming through the fuel line and prepares it for is operated an hour earlier before commencement of better combustion (Fig. 4). the experiments so as to energize the fuel. This fuel Initially the non-magnetized fuel line has been recirculation tank can be accessed as one of the fuel selected in the fuel line changer and the engine is resources in the fuel line changer. Fuel line assembly allowed to run 20 min for warming up before taking kit consists of four fuel lines with solenoid valves readings. The engine has been operated in constant control and LED indicators to know the fuel line alive. speed mode of 3000 rpm, which represents the This kit actually receives fuel either from main tank average cruising road speed of the vehicle. The or from recirculation tank but one at a time. All exhaust gas analyzer is switched on quite early, so solenoid valves are connected with fuel line changer, that it will be stabilized before the commencement which is placed adjacent to the on line data acquisition of experiment. Ambient pressure, humidity and system. Fuel line selection can be done in the fuel temperature are noted. The fuel flow is varied to line changer itself. Manually adjustable solenoid supply rich and lean mixtures. Ignition timing is kept valve is also fixed for one fuel line for emergency advanced to run the engine on MBT operation mode. operation. CO and unburnt hydrocarbon emissions are The load on the engine is automatically controlled measured by an AVL make (Digas 4000 Light) exhaust by the dynamometer while keeping the engine at gas analyzer. Exhaust gases are allowed to pass constant speed. through a water trap immersed in ice bath to separate After the engine is stabilized for a particular the condensed water, so that only dry exhaust gas is operating point, airflow, fuel flow, and exhaust gas allowed into the exhaust analyzer. temperature are recorded. The dynamometer readings The cylinder pressure was measured using a Kistler such as load, speed are also noted. At each operating model piezoelectric pressure transducer flush mounted point, cylinder pressure traces of 500 cycles and their in the cylinder head of the engine. The output of average are measured and stored in a computer hard transducer was fed to a Kistler model charge amplifier, disc. which possesses a high degree of noise rejection with ground level current attenuation. For each set of reading, Materials Used pressure data were recorded using a high speed AVL Neodymium-Iron-Boron based magnets39,40 data acquisition system timed by an optical encoder (3000 gauss) is used for initial testing purpose. Rare mounted on the engine crankshaft and after collection, earth based magnets (4500 & 9000 gauss) have also been each sample was transferred to a hard disk on a personal used for testing (Fig. 5). The higher gauss magnets need computer system for storage and further analysis. A to be shielded to safeguard the encoder, data acquisition 460 J SCI IND RES VOL 66 JUNE 2007 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7.7 9.3 11.8 13.9 15.3 16.2 16.5 16.7 AFR acquired. Air and fuel are subject to the lines of forces from permanent magnets mounted on the air and fuel inlet lines41,42. The magnet is oriented so that its south pole is located adjacent the fuel line and its north pole is located spaced apart from the fuel line (Fig. 4). Results and Discussion Engine Performance For the same amount of air fuel mixture supplied to the engines, base engine gives a lesser brake power (BP) and brake thermal efficiency (BTE) compared to the energized fuel engine. The same trend is maintained between base engine and catalytic coated engine with and without energized fuel. This is due to the incomplete combustion of the charge due to mixture limit inside combustion chamber at a given compression ratio. Actual volume of charge combusted is comparatively less than the volume of charge entering the chamber. Hence, amount of fuel charge to give mechanical power gets system and dynamometer. A commercially available reduced and this reduces BTE (Fig. 9a). radiator core was used as base to keep magnets on both Fuel molecules start diffusing from free stream into sides and allow fuel to recirculate around the magnets boundary layer and this fuel concentration at various to get energized fuel. sub layers and at various crank angle position is found to be different. Fuel level in sub layer near the free Methodology Engine was operated on constant speed mode and stream shows a sudden increase near TDC because the following cases were considered: 1) Base engine boundary layer thickness suddenly decreases near TDC due without magnet; 2) Base engine with magnet of to the effect of high Reynolds number. Due to this, 3000 gauss; 3) Base engine with magnet of 4500 gauss; effective distance that the fuel molecule diffuses 4) Base engine with magnet of 9000 gauss; 5) Copper becomes lesser near TDC and hence the fuel levels in coated engine with magnet of 9000 gauss; and 6) sub layers were higher. The variation in fuel concentration Zirconia coated engine with magnet of 9000 gauss. in sub layers near to the wall was less compared to the Engine was allowed to run on lean limit with the help sub layers near free stream. This shows that diffusion of fabricated metering rod. MBT have also been rate of fuel is the main controlling factor in limiting maintained with the help of timing gear wheel to validate the reaction rate. In the magnet (9000 gauss) fuel line, experimental data (Figs 6 & 7) with base performance diffusion from the free stream to the layers is found data. Inner surface of the cylinder head was coated with to be more and hence maximum mass of charge is copper chromate and zirconia by thermal evaporation combusted for a given actual charge. This leads to a technique in a vacuum coating unit (Fig. 8). Above higher mechanical power and hence a higher BTE experimental procedure has been repeated and data were (Fig. 9a). elgna eerged ,CDTB -TBM Base Engine Base+3000 gauss Base+4500 gauss Base+9000 gauss Copper coated+9000 gauss Zirconia coated+9000 gauss 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -180 -140 -100 -60 -20 20 60 100 140 180 Crank Angle, degrees srab ,erusserP Fig. 8— Coated heads Fig. 6— Optimized MBT for different engine setups Base Base +3000 gauss Base+4500 gauss Base+9000 gauss Copper coated+9000 gauss Zirconia coated+9000 gauss Fig. 7— Variation of pressure with crank angle at optimized MBT run GOVINDASAMY & DHANDAPANI: PERFORMANCE OF MAGNETIC ENERGIZER ON TWO STROKE SI ENGINE 461 22.00 20.00 18.00 16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00 7.7 9.3 11.8 13.9 15.3 16.2 16.5 16.7 AFR % ,ETB 3.00 a) 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 7.7 9.3 11.8 13.9 15.3 16.2 16.5 16.7 AFR % ,OC b) 3850 3350 2850 2350 1850 1350 850 7.7 9.3 11.8 13.9 15.3 16.2 16.5 16.7 AFR mpp ,CH 0.80 0.75 c) 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 7.7 9.3 11.8 13.9 15.3 16.2 16.5 16.7 AFR Wk-rh/gk ,CFSB d) BASE BASEMG1 BASEMG2 BASEMGE COPPMGE ZIRMGE 14.10 14.00 13.90 13.80 13.70 13.60 13.50 13.40 13.30 13.20 13.10 13.00 0 100 200 300 400 500 CYCLE NUMBER srab ,xamP a) 14.10 14.00 13.90 13.80 13.70 13.60 13.50 13.40 13.30 13.20 13.10 13.00 0 100 200 300 400 500 CYCLE NUMBER srab ,xamP b) 14.60 14.50 14.40 14.30 14.20 14.10 14.00 13.90 13.80 13.70 13.60 0 100 200 300 400 500 CYCLE NUMBER srab ,xamP c) 14.60 14.50 14.40 14.30 14.20 14.10 14.00 13.90 13.80 13.70 0 100 200 300 400 500 CYCLE NUMBER srab ,xamP Fig. 9— Variation of air fuel ratio with: a) BTE; b) CO; c) HC; d) Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) d) Fig. 10— Cyclic variation for base engine with: a) No magnet (P 13.395 bar); b) 3000 gauss magnet (P 13.420 bar); avg avg c) 4500 gauss magnet (P 14.011 bar); d) 9000 gauss magnet (P 14.022 bar) avg avg 462 J SCI IND RES VOL 66 JUNE 2007 15.20 15.10 15.00 14.90 14.80 14.70 14.60 14.50 14.40 14.30 0 100 200 300 400 500 CYCLE NUMBER Air-fuel ratio (AFR) for BTE (Fig. 9a), CO of air fuel mixture (16.7:1) in energized fuel engine (Fig. 9b), HC (Fig. 9c) and BSFC (Fig. 9d) were varied (Figs 10-12). Also, cyclic variations of peak pressures from the minimum to a maximum extent and graphs are controlled because combustion rate depends on are drawn with various cylinder parameters against diffusion rate of the fuel, which further varies with crank AFR. Improvement in thermal efficiency and angle position. So maximum pressure is developed more reduction in exhaust emissions mainly depends or less at a constant crank position in a cycle. So the magnetically energized. With increase of load on peak pressure at different cycles is improved. engine, combustion chamber temperature and air Conclusions movement increases. Efficiency increases as the engine There is significant increase in brake thermal is made leaner to some extent and then it fails due to the efficiency and peak pressure whereas decrease in CO, lean misfire limit. HC and cyclic variation in case of copper and zirconia coated engines as compared to base engine (Table 2). Effect on Cycle Variation The variation of peak pressures for continuous cycles The widely used parameter to analyze the of coated engine (9000 gauss) is less than that of the combustion variation in SI engines is peak pressure base engine. (P ), measured inside cylinder during combustion. As max combustion rate increases due to energized fuel, gas force Acknowledgement developed by combustion of the charge inside energized Authors thank the Department of Science & fuel combustion is found more compared to that Technology (DST), Govt. of India, New Delhi for developed at the base combustion. This increased gas funding the project on Development of Catalytic force leads to higher peak pressure for the same supply Activated Lean Burn Combustion. srab ,xamP Fig. 11— Cyclic variation for copper coated engine with 9000 Fig. 12— Cyclic variation for zirconia coated engine with 9000 gauss magnet (P =14.648 bar) gauss magnet (P =14.857 bar) avg avg Table 2 — Changes in different parameters with base, copper and zirconia coated engine with 9000 gauss magnetic flux S NoParameters Base engine, % Copper-coated engine, % Zirconia-coated engine, % 1 Increase in brake thermal efficiency 3.2 6.6 11.2 2 Increase in peak pressure 6.1 9.7 13.6 3 Reduction in cyclic variation 14.1 19.2 25.1 4 Reduction in CO emission 13.3 23.5 29.5 5 Reduction in HC emission 22.1 37.3 44.2 GOVINDASAMY & DHANDAPANI: PERFORMANCE OF MAGNETIC ENERGIZER ON TWO STROKE SI ENGINE 463 References 18th Int Symp on Combustion (The Combustion Institute, 1 Young M B, Cyclic dispersion in the homogenous - charge Pittsburgh) 1981, 1815-1824. spark ignition engine - A literature survey, SAE Paper 810020, 23 Hu Z & Ladommatos M, In-cylinder catalysts - A novel 1981. approach to reduce hydrocarbon emissions from spark ignition 2 Pundir B P, Zvonow V A & Gupta C P, Effect of charge non- engines, SAE paper 952419, 1995. homogeneity on cycle-by-cycle variations in combustion of 24 Hu Z & Ladommatos M, A mathematical model for in-cylinder SI engines, SAE Paper 810774, 1981. catalytic oxidation of hydrocarbons in SI engines, SAE paper 3 Kalghahgi G T, Early flame development in a spark ignition 961196, 1996. engine, Combust & Flame, 60 (1986) 299-308. 25 Ramesh Babu P, Nagalingam N, & Gopalakrishnen K V, Effect 4 Tagalian J & Heywood J B, Flame initiation in a spark-ignition of certain catalysts in the combustion chamber of a two-stroke engine, Combust & Flame, 60 (1986) 243-246. engine on exhaust emissions, IMechE paper C448/067, 1992, 5 Hill P G, Cyclic variations and turbulence structure in a spark 241-246. ignition engines, Combust & Flame, 72 (1988) 73-89. 26 Combustion system development for SI engine, Proc AVL 6 Yamamota H & Misuini M, Analysis of cyclic combustion Semin (AVL India Pvt. 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Study on the effect of a magnetic field on the emissions and performance of a 4-stroke SI engine, indicating combustion improvement and pollutant reduction [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme réduit la pollution et améliore l'efficacité d'un moteur à essence."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Khalil: Reduction of Pollutant Emission in Ethanol-Gasoline Blends Engines ----- Reduction of Pollutant Emission in Ethanol-Gasoline Blends Engines with Magnetic Fuel Conditioning Ra'ad A. Khalil . University of Mosul, College of engineering, Mechanical Engineering Department, Mosul Abstract This paper represents an experimental investigation to evaluate the effect of magnetic field on exhaust emissions and engine performance of four-stroke, single piston spark-ignition engine working with (10% vol.)Ethanol-Gasoline blends. Carbon monoxide CO, carbon dioxide CO and unburned hydrocarbon HC are examined 2 during running of the engine with and without the presence of magnetic coils. The engine performance parameters (brake power, brake specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency) are investigated too .Two magnetic coils with different intensities (1000 and 2000 Gauss) were used . The magnetic coil is placed on the line of fuel supply before the carburetor. All tests were conducted at a wide open throttle (WOT) , compression ratio 10:1 , speed of 2000 rpm and ignition timing ( between 50 and 300 BTDC ) . Results show a significant reduction in exhaust gas emissions when applying the magnetic field. A maximum reduction of 68.8 % of CO, 15 % of CO and 2 42.5 % of HC are observed when using 2000 Gauss magnetic coil. Moreover, it was noticed that all engine-affecting parameters were improved. Running the engine with 2000 Gauss and 10 vol.% ethanol-gasoline blends shows better results ( concerning pollution emissions and brake thermal power ) than 1000 Gauss magnetic coil . جيصّب ًّعح يخٌا يٍخادٌا قاسخدلاا ثاوسذِ ِٓ تيشاغٌا ثارىٌٍّا داعبٔا ًيٍمح ظٕغٌّّا ٓيٌوشاىٌا – يىٔازيلاا ًيٍخ يٍع دعز . ًصىٌّا – تيىئاىيٌّا تسدٕهٌا ُسل - تسدٕهٌا تيٍو - ًصىٌّا تعِاج صٍخخسٌّا قاساخدلاا ثااوسذِ ٓاِ تايشاغٌا ثاارىٌٍّا دااعبٔا ًٍع يسيطإغٌّا ياجٌّا سيرأح يدِ ُييمح ًٌإ ذذبٌا اره فدهي ئاار و ْىبزااىٌا ديسووا يوا ثاشاغ داعبٔا تيّو زابخخا ذذبٌا ًّش . ٓيٌوشاو - يىٔازيا %10 جيصّب ًّعح يخٌا يٍخادٌا ا ُياايمح . يااسيطإغٌّا ياااجٌّا ْودااب وا لااِ نسااذٌّا ياغخااشا داإع تاالسخذٌّا ساايغ ثأىبزاووزداايهٌا و ْىبزاااىٌا ديااسووا يفٍخخِ ٓيعىٔ َادخخسا ُح . تيزاسذٌا ة افىٌا و يعىٌٕا ىلىٌا نلاهخسا يدعِ و تيٍِسفٌا ةزدمٌا ِٓ ًو اضي ًّش نسذٌّا صايهجح ظاخ ًاٍع اعاعو ضوااو 2000 (حداش ئاازٌا و ضوااو 1000 (حداش يووا تياسيطإغٌّا ثافٌٍّا ِٓ ةدشٌا كإخ تاذخة َااإب تاميل / ةزو 2000 اهزادامِ تائازو تعساس دإع ثازاابخخلاا تاةاو جايسج . ةساخبٌّا ًابل ىالىٌا ااهىذٍِ ااعافخٔا جاااخٌٕا ثساهه . تاجز 30 ًٌإ 5 ِٓ حدمٌا دب جلو سييغخب و 1 ًٌا10 طاغضٔا تبسٔ ةسخبٌٍّ تعساو زادمّب ْىبزاىٌا ديسووا يوا شاغ داعبٔا ضفخٔا ذيد يسيطإغٌّا ياجٌّا َادخخسا دٕع تيشاغٌا ثارىٌٍّا داعبٔا تيّو ية َادخخسا دٕع %42 5 زادمّب تلسخذٌّا سيغ ثأىبزاووزديهٌا و %15 زادمّب ْىبزاىٌا ديسووا ئار شاغ و %66 6 يدعِ و تيٍِسفٌا ةزدمٌا ًزِ نسذٌّا ا ية خعاو ٓسذح ظدىٌ دمة هٌذ ًٌإ تةاعإ . ضواو 2000 يسيطإغٌّا فٌٍّا تاايّو جاأاو داامة َاااع ًىااشب . ٓيٌوشاااو – يىٔااازيا ىاالو جيصااِ تاا ٕغِ داإع تاايزاسذٌا ة ااافىٌا و يعىاإٌا ىاالىٌا نلاهخااسا . ضواو 1000 فٌٍّا َادخخسا دٕع اهِٕ ًلا ضواو 2000 يسيطإغٌّا فٌٍّا َادخخسا دٕع تزعبٌّٕا تيشاغٌا ثارىٌٍّا Received: 6 – 2 - 2011 Accepted: 14 – 8 - 2011 841 Al-Rafidain Engineering Vol.20 No. 3 June 2012 Introduction: Engines manufacturers worldwide concentrated their efforts to develop spark ignition engines with high thermal efficiency and low specific fuel consumption without violating the accepted level of emissions regulations. For the reduction of pollutant emissions , researchers have focused their interest on the use of bio-fuels to limit and decrease the greenhouse gases ( CO ) . The best candidate bio-fuels are alcohols, which can be blended 2 with gasoline. Ethanol will probably be the most important alternative fuel since it has a higher octane number than gasoline. Adding ethanol to gasoline will increase the octane number and thus improve the performance of the vehicle. Today ethanol-gasoline blends with different percentages are commonly used in various countries around the world, especially Australia ( 10% ), Brazil ( up to 25% ), Canada (10% ) , Sweden ( 5% ) and USA ( up to 10% ). There still debate about whether, how and what extent ethanol in gasoline may affect the materials in the vehicle, cause excessive wear of parts in the fuel system, and engine. However, in the USA, car manufacturers have agreed that the use of gasoline with up to 10% ethanol will not affect the warranties of their vehicles [1]. M. A. Cevez , F. Yuksel [2] ,investigated experimentally the effect of ethanol-unleaded gasoline blends on cyclic variability and emissions in an SI engine . Results showed that using ethanol-unleaded gasoline blends as a fuel decrease CO and HC emission concentration and the 10 vol.% ethanol in fuel blend give the best result . Abdel-Rahman and Osman [3] , found that the maximum improvement in engine indicated power occurred with a 10% ethanol blend when adapting variable compression ratio . Hassan S. Hamoody [4], in his MSc thesis showed that the best performance of the SI engine with little emission of pollutants was during operating the engine with compression ratio 10:1, ignition timing ( 20o BTDC ), equivalence ratio ( Ф=1 ) and engine speed at (2000 rpm) when using 10 vol.% ethanol-gasoline blends . Janezak and Krensel [5] , conducted an experimental test for treating gasoline with magnetic field for more efficient combustion and pollution .Their invention relates to permanent magnet units mountable as retrofit adaptors outside a fuel line without disconnection or modification of the fuel or ignition system . Charles H. Sanderson [6] , in his invention , showed a method and apparatus for treating liquid fuel in an internal combustion engines by passing it through a magnetic field prior to mixing it with air in the carburetor or the fuel injector. Al-Dossary , Rashid [7] , in his Msc thesis , conducted an experimental research to study the effect of magnetic field on internal combustion engine with unleaded gasoline .Al-Dossary found that the effect of magnetic field on CO was the most significant at most engine's loads and speeds . Govendasamy and Dhandapani [8] , investigate experimentally the effect of using magnetic field on reduction of exhaust emissions in Bio-diesel engine with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). They found that with the presence of the magnetic field , a satisfactory reduction in CO and HC emissions with an increase of 5% in the brake thermal efficiency are obtained . In the present study, 10 % by volume ethanol-gasoline blends was used in a single– piston, four – stroke, water-cooled variable compression spark ignition engine supplied with Dc-dynamometer and on-line exhaust gas analyzer. The study concentrates on the effect of magnetic field ( two magnetic coils with different intensities applied on the fuel supply line before entering the engine carburetor ) on exhaust gas emissions ( CO, CO & HC ) and 2 engine performance ( brake power , brake thermal efficiency and specific fuel consumption) . 841 Khalil: Reduction of Pollutant Emission in Ethanol-Gasoline Blends Engines ----- Experimental work: Experiments were carried out on a single piston , four - stroke cycle , variable compression ratio spark ignition engine . The engine is operated at wide-open throttle (WOT) with an equivalence ratio of Ф=1. The compression ratio was adjusted to be 10:1 and ignition timing was varied from 50 to 300 BTDC with (50) intervals .Engine speed was set at 2000 rpm . The engine was fueled by blends of 10 vol. % ethanol-gasoline. The gasoline which has been used was a leaded gasoline produced by Iraqi Northern Oil Company ( Beiji refinery) . Two magnetic coils with different intensities (1000 & 2000 Gauss) were used to treat the bio fuel before entering the carburetor of the engine. Exhaust emissions gases (CO, CO and HC) were measured by using an on-line 2 digital gas analyzer during all tests, with and without the presence of magnetic coils. Engine parameters such as brake power, brake specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency were studied too .Figure [1] shows a schematic arrangement of the engine test bed . Gas analyzer Measurement board Fuel tank Carburetor Magnetic coil Fuel pipe Coupling N Exhaust pipe Engine Dynamometer Fig. 1 schematic arrangement of the engine test bed Results and Discussion: Exhaust gas emissions and engine performance were investigated with the use of a blend of 10% vol. ethanol – gasoline ( leaded ) and magnetic coil applied to the line of fuel before entering the carburetor at engine speed of 2000 rpm, compression ratio of 10:1 and wide open throttle (WOT) . All tests were carried out either with the presence of 1000 gauss magnetic coil, 2000 gauss coil or without the magnetic effect. Figure (2) shows the variations of carbon monoxide CO emissions with ignition timing. A significant reduction of 68.8 % in CO was found to be at 300 BTDC, when using 2000 Gauss, while, the maximum reduction when using 1000 Gauss was 50 % at 25 and 30 degrees BTDC. Carbon dioxide CO was 2 reduced by 15 % at 25o BTDC and 3.7 % at 15o BTDC, when using the magnetic coils with intensities of 2000 Gauss and 1000 Gauss respectively as shown in figure (3). A good improvement in unburned hydrocarbons HC emissions were found when applying the magnetic field. Figure (4) shows that the maximum reduction in HC was 42.5 % at 15o BTDC 851 Al-Rafidain Engineering Vol.20 No. 3 June 2012 with a magnetic coil of 2000 Gauss. Using a magnetic coil of 1000 Gauss showed a reduction of 12.5 % at 15oBTDC. 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 11 10 9 8 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Using the magnetic field with ethanol-gasoline blends improves the engine performance parameters too. Figure (5) shows the relation between brake thermal power and engine ignition timing. Thermal power was improved by 8.6 % at 20o BTDC when using the 2000 Gauss coil, while implementing 1000 Gauss coil showed a 4.4 % increment in thermal power at 10o BTDC . It can be seen from figure (6) that the specific fuel consumption is decreased nearly by 8.6 % at 20o BTDC when a magnetic coil of 1000 Gauss is used ; however , this reduction was measured to be approximately by 3.2 % at 20o BTDC when a magnetic coil of 858 Khalil: Reduction of Pollutant Emission in Ethanol-Gasoline Blends Engines ----- 2000 Gauss was used . Figure ( 7 ) showed that the thermal efficiency increased by 4.4 % at 10o BTDC and 3.6 % at 20o BTDC when applying 1000 Gauss and 2000 Gauss respectively . Exhaust gases temperature have been measured during all tests .Results show a small effect of magnetic field on exhaust temperature . Figure ( 8 ) shows the relationship between exhaust gas temperature and ignition timing for the same engine operating conditions. Results indicate that the maximum increase in exhaust gas temperature was nearly by 1.5 % at 20o BTDC for 1000 Gauss coil , while applying 2000 Gauss showed a maximum decrease of 2.9 % at 25o BTDC . 8.2 8.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 7.8 35 7.6 7.4 7.2 7.0 6.8 6.6 6.4 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 300 290 280 270 260 250 240 230 220 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 66 65 64 66 61 68 61 11 11 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 851 Al-Rafidain Engineering Vol.20 No. 3 June 2012 740 720 700 680 660 640 620 600 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 With the presence of magnetic field , the internal energy of the fuel increases which means that molecules fly apart easier , join with oxygen easier and burn more completely . The magnetic field can change the spin state of hydrogen molecules in the fuel ( converted from para–hydrogen to ortho–hydrogen ) which greatly enhances the energy of the atom and increases fuel reactivity leading to higher engine output , better fuel economy and lower amount of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide in the exhaust . Conclusions: The experimental investigation conducted in this work indicated that applying a magnetic field to the fuel supply line of an internal combustion engine working with blends of 10 % vol. ethanol-gasoline (leaded) is an effective way to reduce the pollutants emissions in the exhaust gases. Implementing a 2000 Gauss magnetic field leads to a reduction of 68.8 % at 30o BTDC in carbon monoxide CO emission, a 15 % at 25o BTDC reduction in CO and a 42.5 % at 10o BTDC reduction in the unburned hydrocarbons HC 2 combined to an increase in engine performance ( 8.6 % increment in brake thermal power, 3.2 % reduction in BSFC and 3.6 % increment in thermal efficiency ). The exhaust gas temperature were slightly affected by the magnetic field. Running the engine with 1000, Gauss coil shows better results concerning brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption than that with 2000 Gauss. Finally, it can be concluded from the experimental results shown that reduced emissions of pollutants as well as improved fuel combustion , increased engine power and reduced fuel consumption for ethanol-gasoline engine as a consequence of magnetic fuel treatment are feasible . References : [1] Karl-Erick Egeback , Magnus Henke and Bjorn Rehnlund . Blending of ethanol in gasoline for spark ignition engines – problem inventory and evaporative measurements .AVL MTC motor test center ,report no. MTC 5407, 05-2005 . 856 Khalil: Reduction of Pollutant Emission in Ethanol-Gasoline Blends Engines ----- [2] M. A. Cevic and F. Yuksel . Effects of ethanol – unleaded gasoline blends on cyclic variability and emissions in an SI engines . Applied Thermal Engineering Journal ,25 (2005),pp.917-925 . [3] A. A. Abdel-Rahman and M. M. Osman . Experimental investigation on varying the compression ratio of S.I. engine working under different ethanol-gasoline fuel blends . International Journal of Energy Research 21(1) , 1997 , pp. 31-40 . [4] Hassan S. Hamoody . Performance of the internal combustion engine working by carburetor system with adding ethanol substance to the leaded gasoline . Msc. Thesis , college of engineering , university of Mosul , 2008. [5] A. Janezak and E. Krensel . Permanent Magnetic Power for treating fuel lines for more efficient combustion and less pollution .U.S. Pat. 5,124,045 . Sep.27, 1992 . [6] Charles H. Sanderson . Method and apparatus for treating liquid fuel .U.S. Pat. 4,050,426 .Jun.23,1977. [7] Al-Dossary , Rashid . The effect of magnetic field on combustion and emissions . Msc. Thesis , King Fahd university of petroleum and minerals . 2009 . [8] P. Govndasamy , S. Dhandapani . Reduction of NO Emission in Bio Diesel Engine with x Exhaust Gas Recirculation and Magnetic Fuel conditioning .International Conference on Sustainable Development , challenges and opportunities for GMs [12-14 Dec. 2007]. The work was carried out at the college of Engineering. University of Mosul 854"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "General study on the use of the magnetic field to reduce emissions and improve combustion performance in an SI engine [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Le magnétisme est présenté comme un moyen de réduire la pollution des moteurs à essence."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Effect of Magnetic Field to Reduce Emissions and Improve Combustion Performance in a Spark-Ignition Engine Vishnu Sankar, Sanath M. Chandran, Tharun Tomy, Unni Raj, Vivek Samson and K. Ramachandran 1 Introduction Recently, researchers have made many devices for reducing exhaust emissions [1] and fuel consumption [2, 3] of an engine in a very productive manner. But it has few disadvantages like high cost [4] and some side effects [5] that affect engine performance. In general, burning of 1 kg fuel releases nearly 1.1 kg water vapor and 3.2 kg carbon monoxide [BP Australia Limited, 2000]. In addition, problems such as incomplete combustion, presence of unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and sulphur dioxide etc. also affect the performance of the engine. The most common type of fuel saving is done by adding chemical compounds to the fuel[6,7].Unwantedexhaustemission isduetoincompletecombustionofcarbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide which results in higher exhaust gas emissions. Usage offuel saving gadgets is also not recommended due to its high cost [8]. In order to overcome these difficulties, we propose a motor vehicle incorporated with a magnetic device, whose fuel consumption and emission char- acteristics are then analyzed. The present research works describes about the fab- rication of a low cost bike associated with a magnetic device to reduce emission characteristics as well as fuel consumption. The strength of magnetic field lines needed was around 5000 Gauss which is provided by a powerful neodymium magnet.Thesemagnetsarecosteffective,weightless,safeandenvironmentfriendly [9].Thefuelisexposedtoamagneticfieldbyamagneticsourcewhichisplacedin V.Sankar(cid:1)S.M.Chandran(&)(cid:1)T.Tomy(cid:1)U.Raj(cid:1)V.Samson RajagiriSchoolofEngineeringandTechnology,Kakkanad,Kerala,India e-mail:[email protected] V.Sankar e-mail:[email protected] K.Ramachandran HolyKingsCollegeofEngineeringandTechnology,Muvattupuzha,Kerala,India ©SpringerInternationalPublishingAG,partofSpringerNature2018 1 K.AntonyandJ.P.Davim(eds.),AdvancedManufacturingandMaterialsScience, LectureNotesonMultidisciplinaryIndustrialEngineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76276-0_1 2 V.Sankaretal. fuelsupplylinetomagnetizethefuelbeforeitenterstheenginecylinder.Itiseasy to attach the magnetic device on the fuel line because of its robustness. The magneticfieldlinesactingonthefueldispersesthehydrocarbonclusterintosmaller particles thereby improving the efficiency of combustion [10]. Moreover, it also reduces unburned hydrocarbon present in the emission. Results are validated by conducting experiments in a petrol engine for comparing the effect that magnetic field has on fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. 2 Methodology Themaincombustibleelementspresentinafuelarecarbon,hydrogen,sulphuretc. Fuelmustcontainoneorseveralofthese elements sothatcombustiontakesplace. Duringcombustion,thechemicalenergyoffuelwillbeconvertedintoheatenergy. For utilizing the energy of the fuel in its most usable form, transformation offuel from one state to another is required. One way is to convert solid form to liquid/ gases form [11]. Through this method energy offuels is utilized more effectively andefficientlyforvariouspurposes.Thestraightrungasolinecanbeobtainedeither bydistillingcrudepetroleumorbysynthesistechnique[12].Itcontainsundesirable compounds like unsaturated straight chain hydrocarbons and sulphur compounds. But, it has a boiling range of 40–120 °C. This leads to the unsaturated hydrocar- bons getting oxidized and polymerized. This also leads to gum and sludge for- mation on the storage system. Sulphur compounds adversely affect tetraethyl lead, whichisaddedtogasolinetoimproveitsignitionproperties.Moreover,italsoleads totheinternalcombustionenginegettingcorroded.Thesulphurcompoundscanbe removed from gasoline with sodium plumbite, an alkaline solution [7]. When a gasoline fuel is burnt, it reacts with oxygen to produce heat. Two neodymium magnetshavingfieldstrengthof1500–2000Gaussand2500–2800Gaussusedfor making of magnetic field and strength of magnets is validated by Gaussmeter or magnetometer. Magnetic fuel saver can reduce the fuel consumption in a petrol engine.Fuelsareinliquidformintheoiltank.Itundergoescombustionwhenitis vaporized and mixed with air. In order to improve the combustion, fuel particles shouldbeturnedtofinertinyparticles.Magnetswillhelptoionizethefuel[13,14]. Fuels are classified from group of hydrocarbons. When hydrocarbon molecules flow along the direction of magnetic field, they change their orientation to a direction opposite to the applied magnetic field. As a result, the molecule config- uration changes and intermolecular force between the molecules weakens. Thus, presence of magnetic field disperses the molecules into fine tiny particles thereby making the fuel less viscous. EffectofMagneticFieldtoReduceEmissionsandImprove… 3 3 Experimental Findings Magnetic fuel treatment illustrates about the magnetic field interaction of hydro- carbon molecules of fuel with oxygen molecules. Liquid fuel consists of many organic compounds, predominantly hydrogen and carbon atoms. Densely packed structures called pseudo compounds are formed because of different types of attractive forces. These compounds can be further organized into clusters or association which is relatively stable. When the fuel mixes with the air, oxygen is not able to penetrate into the pseudo compounds. This hinders the availability of appropriate quantities of oxygen to the interior of the molecular groups (associa- tions).Thisisthereasonforincompletecombustionwhichleadstotheformationof carbon deposits, carbon monoxide and large quantities of hydrocarbons being emitted into the environment. Researchers have proved [15] that external forces such as magnetic field can polarize the hydrocarbon fuel. The magnetic field pro- duces a moment due tothemovement ofouter electrons inthehydrocarbonchain, which moves the electrons into a higher energy level. This causes the breakage of fixed valence electron which has a vital role in the bonding process of fuel. Nevertheless, hydrocarbon fuel becomes directionalized. This magnetic alignment permits rapid bonding within respective oxidizing media. It leads to complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuel. Hydrocarbon molecules interact with high mag- netic fieldwhichleads totheirbreakingup into small associates with high specific surface[16].Thisalsoleadstoimprovedcombustion.InaccordancewithVanDer Waals discovery ofweak clusteringforce, hydrocarbons in magnetically energized fuel have a higher affinity towards oxygen which is the reason for optimal com- bustion in the engine chamber. The outcomes offuel with high magnetic field are improved fuel combustion, increased engine power and reduction in fuel con- sumption. Improved fuel combustion can cause reduction of carbon, carbon monoxide and other hydrocarbon emissions. In the present work, objective was to understand the effect of magnetic field on combustion and emissions in a spark ignition engine. In order to fix magnet on fuel line, we need circular disk type magnetshavingdimensionofdiameter1inch,suchthatitshouldbearoundthefuel line.Geometryofthemagnethelpsforeasyinstallationonfuelline.Themagnetic installation is as shown in Fig. 1. The performance tests were carried out for a single cylinder, four stroke petrol engine. The setup consists of an engine and an exhaust gas analyzer. The engine specificationisdetailedinTable 1.Initially,enginewasmadetorunwithpetrolas fuelforalltests.Theaccuratemeasurementofthefuelconsumptionratewastaken by the Burette method. The fuel consumption rates were measured for different engines on different loading conditions and exhaust gases and emission from the engine were also analyzed and measured by exhaust gas analyzer during experi- mental tests as shown in Fig. 2. It measures exhaust gases such as hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and carbon dioxide concentrations for each load. This process was repeatedly done with magnetic installation and without magnet installation. The results were then compared. 4 V.Sankaretal. Fig.1 Magnetinstalled aroundthefuelline Magnet Table1 Enginespecification Manufacturer Bajaj Model BajajCT100 Displacement[cc] 99.27 Enginetype Singlecylinder,Four-stroke Maximumpower[ps@RPM] 8.2[ps]@7500[RPM] Maximumtorque[Nm@RPM] 8.05[Nm]@4500[RPM] Fueldeliverysystem Carburetor Topspeed[km/h] 110[km/h] Transmission 4speedconstantmesh Stroke(cid:3)bore[mm] 42(cid:3)46 In the experiment, exhaust gases are analyzed at different engine speeds by varying the fuel supply using valve. Fuel from the fuel tank is conveyed to the magnetic device after it passes through the valve. Exhaust gasses after combustion from the engine is passed to the gas sensor. The gas sensor detects the exhaust gassesanditisgiventothemeasuringdevicetodetecttheconcentrationsofvarious components. When hydrocarbon fuel (CH ) is combusted, oxidation of hydrogen 4 atoms will take place. Further carbon atoms are subsequently burned (CH + 2O = CO + 2H O) which leads to carbon dioxide and water [17]. Since 4 2 2 2 the time for oxidizing hydrogen atoms during high speed combustion process is veryless,asinnormalcondition,onlyfewcarbon atoms will bepartially oxidized which results in incomplete combustion. Oxygen molecules combine with hydro- genmoleculesreadily.However,thereactionbetweencarbonandoxygenisoftoo lowenergy.Theoptimalfuelefficiency(combustionefficiency)andperformanceis obtainedbytheapplicationofmagnetaroundthefuellineanditisfirstindicatedas anincreaseinamountofcarbondioxide(CO)producedandithasbeenvalidatedby the values in emission control device. EffectofMagneticFieldtoReduceEmissionsandImprove… 5 Fig.2 Experimentset-up(1Engine,2Magneticdevice,3Measuringdeviceforexhaustgases,4 Fueltank,5Gassensor,6Valveand7Flexibletube) 4 Results and Discussions Thepercentageoftheexhaustgaseswhichwasmeasuredduringengineoperation, for three different speeds, with and without magnetic field is shown in the graphs. Fuels which are basically Hydrocarbons possess a “cage like” structure, so that during the combustion process oxidizing inner carbon atoms is difficult. Furthermoretheycombineintomuchlargergroupsofpseudocompoundsandthey form clusters (associations). The entry of oxygen in the correct amount into the interior of these clusters is obstructed and it is this lack of oxygen into the cluster which hinders the proper or complete combustion [18]. The exhaust would theo- reticallyconsistofcarbondioxide,watervapourandnitrogenfromair,whichdoes notinvolveinthecombustion.Practically,theexhaustemissionconsistsofCO,H , 2 HC, NO and O gases. Nevertheless, complete combustion offuel will never be x 2 achievedandincompleteoxidizedcarbonisevidentintheformofHC,COoritwill deposit on internal combustion engine chamber walls as black carbon residue. Hydrocarbonfuelmoleculesexposedtomagneticfieldtendtodecluster,leadingto smaller particles which are readily penetrated by oxygen. Thus it helps in better combustion. They become normalized & independent, distanced from each other, having bigger surface available for binding (attraction) with more oxygen for oxidation. According to van der Waals’ theory of weak-clustering force, hydro- carbons are bound strongly with oxygen in such magnetized fuel, which ensures proper burning of mixture in the engine chamber. This results in the reduction of CO by 10% in Fig. 3. It was found that the percentage of CO increased by about 3% as shown in 2 Fig. 4 but the percentage of HC was reduced by 5% as shown in Fig. 5. This is because Magnetic field helps to improve the combustion level, which leads to the reduction of exhaust emission of dangerous gaseous. The amount of unburned 6 V.Sankaretal. Fig.3 GraphplottedwithRPMversusCO hydrocarbon can also be reduced when combustion rate is improved. This system useoxygenforconversionofcarbonmonoxidetocarbondioxideandhydrocarbon to water and carbon dioxide. Magnetizer was used to develop strong flux fields to changethehydrocarbonmoleculefromitsparastatetohigherenergizedorthostate. IntheparaH molecule,thespinstateofoneatomrelativetoanotherisinopposite 2 direction(“counterclockwise”,“anti-parallel”,“oneup&onedown”),renderingit diamagnetic. In the ortho molecule, spins are parallel (“clockwise”, “coincident”, “both up”), with same orientation for the two atoms. The ortho-hydrogen is more reactive than its para-hydrogen counterpart. This results in the reduction of emis- sion and improved combustion performance when the magnetic field is applied. Ithasbeenfoundthat,today’shydro-carbonfuelsdepositcarbonresiduewhich clogsthecarburetorandthefuelinjector,leadingtoreductioninefficiencyandfuel wastage. It also leads to pinging, loss of effective horsepower, stalling and large reduction in mileage of the vehicle. In an internal combustion engine, power is obtainedasaresultofcombustionofliquidfuel.Forcompletecombustiontooccur, the liquid fuel should get completely vaporized and then get mixed with air. If incomplete combustion takes place, it leads to harmful tail pipe emissions like carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, which reacts in the atmo- sphere to form smog. The fuel generally used in an internal combustion engine is compoundofmolecules.Eachmoleculeconsistsofanumberofatomsmadeupof number of electrons, which orbit their nucleus. These molecules which already possessmagneticmovementsalsohavepositiveandnegativeelectricalcharges.But these molecules are not properly aligned and hence the fuel cannot actively com- bine with oxygen during the combustion process. Hence it is necessary to ionize EffectofMagneticFieldtoReduceEmissionsandImprove… 7 Fig.4 GraphplottedwithRPMversusCarbondioxide Fig.5 GraphplottedwithRPMversusHydroCarbon and realign the fuel molecule or the hydrocarbon chain. This is achieved by the applicationofmagneticfield. During magnetization ofthefuel, thebondsbetween hydrocarbon chain breaks down which results in lowering its density, surface tension and, hence smaller particulars and droplets during atomization or injection 8 V.Sankaretal. withinaninternalcombustionengine.Finerparticlesanddropletshelpinimproved evaporation rates, better mixing offuel and oxidizer, also improved promotion of oxidation. The net effect of this is better rate of combustion, an increase in power, and reduced pollutants. Increased oxidation of the hydrocarbon fuel has positive effects on combustion. Quicker and more complete oxidation results in more rapid and more complete combustion of the fuel. 5 Conclusion Magnetizer is able to lower the NOx level. Since all oxygen is bound up with hydrocarbonfuelandformationofunwantednitrogencompoundishindered.After burning stoichiometric fuel through proper magnetic lines offorce, the engine will get maximum energy per litre along with lowest possible level of toxic emissions. ThenumberofHCdecreaseswithincreaseinmileage of*15–25%.Thusitleads to the reduction in emission and increased combustion efficiency. Since, fuel energizer increases combustion efficiency and thereby saves fuel; there is a reductioninCOemissions.Fuelassociatedwithmagneticfieldiscosteffectiveand hence it reduces the exhaust emission rate. Magnetic treatment does not need externalenergysource.Theotherkeyfeaturesofusingmagnetonautomobilesare, decrease in fuel consumption per liter, higher initial torque, reduced knocking and detonation, smooth running, decrease smoke emission, faster A/C cooling, no fuel wastage and long term maintenance free engine. Fig.6 Finalviewofspark-ignitionenginewithmagneticfield EffectofMagneticFieldtoReduceEmissionsandImprove… 9 Table2 CostEstimation Item Price Bikechases 2500 Engine 3000 Magnet 300 Monoshock 800 FZchainlock 45 Silencer 550 CDunit 180 Petroltap 200 Painting 600 Total Rs.8175 References 1. HricakRZ(1994)Airfuelmagnetizer.U.S.PatentNo.5333133,7 2. Cummins JCL (1976) Early IC and automotive engines. SAE paper 760604, Society of AutomotiveEngineers,Warrendale,Pennsylvania,USApp18–26 3. MingdongSetal(1984)Studyonthecombustionefficiencyofmagnetizedpetroleumfuels. ChinSciBull 4. KeithH(1991)Magneticfieldsraisefuelefficiency.NewScientist131 5. Kiran RK, Muley KS (2006) Two stroke cycle engine performance and fuel treatment devices.Overdrive-anautomobilemagazine,NewDelhi,23–28 6. Nedunchezhian N, Dhandapani S (1999) Experimental investigation of cyclic variation of combustionparametersinacatalyticallyactivatedtwostrokeSIEnginecombustionchamber. SAE-India,Paper990014:1–16 7. Govindasamy P, Dhandapani S (2007) Experimental investigation of cyclic variation of combustion parameters in catalytically activated and magnetically energized two-stroke SI engine.JEnergyEnviron6:45–59 8. Govindasamy P, Dhandapani S(2007) Experimental investigation oftheeffect ofmagnetic flux to reduce emissions and improve combustion performance in a two stroke catalytic-coatedspark-ignitionengine.IntJAutomotTechnol8(5):533–542 9. BowkerRR(2000)Permanentmagnetdesignguide.MagnetSalesandManufacturing&Co, USA,pp11–67 10. ChavanS,JhavarP(2016)Effectofapplicationofmagneticfieldontheefficiencyofpetrol engine.IRJET(IntResJEngTechnol)3(9):152–161 11. YujuanCetal(1989)Reductionofviscosityofcrudeoilbyastrongmagneticfieldandits application.ActaPetroleiSinica 12. YazhongY(1990)Theappliedtestofwaxprotectionbyintensivemagnetism.Oilandgas storageandtransportation(China) 13. Pera I, Pines P (1987) Magnetizing hydrocarbon fuels and other fluids. U. S. Patent No.4716024 14. Okoronkwo CA, Nwachukwu CC Dr, Ngozi LC Dr, Igbokwe JO (2010) The effect of electromagneticfluxdensityontheionizationandthecombustionoffuel(aneconomydesign project).AmJSciIndRes1(3):527–531,ISSN:2153-649X.https://doi.org/10.5251/ajsir 15. Chavan S, Jhavar P (2016) Effect of application of magnetic field on emission of petrol engine.IJIR(ImperialJInterdiscRes)2(10):2121–2128 10 V.Sankaretal. 16. Ugara V, Latude S, Muduafale K, Dihole A (2005) Performance of I.C engines under the influenceofstrongmagneticfield.IOSRJMechCivEng11–17 17. Farisa AS, Hazim Mohammed SJ (2012) Effect of magnetic field on fuel consumption & exhaustgasemissionintwostrokepetrolengine.SciDirect18:327–338 18. PatelPM,RathodGP,PatelTM(2014)Effectofmagneticfieldonperformanceandemission ofsinglecylinderfourstrokedieselengine.IOSRJEng4:28–34"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Report of experimental data showing a measurable decrease in Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) following the application of magnetic treatment [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Données de base sur la consommation spécifique de carburant avec magnétisation."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this work to my family for their continuous wonderful love and moral support in all aspects of my life across the years. I would also like to thank Saudi Aramco, in particular Abqaiq Plants departments, for giving me the opportunity to pursue this degree and continue my education to benefit the company in particular and the country in general. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENT Acknowledgement is due to the King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals for supporting this research. I wish to express my appreciation to Professor Dr. A. Al-Farayedhi who served as my major advisor. I also wish to thank the other members of my thesis committee Dr. P. Gandhidasan and Dr. K. Ziq. I also want to acknowledge KFUPM staff who helped in this research, particularly M. Adham of the Heat Engine Laboratory for his assistance in setting up the test equipment. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION...................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGMENT....................................................................................................iv LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................ix LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................x THESIS ABSTRACT......................................................................................................xiv CHAPTER 1.......................................................................................................................1 1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................1 1.1 Background..........................................................................................................1 1.1.1 Internal Combustion Engines........................................................................1 1.1.2 Fuel Consumption.........................................................................................4 1.1.3 Exhaust Emissions........................................................................................5 1.1.4 Magnetic Field..............................................................................................6 1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES..............................................................................10 CHAPTER 2.....................................................................................................................11 2 LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................11 CHAPTER 3.....................................................................................................................15 3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP.......................................................................................15 3.1 BACKGROUND................................................................................................15 v 3.2 TEST FACILITIES............................................................................................16 3.2.1 Engine.........................................................................................................16 3.2.2 Dynamometer..............................................................................................18 3.2.3 Gas Analyzer...............................................................................................18 3.3 TEST MAGNETS..............................................................................................19 3.4 TEST CONDITIONS.........................................................................................20 3.5 TEST PROCEDURE..........................................................................................20 CHAPTER 4.....................................................................................................................22 4 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC)..............................................................22 4.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect..........................................................................22 4.1.1 Constant Load Simulation...........................................................................22 4.1.2 Constant Speed Simulation.........................................................................29 4.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect.................................................................35 4.2.1 Constant Load Simulation...........................................................................35 4.2.2 Constant Speed Simulation.........................................................................42 CHAPTER 5.....................................................................................................................48 5 CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS (CO)............................................................48 5.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect..........................................................................48 5.1.1 Constant Load Simulation...........................................................................48 5.1.2 Constant Speed Simulation.........................................................................56 5.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect.................................................................63 vi 5.2.1 Constant Load Simulation...........................................................................63 5.2.2 Constant Speed Simulation.........................................................................71 CHAPTER 6.....................................................................................................................78 6 NITROGEN OXIDES EMISSIONS (NOx).............................................................78 6.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect..........................................................................78 6.1.1 Constant Load Simulation...........................................................................78 6.1.2 Constant Speed Simulation.........................................................................86 6.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect.................................................................92 6.2.1 Constant Load Simulation...........................................................................92 6.2.2 Constant Speed Simulation.........................................................................99 CHAPTER 7...................................................................................................................105 7 HYDROCARBONS EMISSIONS (HC)................................................................105 7.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect........................................................................105 7.1.1 Constant Load Simulation.........................................................................105 7.1.2 Constant Speed Simulation.......................................................................112 7.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect...............................................................119 7.2.1 Constant Load Simulation.........................................................................119 7.2.2 Constant Speed Simulation.......................................................................126 CHAPTER 8...................................................................................................................133 8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS...........................................................................133 vii 8.1 Specific Fuel Consumption..............................................................................133 8.1.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect.................................................................133 8.1.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect........................................................133 8.2 Carbon Monoxide Emissions...........................................................................134 8.2.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect.................................................................134 8.2.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect........................................................134 8.3 Nitrogen Oxides Emissions..............................................................................135 8.3.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect.................................................................135 8.3.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect........................................................135 8.4 Hydrocarbons Emissions..................................................................................136 8.4.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect.................................................................136 8.4.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect........................................................136 CHAPTER 9...................................................................................................................137 9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................137 APPENDICES................................................................................................................139 NOMENCLATURE.......................................................................................................147 REFERENCES...............................................................................................................148 viii LIST OF TABLES Table Title Page Table A-1: Experimental data of the base line without magnetic field effect................139 Table A-2: Experimental data after applying one (1) magnet (Attraction)....................140 Table A-3: Experimental data after applying two (2) magnets (Attraction)...................141 Table A-4: Experimental data after applying three (3) magnets (Attraction).................142 Table A-5: Experimental data after applying four (4) magnets (Attraction)..................143 Table A-6: Experimental data after applying five (5) magnets (Attraction)..................144 Table A-7: Experimental data after applying five (5) magnets (Repulsion)..................145 Table A-8: Experimental data after applying five (5) magnets (Spiral).........................146 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure Title Page Figure 1-1: Basic structure of a spark ignition (SI) cylinder [1].........................................2 Figure 1-2: Four-stroke operating cycle of a Spark Ignition (SI) engine [2]......................3 Figure 1-3: Magnetic field lines around a solenoid and a conductor [9]............................9 Figure 1-4: Magnetic field lines of two different types of windings [9]............................9 Figure 3-1: Schematic diagram illustrating the major testing facilities............................17 Figure 3-2: Single constructed electromagnet....................................................................1 Figure 3-3: Electromagnets (a) orientation and (b) polarity.............................................21 Figure 4-1: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant load of 20 Nm.........................23 Figure 4-2: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant load of 60 Nm.........................25 Figure 4-3: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant load of 100 Nm.......................26 Figure 4-4: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant load of 140 Nm.......................27 Figure 4-5: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant load of 180 Nm.......................28 Figure 4-6: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant speed of 1000 rpm..................30 Figure 4-7: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant speed of 1500 rpm..................31 Figure 4-8: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant speed of 2000 rpm..................32 Figure 4-9: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant speed of 2500 rpm..................33 Figure 4-10: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant speed of 3000 rpm................34 Figure 4-11: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant load of 20 Nm..............36 Figure 4-12: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant load of 60 Nm..............37 Figure 4-13: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant load of 100 Nm............39 Figure 4-14: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant load of 140 Nm............40 x Figure 4-15: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant load of 180 Nm............41 Figure 4-16: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant speed of 1000 rpm........43 Figure 4-17: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant speed of 1500 rpm........44 Figure 4-18: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant speed of 2000 rpm........45 Figure 4-19: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant speed of 2500 rpm........46 Figure 4-20: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant speed of 3000 rpm........47 Figure 5-1: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant load of 20 Nm...........................49 Figure 5-2: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant load of 60 Nm...........................51 Figure 5-3: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant load of 100 Nm.........................52 Figure 5-4: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant load of 140 Nm.........................53 Figure 5-5: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant load of 180 Nm.........................55 Figure 5-6: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant speed of 1000 rpm....................57 Figure 5-7: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant speed of 1500 rpm....................58 Figure 5-8: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant speed of 2000 rpm....................60 Figure 5-9: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant speed of 2500 rpm....................61 Figure 5-10: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant speed of 3000 rpm..................62 Figure 5-11: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant load of 20 Nm................64 Figure 5-12: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant load of 60 Nm................66 Figure 5-13: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant load of 100 Nm..............67 Figure 5-14: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant load of 140 Nm..............69 Figure 5-15: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant load of 180 Nm..............70 Figure 5-16: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant speed of 1000 rpm.........73 Figure 5-17: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant speed of 1500 rpm.........74 xi Figure 5-18: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant speed of 2000 rpm.........75 Figure 5-19: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant speed of 2500 rpm.........76 Figure 5-20: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant speed of 3000 rpm.........77 Figure 6-1: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant load of 20 Nm........................79 Figure 6-2: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant load of 60 Nm........................81 Figure 6-3: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant load of 100 Nm......................82 Figure 6-4: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant load of 140 Nm......................84 Figure 6-5: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant load of 180 Nm......................85 Figure 6-6: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant speed of 1000 rpm..................87 Figure 6-7: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant speed of 1500 rpm..................88 Figure 6-8: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant speed of 2000 rpm..................89 Figure 6-9: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant speed of 2500 rpm..................90 Figure 6-10: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant speed of 3000 rpm................91 Figure 6-11: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant load of 20 Nm..............93 Figure 6-12: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant load of 60 Nm..............94 Figure 6-13: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant load of 100 Nm............96 Figure 6-14: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant load of 140 Nm............97 Figure 6-15: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant load of 180 Nm............98 Figure 6-16: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant speed of 1000 rpm.....100 Figure 6-17: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant speed of 1500 rpm.....101 Figure 6-18: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant speed of 2000 rpm.....102 Figure 6-19: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant speed of 2500 rpm.....103 Figure 6-20: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant speed of 3000 rpm.....104 xii Figure 7-1: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant load of 20 Nm.........................106 Figure 7-2: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant load of 60 Nm.........................108 Figure 7-3: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant load of 100 Nm.......................109 Figure 7-4: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant load of 140 Nm.......................110 Figure 7-5: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant load of 180 Nm.......................111 Figure 7-6: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant speed of 1000 rpm..................113 Figure 7-7: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant speed of 1500 rpm..................114 Figure 7-8: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant speed of 2000 rpm..................116 Figure 7-9: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant speed of 2500 rpm..................117 Figure 7-10: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant speed of 3000 rpm................118 Figure 7-11: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant load of 20 Nm..............120 Figure 7-12: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant load of 60 Nm..............121 Figure 7-13: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant load of 100 Nm............122 Figure 7-14: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant load of 140 Nm............124 Figure 7-15: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant load of 180 Nm............125 Figure 7-16: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant speed of 1000 rpm.......127 Figure 7-17: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant speed of 1500 rpm.......128 Figure 7-18: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant speed of 2000 rpm.......130 Figure 7-19: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant speed of 2500 rpm.......131 Figure 7-20: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant speed of 3000 rpm.......132 xiii THESIS ABSTRACT Name of Student : Rashid Mohammed Ali Al-Dossary Title of Study : The Effect of Magnetic Field on Combustion and Emissions in Gasoline Engines Major Field : Mechanical Engineering Date of Degree : June 29, 2009 The current experimental study aims to investigate the effect of magnetic field on internal combustion engines. The study concentrates on engine performance by examining fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. The magnetic field was applied to the fuel supply line of a typical SI engine using unleaded gasoline fuel. Moreover, the magnetic field was generated by electromagnets with a twelve-volts car battery while varying the strength and configuration of the magnetic field. The experiments were conducted at a variety of engine operating conditions by using an engine dynamometer setup. The exhaust gas emissions of CO, NOx, and HC were measured by using an online gas analyzer. The magnetic effect on SFC reduction was only consistently significant at the lowest load of 20 Nm and both speed extremes of 1000 and 3000 rpm using one magnet. The effect on CO was the most significant reduction of all other emissions at most engine’s loads and speeds, especially at lowest speed of 1000 rpm using five magnets. The effect on NOx was the most consistent reduction of all others with the most effect using the ‘Spiral’ configuration at lowest speed of 1000 rpm. The reduction on HC was most significant at the lowest speed of 1000 rpm using four magnets, while other magnetic fields’ strengths and configurations also gave satisfactory reductions at most engines’ loads and speeds. xiv ﺔﻟﺎﺳﺮﻟا ﺺﺨﻠﻣ يﺮﺳوﺪﻟا ﻲﻠﻋ ﺪﻤﺤﻣ ﺪﺷار : ﺐﻟﺎﻄﻟا ﻢـــــــﺳا ﻦﻳﺰﻨﺒﻟا تﺎآﺮﺤﻣ ﻲﻓ تﺎﺛﺎﻌﺒﻧﻻاو قاﺮﺘﺣﻻا ﻰﻠﻋ ﻲﺴﻴﻃﺎﻨﻐﻤﻟا ﻞﻘﺤﻟا ﺮﻴﺛﺄﺗ : ﺔﻟﺎﺳﺮﻟا ناﻮﻨﻋ ﺔﻴﻜﻴﻧﺎﻜﻴﻤﻟا ﺔﺳﺪﻨﻬﻟا : ﺺـــــﺼﺨﺘﻟا ـه 1430 ﺐﺟر 6 : جﺮﺨﺘﻟا ﺦﻳرﺎﺗ ﻰﻠﻋ ﺚﺤﺒﻟا ﺰآﺮﻳ .ﻲﻠﺧاﺪﻟا قاﺮﺘﺣﻻا تﺎآﺮﺤﻣ ﻰﻠﻋ ﻲﺴﻴﻃﺎﻨﻐﻤﻟا ﻞﻘﺤﻟا ﺮﻴﺛﺄﺗ رﺎﺒﺘﺧا ﻰﻟإ ﻲﺒﻳﺮﺠﺘﻟا ﺚﺤﺒﻟا اﺬه فﺪﻬﻳ دﻮﻗﻮﻟا داﺪﻣا ﻂﺧ ﻰﻠﻋ ﻲﺴﻴﻃﺎﻨﻐﻤﻟا ﻞﻘﺤﻟا ﻊﺿو ﻢﺗ ﺪﻗو .قاﺮﺘﺣﻻا ﺞﺗاﻮﻧو دﻮﻗﻮﻟا كﻼﻬﺘﺳا ﺔﺒﻗاﺮﻤﺑ كﺮﺤﻤﻟا ءادا ﺔﻄﺳاﻮﺑ ﻲﺴﻴﻃﺎﻨﻐﻤﻟا ﻞﻘﺤﻟا ثاﺪﺣا ﻢﺗ ﺪﻗو .صﺎﺻﺮﻟا ﻰﻠﻋ يﻮﺘﺤﻳﻻ دﻮﻗو ﺎًﻣﺪﺨﺘﺴﻣ ةراﺮﺸﻟﺎﺑ لﺎﻌﺘﺷا كﺮﺤﻤﻟ ﻲﻓ برﺎﺠﺘﻟا ﻞﻤﻋ ﻢﺗ ﺪﻗو .ﻲﺴﻴﻃﺎﻨﻐﻤﻟا ﻞﻘﺤﻟا ﺔﺒﻴآﺮﺗو ةﻮﻗ ﺮﻴﻐﺗو ةرﺎﻴﺳ ﺔﻳرﺎﻄﺑ ماﺪﺨﺘﺳﺎﺑ ﻲﺋﺎﺑﺮﻬﻜﻟا ﺲﻴﻃﺎﻨﻐﻤﻟا نﻮﺑﺮﻜﻟا ﺪﻴﺴآأ لوأ ﻦﻣ ﻞٍ آ ﺔﺒﺴﻧ سﺎﻴﻗ ﻢﺗ ﺪﻗو .تﺎآﺮﺤﻤﻟا رﺎﺒﺘﺧﺎﺑ صﺎﺧ ﺮﺘﻣﻮﻤﻨﻳاد ﻰﻠﻋ ﺔﻋﻮﻨﺘﻣ ﻞﻴﻐﺸﺗ فوﺮﻇ .ﺮﻤﺘﺴﻣ ﻞﻴﻠﺤﺗ زﺎﻬﺟ ماﺪﺨﺘﺳﺎﺑ ﻚﻟذو قاﺮﺘﺣﻻا ﺞﺗاﻮﻧ ﻲﻓ تﺎﻧﻮﺑﺮآورﺪﻴﻬﻟاو ﻦﻴﺟوﺮﺘﻴﻨﻟا ﺪﻴﺳﺎآأو عﺮﺳأو كﺮﺤﻤﻟا ﻰﻠﻋ ﻞﻤﺣ ﻞﻗأ ﺪﻨﻋ ﻂﻘﻓ ظﻮﺤﻠﻣ ﻞﻜﺸﺑو ﺎًﺘﺑﺎﺛ دﻮﻗﻮﻟا كﻼﻬﺘﺳا ﻞﻴﻠﻘﺗ ﻰﻠﻋ ﻲﺴﻴﻃﺎﻨﻐﻤﻟا ﺮﻴﺛﺄﺘﻟا نﺎآ ﺪﻗو ﺔﻧرﺎﻘﻣ ءًادأ ﻞﻀﻓﻻا نﻮﺑﺮﻜﻟا ﺪﻴﺴآأ لوأ ﻞﻴﻠﻘﺗ ﻰﻠﻋ ﺮﻴﺛﺄﺘﻟا نﺎآ ﺪﻗو .ﺪﺣاو ﺲﻴﻃﺎﻨﻐﻣ ماﺪﺨﺘﺳﺎﺑ كﺮﺤﻤﻠﻟ ﺔﻋﺮﺳ ﺄﻄﺑأو ﺪﻗو .ﻂﻧﺎﻐﻣ ﺔﺴﻤﺧ ماﺪﺨﺘﺳﺎﺑو كﺮﺤﻤﻠﻟ ﺔﻋﺮﺳ ﻞﻗأ ﺪﻨﻋ ﺎًﺻﻮﺼﺧو كﺮﺤﻤﻟا تﺎﻋﺮﺳو لﺎﻤﺣا ﻢﻈﻌﻣ ﺪﻨﻋ ﺞﺋﺎﺘﻨﻟا ﻲﻗﺎﺒﺑ ﺔﺒﻴآﺮﺘﻟا ماﺪﺨﺘﺳا ﺪﻨﻋ ظﻮﺤﻠﻣ ﻞﻜﺸﺑو ﺞﺋﺎﺘﻨﻟا ﻲﻗﺎﺒﺑ ﺔﻧرﺎﻘﻣ ﺎًﺗﺎﺒﺛ ﺮﺜآﻻا ﻦﻴﺟوﺮﺘﻴﻨﻟا ﺪﻴﺳﺎآأ ﻞﻴﻠﻘﺗ ﻰﻠﻋ ﺮﻴﺛﺄﺘﻟا نﺎآ ﺔﻋﺮﺳ ﻞﻗأ ﺪﻨﻋ ﻞﻀﻓﻻا تﺎﻧﻮﺑﺮآورﺪﻴﻬﻟا ﻞﻴﻠﻘﺗ ﻰﻠﻋ ﺮﻴﺛﺄﺘﻟا نﺎآ ﺪﻗ ،اًﺮﺧأ ﺲﻴﻟو اًﺮﻴﺧأ .كﺮﺤﻤﻠﻟ ﺔﻋﺮﺳ ﻞﻗأو ﺔﻳﺮﺋاﺪﻟا لﺎﻤﺣا ﻢﻈﻌﻣ ﺪﻨﻋ ﺔﻴﺿﺮﻣ ﺞﺋﺎﺘﻧ ﻲﺴﻴﻃﺎﻨﻐﻤﻟا ﻞﻘﺤﻟا عﺎﺿوأ ﺔﻴﻘﺑ ﺮﻴﺛﺄﺗ ﻰﻄﻋا ﺎﻤآ ،ﻂﻧﺎﻐﻣ ﺔﻌﺑرأ ماﺪﺨﺘﺳﺎﺑ كﺮﺤﻤﻠﻟ .كﺮﺤﻤﻟا تﺎﻋﺮﺳو xv CHAPTER 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1.1.1 Internal Combustion Engines Most automotive applications use internal combustion engines (ICEs) extensively. The combustion process in these engines is a very rapid chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidizer, which takes place inside a confined space called the combustion chamber. Heat energy is released as a result of the oxidation of the fuel molecules during combustion, which can be transformed into other forms of useful energy such as the mechanical energy used in automotive applications. The transformation to mechanical energy occurs in rapid repeating periodic cycles of piston movements (strokes) inside the chamber, which exert a rotational force on the crankshaft of the engine as shown in Figure 1-1. The cycle usually consists of four processes: induction, compression, power, and exhaust. The cycle is completed during a number of piston strokes, which depends on the engine design. Since one stroke of the cycle can produce power, a smooth rotation of the crankshaft requires the engine to be built with several cylinders performing the cycle processes at different intervals. 1 2 Figure 1-1: Basic structure of a spark ignition (SI) cylinder [1] ICEs are of two types. Compression Ignition (CI) means introducing fuel into highly compressed air whereas Spark Ignition (SI) means triggering the combustion process by using an external spark. This difference in engine design can affect the performance, combustion efficiency, and exhaust emissions. Moreover, ICEs usually use liquid hydrocarbons such as diesel, gasoline, or natural gas according to the power requirements, and gases in hydrocarbon flames are usually ionized. The engine completes the combustion cycle processes with the pistons in two upward and two downward positions. This can be accomplished in two crankshaft revolutions as shown in Figure 1 -2. In the first stroke (Intake), the piston moves from the most upward position, called top centre (TC), to the most downward position, called bottom centre (BC), in order to induce the fuel and air mixture through the inlet valve. In the second stroke (Compression), the piston moves upward in order to compress the mixture to a 3 small fraction of its initial volume, while both valves are closed. Before the end of the compression stroke, the combustion process is triggered by using an internal spark. In the third stroke (Expansion), the piston moves downward to BC due to the high temperature, high pressure gases, and it forces the crankshaft to rotate. In the fourth and last stroke (Exhaust), the piston moves from BC to TC, and it forces all the combustion gases out through the exhaust valve. Figure 1-2: Four-stroke operating cycle of a Spark Ignition (SI) engine [2] The combustion process can be affected by other operating variables such as the equivalence ratio, spark timing, engine speed, and load condition. The equivalence ratio is the ratio between the stoichiometric and actual air/fuel ratio. Combustion stoichiometry occurs when the chemically correct or theoretical proportions of fuel and air are introduced in the combustion chamber [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. 4 A four-stroke ICE with six cylinders, spark ignition, and fuel injection was used in this study with unleaded gasoline fuel. The magnetic effect was applied on the fuel supply line just before the induction stage to maximize its effect throughout the combustion process. The experiments were conducted at different load and speed settings while keeping all the other engine variables controlled automatically at its best performance. 1.1.2 Fuel Consumption Most of the heat generated by this combustion process, about 67% of the total energy produced, is lost in the cylinder walls and exhaust process. Moreover, due to incomplete combustion, not all the energy in the supplied fuel is released. Part of the energy produced is consumed by the engine itself during the cycle processes and mechanical friction in the moving internal components of the cylinders. The effectiveness of the engine to convert fuel energy into mechanical work is measured by the brake thermal efficiency η as shown in Equation 1-1, where P is the engine brake power, m . is the bt brake f fuel consumption rate, and Q is the fuel low heating value. LHV P (kW) η = brake (Equation 1-1) bt . m (kg/s)Q (kJ/kg) f LHV As shown in Equation 1-2, another important parameter to measure the engine efficiency is the Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) which is used in this study for comparison since the fuel utilized in all experiments have the same energy content. . m (g/h) 3600 SFC(g/kWh) = f = (Equation 1-2) P (kW) η Q (MJ /kg) brake bt LHV 5 The maximum torque exerted on the crankshaft is usually the measure for engine output. However, the brake mean effective pressure (bmep) is a more useful measure since it does not depend on engine size. For a four-stroke engine as shown in Equation 1-3, it depends on engine displacement volume V and engine rotational speed N [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. d P (kW)×2000 bmep(kPa)= brake (Equation 1-3) V (Liter)N(rev/s) d 1.1.3 Exhaust Emissions The combustion processes and their emission formulation are extremely complex and difficult to control. Complete combustion of the hydrocarbon fuel is very hard to be accomplished. Some of the reasons of this incomplete combustion are chamber deposits, flame quenching, improper fuel and air mixture, and variation of flame temperature. Noxious emissions such as unburned hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and carbon monoxides (CO) are formed due to these reasons. Each of these gases has certain properties and negative impacts on all living organisms and the environment. The application of a magnetic field might make the combustion process more complete, and consequently reduce these noxious gases emissions [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Furthermore, HC can cause eye irritation and cancer. HC are classified by their chemical reaction with the surroundings as reactive or non-reactive hydrocarbons. Saturated hydrocarbons such as paraffins and naphthenes are classified as non-reactive hydrocarbons. On the other hand, unsaturated hydrocarbons such as olefins and aromatics are classified as reactive hydrocarbons [2]. Nitrogen oxides formation is caused by the combustion flame high temperature. Nitrogen oxide (NO) is the major emission from these oxides, especially in SI engines. In addition, 6 small quantities of nitrogen dioxide (NO ) are also emitted, which react with atmospheric 2 oxygen (O ) to form ozone (O ). Moreover, nitrogen oxides react with atmospheric water 2 3 vapour to form acid rain, which is mainly nitric acid (HNO ), which can inhibit plant 3 growth [1, 3, 6, 7]. Carbon monoxide is formed by incomplete oxidation of the fuel, which depends on the oxygen availability during combustion. CO is an odourless, colourless, poisonous gas, which delays the oxygen transportation from the lungs to the rest of the body, and subsequently causes dizziness and death. These gases along with others react with the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight to form the photochemical smog. This smog will cause eye irritation, bad odour, and visibility reduction. Furthermore, these gases are highly oxidizing to the environment when reacted with each other. Different methods have been invented to reduce these emissions by enhancing the combustion process or treating the exhaust gas. Proper fuel and air mixture has been produced by using fuel injection systems. Fuel additives have been introduced to promote combustion. Exhaust gas recirculation has been introduced to control the combustion temperature, and subsequently controlling the NOx formation. Oxidizing the incomplete burned gases has been accomplished by injecting air in the exhaust manifold. Catalytic converters have been produced to oxidize and reduce HC, NOx, and CO emissions [3, 6]. 1.1.4 Magnetic Field Magnetic field is usually the result of electrical charge in motion. In permanent magnets, there is no conventional electric current. However, the spins and orbital motions of electrons within the magnet material (called “Amperian Currents”) are the main cause for 7 magnetization within the material and magnetic field outside the material. These magnetic fields apply a force on the current-carrying conductors and permanent magnets [8]. Magnetic force and electrical force are similar in the attraction and repulsion properties. Similar poles of different magnets and similar electrical charges repel each other, whereas opposite poles of different magnets and opposite electrical charges attract each other. On the other hand, electrical charges can be isolated, and magnetic poles always exist in pairs [9]. Magnetic materials are classified into three categories based on their susceptibility (receptiveness or sensitivity) and permeability (porosity): diamagnets, paramagnets, and ferromagnets. Diamagnets such as copper, silver, and gold have low and negative susceptibility and they are usually used as superconductors. Paramagnets such as aluminium, platinum and manganese have low but positive susceptibility. Ferromagnets such as iron, cobalt, and nickel have high and positive susceptibility, which will produce higher magnetic induction and flux. Ferromagnets are the most widely recognized magnetic materials [8]. Magnetic field is an inherited material property in permanent magnets. However, magnetic fields can also be produced by solenoids or electromagnets. A solenoid is usually made by winding an insulated electrical conductor wire such as copper over an insulated core, called the former, in a helical pattern. On the other hand, an electromagnet uses a soft ferromagnetic material such as iron to be the former. The ferromagnetic core generates a higher magnetic induction for the same magnetic field. Increasing the number 8 of windings per unit length is more effective in producing a higher magnetic field than increasing the coil current [8]. Magnetic field lines around a cylindrical solenoid or an electromagnet are always moving from the north pole (field source) to the south pole (field sink) as shown in Figure 1-3 [8]. Winding the coil tightly around the former will produce a uniform magnetic field pattern, which resembles that of a permanent magnet, while loose windings will produce an inductor as shown in Figure 1-4 [9]. Magnetic field effect has been used in a number of good applications. Some of these applications are preventing lime scale build-up inside pipes, filtering solid particles from liquids, and separating charged particles (usually ions) based on their mass in mass spectrometers. The molecular arrangement and molecular energy of the fuel and the oxidizer atoms can be affected by the application of a magnetic field [10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The effect of a magnetic field can be applied at any of these cycle processes. However, applying the magnetic effect at the induction stage can last throughout the other cycle’s processes too. The magnetic effect on combustion and emissions of internal combustion engines can vary, depending on the engine design and type of fuel used. The magnetic field impact on combustion and emissions can differ in other applications such as boilers, gas turbines, and diffusion flames. 9 Figure 1-3: Magnetic field lines around a solenoid and a conductor [9] Figure 1-4: Magnetic field lines of two different types of windings [9] 10 1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The present experimental study is aimed to investigate the effect of magnetic field on engine performance by examining fuel consumption and exhaust emissions of typical automotive engines. It was conducted with an internal combustion SI engine with unleaded gasoline fuel at different speed and load conditions. The study compares the effect of different magnetic field strengths and configurations on engine performance and emissions. The magnetic field was produced by using electromagnets which were constructed and applied on the fuel supply line before the induction stage. The fuel line’s test section was constructed from permeable material in order to maximize the magnetic field effect on the fuel. Moreover, the magnetic field effect on the test section was manipulated with different number of magnets, orientations, and polarities. The engine performance was monitored mainly by examining SFC and exhaust emissions such as unburned HC, CO, and NOx which were measured and analyzed by utilizing an online computerized system. In the current study, the engine performance parameters and exhaust emissions were studied extensively in a very broad range of operating conditions. The experiments were designed to give an objective basis for comparison between magnetic field strengths and configuration on engine performance and exhaust emissions. CHAPTER 2 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Magnetism is one of the least understood forces of nature that are still under exploration by many scientists and researchers. Studying this phenomenon leads to complex equations of quantum physics, which remains controversial in theory [17]. The application of a magnetic field on a pipe helps to prevent lime scale build-up inside the pipe, but, the world’s top scientists cannot agree on the actual reason for such phenomenon. The effect of magnetism on fluids has also been proven by Bloch and Purcell, which won them the Nobel Prize [16]. Few scientific publications have explored the effect of magnetic field on the combustion process. However, several commercial publications and patents claim that this effect in significant. The present literature review deals only with scientific publications which study the effect of magnetic field on combustion characteristics. Ueno and Harada in 1986 [10] found that the application of a magnetic field on the combustion of alcohol with platinum catalyst, which had magnetic induction strength of 0.5-1.4 T and magnetic field gradient on the order of 20-200 T/m, lowered the combustion temperature rapidly by 100-200 oC. Moreover, Ueno and Harada in 1987 [11] found that the application of a magnetic field on gas flow, which had magnetic induction strength of 1.6-2.2 T and a magnetic field gradient on the order of 220-300 T/m, had formed a “wall of oxygen” or an “air curtain” that depresses back flames and gas flow. 11 12 Both studies concentrated on the alignment of the paramagnetic molecules of oxygen with the magnetic field, and they each show a negative impact on the combustion process. Aoki in 1989 [12] observed an increase in the emission concentration of OH, CH, and C , 2 and a decrease of soot production from diffusion flames exposed to a non-uniform magnetic field. However, Aoki in 1990 [13] reported a decrease in the emission concentration of OH, CH, and C for diffusion flames exposed to uniform and non- 2 uniform magnetic field regions. This decrease in the later study was attributed to the arrangement used to produce the uniform magnetic field. Both studies still hold great promise for the positive impact of a magnetic field on the combustion process. Wakayama in 1993 [14] found that the combustion reaction of diffusion flames can be promoted and controlled with the application of inhomogeneous magnetic field. He also noticed that the effect of inhomogeneous magnetic fields is larger in diffusion flames than in partially premixed flames. The effect of magnetic field on flames is mainly attributed to the response of the paramagnetic oxygen gas in air around the flame. Moreover, Wakayama et al. in 1996 [15] discovered that the presence of a magnetic field reduced the formation of soot in diffusion flames under microgravity, which usually formed large soot particles without the presence of a magnetic field. Both studies concentrated on the potential ability of magnetic control of air flows around diffusion flames (Magneto-Aerodynamics), and they showed significant positive impacts on the combustion process. A company called Energy Management Solution (EMS) in 1996 [16] claimed that the application of a strong permanent magnetic field on fuel supply line will prepare the 13 hydrocarbon molecules to react easily with free radicals in the combustion process. This will make the fuel burn completely with the air mixture, which will produce more energy with the same amount of fuel, which will consequently lead to a reduction in the noxious emissions. They also claim that many independent users of strong permanent magnets proved their ability to increase the potential performance of thermal process plants. In addition, these magnets do not need any maintenance or power supply, and they do not interfere with the supply or production of the system. Nayyar in 1998 [17] claimed that many experiments and observations showed the effect of magnetism on combustion, but the reason for this effect is still an area of study in pure physics. Moreover, he recalled the use of electromagnets on aviation fuel to combat the fuel inconsistency fifty years ago. He claimed that the reason might be the agitation of the fuel molecular structure, which will cause the positive charge on the electron ‘to precess’. This precession is believed to make the fuel mix more readily with the oxygen during combustion. He supported his claim with several experiments, conducted in laboratories and industrial applications, that increased the efficiency and decreased the emissions by 20%. He also claimed that the strong permanent magnets, if placed strategically, can improve fuel economy by 8-24%, and reduce emissions by 30%. Baker and Saito in 2000 [18] recalled that the impact of magnetic fields on combustion has been noticed since the time of Faraday. They related this impact to the nature of the diamagnetic and paramagnetic gases involved in the combustion process. They claimed that the presence of a magnetic field will produce net dipole moments in diamagnetic gases and align the dipole moments in the paramagnetic gases. This will result in a repulsion force in diamagnetic gases and an attraction force in paramagnetic gases, and 14 will thus lead to the arrangement of these gases. They developed an expression for the Gibbs free energy, which includes a magnetic field contribution. They examined changes in the equilibrium composition quantitatively for the combustion of methane in air with the presence of a uniform magnetic field. These equilibrium characteristics were determined, by minimizing the Gibbs free energy, to be around zero. They suggested that the magnetic field must be strong enough, around 0.04 T (400 Gauss), in order to observe a significant impact on the equilibrium combustion characteristics. They discovered that the presence of magnetic field at certain temperature ranges decreased the mole fraction in the majority of the product species, but it increased the mole fraction in a few of the product species. They also observed that the NO emissions were reduced dramatically in comparison to other equilibrium mole fractions in the presence of a strong magnetic field (around 0.04 T) at high temperatures (around 3000 K). That study showed a promising positive impact, especially for the harmful emission such as NO and CO. Pankhurst and Parkin in 2001 [19] claimed that the effect of a magnetic field on liquids and gases are already known. The magnetic field can influence the chemical reactions during combustion since oxygen in the fuel-air mixture has paramagnetic behaviour that affects the brightness of the flame in rocket engines according to the magnitude of the magnetic field gradient imposed. Most of the above studies showed a promising positive impact of magnetic field on the combustion processes and their emission formulations. This encourages researchers to conduct more extensive studies in this field in order to benefit the world financially and environmentally. CHAPTER 3 3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 3.1 BACKGROUND In the present study, the experiments were designed to investigate the impact of magnetic field on engine performance by examining fuel consumption and exhaust emissions such as CO, NOx, and HC. These experiments were conducted on a spark ignition internal combustion engine with unleaded gasoline fuel. They were conducted at different engine speed and load conditions with different numbers of electromagnets at different orientations and polarities. The engine output energy was controlled and measured by applying an external load on the crankshaft by using a dynamometer. A dynamometer acts like a braking device by means of friction, hydraulic, or magnetic force, which absorbs the engine energy. The fuel consumption was measured by determining the rate of fuel flow to the engine, utilizing the simplest method of timing a calibrated volume with a stopwatch (A more complicated approach would use a gravimetric metering unit, which weighs the supplied fuel to the engine over a certain time interval). The exhaust emissions were monitored and analyzed by using a specialized gas analyzer, which uses different analyzing techniques for each sampled gas. 15 16 3.2 TEST FACILITIES The test engine and the dynamometer are controlled by a microcomputer equipped with a high-speed data acquisition and logging system. This controlling system receives the operational data from various sensors fitted on the engine and the dynamometer. These sensors measure and report different parameters such as engine load, engine speed, spark timing, intake air temperature, exhaust gas temperature, oil temperature, and cooling water temperature. Several actuators are also fitted on the testing facilities in order to execute the controller commands. All data received from these testing facilities are displayed on the controller monitor and logged at the same time to another microcomputer to be stored and traced over time. A schematic diagram illustrating the major testing facilities used in this experimental study is shown in Figure 3-1 for clarification, and it is detailed in the following sections. 3.2.1 Engine The test engine used in this experimental study is a four stroke, spark ignition internal combustion engine. It was manufactured by Mercedes-Benz and it is located in the Heat Engine Laboratory at KFUPM. The engine consists of six cylinders, with a swept volume of 2960 cm3. It has a bore diameter of 88.5 mm, a stroke length of 80.2 mm, a compression ratio of 9.2, and a maximum power output of 132 kW at 5700 rpm. The engine is equipped with the KE-Jetronic continuous fuel injection system, which injects the fuel directly before the intake valve of each cylinder. The engine has an electronic ignition system with an electronic spark timing adjustment. The cooling water and lubrication oil temperatures are adjusted and controlled by two fitted heat exchangers. 17 Figure 3-1: Schematic diagram illustrating the major testing facilities 18 3.2.2 Dynamometer The engine is coupled to an eddy-current water-cooled dynamometer, which attains the braking effect through a magnetic field produced by the supplied electrical current. The dynamometer’s revolving part dissipates the engine power in the form of heat, which is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. The dynamometer has a maximum power of 257 kW, a maximum torque of 1400 Nm, and a maximum speed of 8000 rpm. 3.2.3 Gas Analyzer The unburned hydrocarbons (HC) concentration is measured by the Heated Flame Ionization Detector (HFID), which proportionally relates a current of ions produced by a hydrogen flame to the amount of carbon atoms contained in the exhaust sample. The measurement range for this analyzer is 0.01 to 5 vol%. The nitrogen oxides (NOx) concentration is measured by a Chemi-Luminescent (CL) analyzer, which proportionally relates the photon lights from the reaction between nitrogen oxide (NO) and ozone (O ) 3 to the concentration of NO in the exhaust sample. The small amounts of nitrogen dioxide (NO ) are converted to NO prior to the reaction with ozone. The measurement range of 2 this analyzer is 10-10000 ppm. The carbon monoxide (CO) concentration is measured by the Non-Dispersive Infra-Red (NDIR) analyzer, which proportionally relates the CO absorption of a certain infrared radiation wavelength to the concentration of CO in the exhaust sample. The measurement range of this analyzer is 10-5000 ppm. All three analyzers have less than ±1% span repeatability (relative scale) and less than ±1% span drift (full scale over 24 hour period). These measurement results are displayed 19 on the exhaust analysis controller, and transferred at the same time to the system controller through the local area network (LAN) cable. 3.3 TEST MAGNETS Five electromagnets were constructed by winding copper wires around deformed iron rods with a certain shape as shown in Figure 3-2. Electrical current running through the winded copper wire was supplied by a twelve volts (12V) car battery in order to generate the magnetic field. The battery was recharged regularly to eliminate any power discrepancies which might influence the magnetic field effect. The electromagnet iron core magnified and concentrated the magnetic fields at the ends, which are pointed toward the fuel supply line. A suitable copper wire grade (0.3 mm) was selected which can be wound without difficulty or breakage. Sufficient windings were produced to generate the desired magnetic field strength without burning the wire. The wire was wound tightly in order to generate a uniform magnetic field. The magnetic field was measured by using a Gauss meter, to be around 800 Gauss for each electromagnet. The ends of the cooper wire were detachable to manipulate polarity of the generated magnetic field. A permeable test section made of copper was constructed on the fuel supply line before the fuel injection point in order to maximize the magnetic field effect on the fuel before combustion. The number of electromagnets controlled the magnetic field strength to be placed directly on the test section. The orientation and polarity of each magnet controlled the configuration to manipulate the magnetic field effect on the supplied fuel. 20 Figure 3-2: Single constructed electromagnet 3.4 TEST CONDITIONS The engine, dynamometer, and gas analyzer measurements can be affected by many engine operational parameters such as spark timing, air/fuel ratio, and cooling water temperature. These measurements can be also affected by test room conditions such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, and humidity. The best engine parameters were adjusted in order to achieve optimum engine performance for each condition. This was also accomplished by conducting all settings of the engine load and speed at each magnetic field strength or configuration setup during the same day to avoid discrepancy. 3.5 TEST PROCEDURE The engine was first tested without a magnetic field effect in order to establish the base line for the following experiments that have different magnetic effects. Each test was 21 conducted by fixing one of the independent variables constant and varying the other one with certain increment intervals. The engine speed was varied five times at 500 rpm increments from 1000 rpm to 3000 rpm. The load on the engine was also varied five times at 40 Nm increments from 20 Nm to 180 Nm. The magnetic field strength was increased five times at 800 Gauss increments from 800 Gauss to 4000 Gauss by adding another magnet each time. All magnetic field strengths were varied by using the same ‘Attraction’ configuration where opposite poles attracted each other. Furthermore, the orientation of the five magnets (4000 Gauss) was made perpendicular on each other to get the ‘Spiral’ Configuration as shown in Figure 3-3 (a). Moreover, the polarities of the strongest magnetic field of 4000 Gauss in parallel setup were made to be the same, in order to get the ‘Repulsion’ configuration as shown in Figure 3-3 (b). All test readings were given enough time to stabilize before being recorded at each load and speed setting and different magnetic field strengths and configurations. S S S Fuel Fuel line test section N S line N N N EElelecctrtorommaaggnneetst eenndds (a) (b) Figure 3-3: Electromagnets (a) orientation and (b) polarity CHAPTER 4 4 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC) 4.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect 4.1.1 Constant Load Simulation The variation of Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) against varying speeds at a constant load of 20 Nm and different aligned magnetic field strength in ‘Attraction’ configuration is shown in Figure 4-1. It is observed that, with a zero magnetic field strength, the SFC follows a parabolic relation with a minimum value of 660 g/kWh at 1900 rpm. As the magnetic field is turned on, a marked reduction of 10% in SFC is observed for most of the magnetic field strengths at the lowest and highest engine speeds, where the SFC is the highest value depicted in the base curve. However, no convincing dependence is observed on the magnitude of magnetic field strength, since one magnet of 800 Gauss shows the most favourable effect compared to all the others. At the intermediate speeds where the SFC is lower, the magnetic field effect tends to diminish within the error of ±1%. All the curves with magnetic effect follow a more linear trend, slightly dissimilar to the curve corresponding to the base line. 22 23 780 760 740 720 700 680 660 640 620 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Load = 20 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 4-1: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant load of 20 Nm 24 Figure 4-2 shows the relationship between the same variables but at a load of 60 Nm, where it is noticed that the SFC decreases substantially by half at all engine speeds at this increased load. The curve corresponding to zero magnetic field strength still follows the same parabolic trend with less variation and a minimum value of 365 g/kWh at the same speed of 1900 rpm. As the magnetic field is turned on, only a slight reduction of 2% is observed from the base curve for the lowest speed. All curves can be regarded as representing a highly insensitive dependence of SFC on engine speed due to the low variation across. Figure 4-3 shows the same curves but at a load of 100 Nm, where it is observed that the application of the magnetic field has little effect if any on the dependence of SFC on engine speed. Moreover, the magnitude of the magnetic field strength does little to change this. All the curves follow the same trend, with slight deviations within the error at various engine speeds. The difference in the maximum and minimum SFC magnitudes increases but the overall SFC values decreases somewhat at all engine speeds as compared to the previous figure. The same trend continues with engine loads of 140 and 180 Nm as depicted in Figure 4-4 and Figure 4-5. The overall decrease in the SFC value at all engine speeds with increasing load continued, but the amount of decrement is decreasing with the increase in load. The application of the magnetic field has little effect on reducing the SFC magnitude at all engine speeds, and the magnitude of the magnetic field strength does little to change this. The difference between the maximum and minimum magnitudes of SFC for any given load increases with increasing load, with the exception of the lowest load of 20 Nm as shown in Figure 4-1. 25 385 380 375 370 365 360 355 350 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Load = 60 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 4-2: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant load of 60 Nm 26 320 315 310 305 300 295 290 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Load = 100 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 4-3: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant load of 100 Nm 27 305 300 295 290 285 280 275 270 265 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Load = 140 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 4-4: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant load of 140 Nm 28 300 295 290 285 280 275 270 265 260 255 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Load = 180Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 4-5: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant load of 180 Nm 29 4.1.2 Constant Speed Simulation The variation of the engine’s SFC against different loads at a constant speed of 1000 rpm and different aligned magnetic field strengths in ‘Attraction’ configuration is shown in Figure 4-6. With no magnetic field, it is observed that the specific fuel consumption decreases monotonically with increasing engine load. The rate of decrease of SFC is high at low engine loads, but it decreases with increasing loads. At high engine loads, it approaches a constant value asymptotically. When the magnetic field is turned on, no appreciable effect is observed on SFC at most engine loads with increasing magnetic field strength. However, at the lowest engine load of 85 kPa, there is a slight but noticeable reduction effect of 10% as observed earlier at this lowest speed of 1000 rpm. Figure 4-7 and Figure 4-8 show the relationship between the same variables at engine speeds of 1500 and 2000 rpm respectively. Here, the magnetic field imparts no appreciable effect on SFC variation at all engine loads. However, it is observed that, with increasing engine speed, there is a slight decrease in SFC at virtually all engine loads. Figure 4-9 and Figure 4-10 show the same relation at engine speeds of 2500 and 3000 rpm respectively. Increasing the magnetic field strength shows no effect at on SFC variation at most engine loads as observed in the previous figures. However, the maximum value of SFC starts to increase with increasing engine speed at the lowest load, with a slight but noticeable magnetic field effect of 10% as observed earlier at the highest speed of 3000 rpm. 30 700 600 500 400 300 200 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Speed = 1000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 4-6: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant speed of 1000 rpm 31 700 600 500 400 300 200 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Speed = 1500 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 4-7: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant speed of 1500 rpm 32 700 600 500 400 300 200 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Speed = 2000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 4-8: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant speed of 2000 rpm 33 700 600 500 400 300 200 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Speed = 2500 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 4-9: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant speed of 2500 rpm 34 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Speed = 3000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 4-10: Magnetic strength effect on SFC at constant speed of 3000 rpm 35 4.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect 4.2.1 Constant Load Simulation The variation of SFC against varying engine speeds at a constant load of 20 Nm and constant magnetic field strength of 4000 Gauss with three different magnetic field configurations is shown in Figure 4-11. It is seen that with the magnetic field turned off the SFC initially decreases with increasing engine speed, reaching a minimum value of about 660 g/kWh at 1900 rpm. Then, it starts to increase and reaches a value of 765 g/kWh at the highest engine speed. As the magnetic field is turned on, a significant reduction of SFC is observed only at the lowest and highest engine speed for all configurations. In marked contrast, the ‘Attraction’ configuration shows the best improvement at almost all engine speeds. Moreover, the ‘Repulsion’ configuration performs slightly better at the highest speed of 3000 rpm to reach a reduction of 10%. However, the ‘Spiral’ configuration shows less favourable performance at almost all engine speeds. Figure 4-12 shows the relationship between the same variables as the previous figure but now at a different load of 60 Nm. It is seen that again in general all the curves behave in a manner analogous to a parabola. However, now it is seen that no marked improvement occurs when the magnetic field is turned on except for the lowest speed of 1000 rpm. In fact, the performance becomes slightly worse at most other speeds, except the ‘Repulsion’ configuration, where it tends to perform slightly better for all engine speeds. With this increase of load, the overall SFC goes down drastically for all values of the engine speed. 36 780 760 740 720 700 680 660 640 620 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Load = 20 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 4-11: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant load of 20 Nm 37 378 376 374 372 370 368 366 364 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Load = 60 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 4-12: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant load of 60 Nm 38 As the load is increased further to 100 Nm, as depicted in Figure 4-13, a further decrease in the overall SFC values occurs at all engine speeds. No marked improvement or worsening results from the introduction of the magnetic field at all engine speeds. Further increase of load to 140 Nm and 180 Nm, shown in Figure 4-14 and Figure 4-15, produces the same result. There is an overall decrease of SFC at all engine speeds with an increase in load, but no marked improvement with the introduction of the magnetic field at most engine speeds of any field configuration. 39 320 318 316 314 312 310 308 306 304 302 300 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Load = 100 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 4-13: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant load of 100 Nm 40 310 305 300 295 290 285 280 275 270 265 260 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Load = 140 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 4-14: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant load of 140 Nm 41 300 295 290 285 280 275 270 265 260 255 250 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Load = 180 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 4-15: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant load of 180 Nm 42 4.2.2 Constant Speed Simulation The variation of the engine’s SFC against different loads at a constant speed of 1000 rpm and constant magnetic field strength of 4000 Gauss with three different magnetic field configurations in ‘Attraction’, ‘Repulsion’, and ‘Spiral’ is shown in Figure 4-16. First of all, we note that, as the load increases, initially the SFC decreases rapidly, but with further increase of load, the SFC decreases with a steadier rate and reaches a constant value asymptotically. The overall SFC decreases monotonically with increasing load from around 700 (g/kWh) to nearly 270 (g/kWh). It can be easily observed that all four curves are virtually identical, with slight dissimilarity occurring only near the lowest engine loads, specifically for the ‘Attraction’ configuration. This slight and unobvious effect might be caused by the large SFC variation range across these different loads. Figure 4-17 through Figure 4-20 correspond to an increase of the engine speed to 1500, 2000, 2500 and 3000 rpm respectively, while all other parameters are unchanged. These curves are observed to be virtually identical to Figure 4 -16, where the magnetic field configuration effect is observed to be minimal. 43 750 650 550 450 350 250 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Speed =1000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 4-16: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant speed of 1000 rpm 44 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Speed =1500 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 4-17: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant speed of 1500 rpm 45 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Speed = 2000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 4-18: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant speed of 2000 rpm 46 700 600 500 400 300 200 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Speed = 2500 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 4-19: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant speed of 2500 rpm 47 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 hWk/g ,CFS Φ=1.0 Speed = 3000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 4-20: Magnetic configuration effect on SFC at constant speed of 3000 rpm CHAPTER 5 5 CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS (CO) 5.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect 5.1.1 Constant Load Simulation The variation of CO emissions in ppm against varying speeds at a constant load of 20 Nm and different aligned magnetic field strength in ‘Attraction’ configuration is shown in Figure 5-1. The CO emissions initially have a very high value of more than 3000 ppm at the lowest engine speed of 1000 rpm without any magnetic effect. As the engine speed is increased, CO emissions go down with smaller variation after 1500 rpm to stabilize at 2150 ppm. As the magnetic field is turned on, a remarkable decrease of 49% in CO emissions level is observed at the lowest engine speed of 1000 rpm. The increase in the magnetic field strength shows no distinctive effect in the emission level at most engine speeds. The curves corresponding to the different magnetic field strengths follow the same trend as the base curve, where they stabilize around a lower average value of 1900 ppm after 1500 rpm with an average decrease of 10% from the base curve. 48 49 3100 2900 2700 2500 2300 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Load = 20 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 5-1: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant load of 20 Nm 50 As the load is increased to 60 Nm, as shown in Figure 5-2, the qualitative behaviour of all the curves changes dramatically. Now, the CO emissions correspond to a mostly monotonically increasing curve as the engine speed increases, reaching a maximum of 2300 ppm near the highest engine speed of 3000 rpm. In general, the overall CO emissions level decreases considerably. Application of the magnetic field produces a similar appreciable reduction of 10% in the higher engine speed range. Increase in the magnitude of the magnetic field strength shows little variation. All the curves follow the same trend as that corresponding to zero magnetic strength. Figure 5-3 shows the same relationship, but with an increased engine load to 100 Nm, where the qualitative behaviour remains almost the same as with the previous load. Application of the magnetic field again results in a similar decrease of 10% in the emissions level, where it is also more pronounced at higher engine speeds. The magnitude of the magnetic field strength has little effect on the emissions level. Figure 5-4 shows the previous relationship at an increased load of 140 Nm where a shift in the qualitative behaviour is observed, similar to Figure 5-1. The CO emissions level goes down initially from 1800 ppm to a minimum value of 1200 ppm at 1500 rpm. Then, it increases to a maximum of 1900 ppm at 2500 rpm before it decreases slightly again. Application of the magnetic field produces somewhat more decrease in the emissions level compared to previous loads at almost all engine speeds. This can be seen especially at the lowest speed of 1000 rpm where the reduction reaches 40% with five magnets. In addition, different magnetic field strengths do not show a clear distinction for their effect on CO emissions. 51 2500 2300 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 1100 900 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Load = 60 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 5-2: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant load of 60 Nm 52 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Load = 100 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 5-3: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant load of 100 Nm 53 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Load = 140Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 5-4: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant load of 140 Nm 54 A further increase in engine load to 180 Nm, as depicted in Figure 5-5, shows a return to the qualitative behaviour observed in Figure 5-1. The CO emissions level goes down sharply and stabilizes at around 1900 ppm above 1500 rpm, which is considerably less than the value reached at a load of 20 Nm. However, the CO emissions increase dramatically to a higher value of 3400 ppm at the engine speed of 1000 rpm. Application of a magnetic field shows even more decrease in the emissions level at almost all engine speeds. This can be seen especially at the lowest speed of 1000 rpm where the reduction reaches 45% with five magnets. The effect of magnetic field strength is more obvious at this load, since the strongest field shows the most favourable effect consistently across all engine speeds. All curves follow the same trend as that shown by the base curve. 55 3400 2900 2400 1900 1400 900 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime OC No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Φ=1.0 Load = 180 Nm Aligned Magnets Engine speed, rpm Figure 5-5: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant load of 180 Nm 56 5.1.2 Constant Speed Simulation The variation of CO emission against different loads at a constant speed of 1000 rpm and different aligned magnetic field strengths in ‘Attraction’ configuration is shown in Figure 5-6. With no magnetic field, it is observed that the CO emission decreases initially with increasing engine loads until it reaches a minimum of around 650 ppm at 350 kPa of engine load. Thereafter, the emission increases to a maximum of 3500 ppm at the highest load of 750 kPa. The shape of the curve is seen to resemble a parabola. When the magnetic field is turned on, a noticeable effect is observed for most engine loads, especially at higher and lower engine load values. As the engine load increases beyond the minimum emission point, a higher positive effect is also observed for all magnetic field strengths, especially for the 4000 Gauss field. The best favourable effect of more than 40% emission reduction is observed at both ends of the load spectrum. Figure 5-7 shows the relationship between the same variables, while the engine speed is increased to 1500 rpm. With no magnetic field, the CO emission behaviour does not change much, while the minimum emission point shifts towards a higher engine load of 500 kPa, and the difference between the maximum and minimum values is reduced substantially. Similarly, when the magnetic field is turned on a remarkable effect is observed for most engine loads, especially at the highest and lowest engine loads. In addition, the highest magnetic field strength still shows the best reduction, reaching 35% at the highest load of 180 Nm and 15% reduction at lowest load of 20 Nm. 57 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Speed = 1000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 5-6: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant speed of 1000 rpm 58 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Speed = 1500 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 5-7: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant speed of 1500 rpm 59 Figure 5-8 shows the same graph as before but at an engine speed of 2000 rpm. With no magnetic field, the CO emissions continue their trend of reduction in the maximum value and increase in the minimum, where the parabolic trend is becoming flatter. Also, the higher minimum emission value of 1600 ppm now occurs at a higher engine load of 600 kPa. Similarly, at this engine speed, when the magnetic field is turned on, an appreciable reduction of CO emissions is still observed at all engine loads and at all magnetic field strengths. In addition, the dependence of CO emission on magnetic field strength seems very complex and apparently unpredictable at this load. Moreover, the maximum emission reduction reaches 35% at the highest load of 180 Nm. Figure 5-9 shows the variation in the same variables at an engine speed of 2500 rpm. At zero magnetic field, the curve changes its engine load dependence. The maximum CO emissions now increase from the previous engine speed setting by 200 ppm, but the minimum remains near its previous value of 1700 ppm. When the magnetic field is turned on, an appreciable reduction between 10-20% in CO emissions is observed consistently at all engine loads and at all magnetic field strengths. This reduction in CO emissions does not seem to depend noticeably on the magnetic field strength. Similar observations are reported for an engine speed of 3000 rpm as shown in Figure 5-10. The only difference is that the CO emission now starts to decrease at almost all engine loads. The qualitative behaviour remains essentially the same. With the application of the magnetic field, the CO emission reduction of 10% is observed consistently at all engine loads with no particular dependence on magnetic field strength. 60 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 1100 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Speed = 2000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 5-8: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant speed of 2000 rpm 61 2500 2300 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Speed = 2500 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 5-9: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant speed of 2500 rpm 62 2300 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Speed = 3000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 5-10: Magnetic strength effect on CO at constant speed of 3000 rpm 63 5.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect 5.2.1 Constant Load Simulation The variation of the CO emissions against varying engine speeds at a constant load of 20 Nm and constant magnetic field strength of 4000 Gauss with three different magnetic field configurations is shown in Figure 5-11. Before starting the magnetic field effect, the CO emissions show a mixed trend. Initially, the CO emissions decrease with increasing engine speed, settling down at a near constant value for engine speeds of 1500 to 2500 rpm and then again slightly decreasing with a further rise in the engine speed to 3000 rpm. The CO emissions vary from a maximum of 3000 ppm to a minimum of 1900 ppm. With the application of the magnetic field, a marked decrease in the emissions is observed at all engine speeds and more noticeably at 1000 rpm. The curves follow the zero magnetic field curve trend for almost all engine speeds. Also, in this region no effect difference is observed in the different magnetic field strength configurations. However, for the lower range of the engine speed, less than 1500 rpm, different magnetic configurations show different trends, with the least emissions taking place for the ‘Repulsion’ configuration. The reduction reaches 48% with the ‘Repulsion’ configuration at 1000 rpm compared to 23% reduction with the ‘Attraction’ configuration. In addition, the ‘Spiral’ configuration acts somewhat in between at this lowest speed with a reduction of 40% in CO emission. 64 3100 2900 2700 2500 2300 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 1100 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Load = 20 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 5-11: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant load of 20 Nm 65 Figure 5-12 shows the relationship between the same variables at an increased load to 60 Nm. It is noted that now the behaviour of the CO emission curves is totally changed. The curves now start from a low value of CO emissions at the lowest engine speed, and they increase monotonically with increasing engine speed. However, a maximum emission value of 2350 ppm is reached at around the highest engine speed. This is in marked contrast to the previous figure, where the CO emissions decreased with increasing engine speed. In general, the overall CO emissions decrease by comparison with the previous load settings at all engine speeds. With the application of the magnetic field, a considerable decrease of 10% in the CO emissions occurs at engine speeds higher than 2000 rpm, but this change is less pronounced at lower speeds. All magnetic field configurations show similar behaviour with no preference. Figure 5-13 shows the effect of a further increase in the load to a value of 100 Nm. The behaviour of all curves is essentially the same as that in the previous figure, with a slight decrease in the overall CO emissions at all engine speeds. The reduction continues to be around 10% at higher engine speeds. 66 2500 2300 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 1100 900 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Load = 60 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 5-12: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant load of 60 Nm 67 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Load = 100 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 5-13: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant load of 100 Nm 68 Further increase in the load to 140 Nm, depicted in Figure 5 -14, shows a change in the relation between the CO emissions and the engine speed, reverting back to what was observed at the lowest load of 20 Nm. The CO emissions have a high value of 1800 ppm at the lowest engine speed, but they decrease initially with increasing engine speed to 1200 ppm. Then, they increase to a maximum of 2000 ppm to end at the same starting level of 1800 ppm at the maximum speed. Above 1500 rpm, there is an overall decrease in the emissions at all engine speeds as compared to the data in the previous figure. All the configurations show the same behaviour after the application of the magnetic field, resulting in a decrease in the emissions at most engine speeds. Below 1500 rpm and above 2000 rpm, again the application of the magnetic field induces a considerable decrease of 12% in the emissions, with different configurations showing slightly different levels of effect. These behaviours of the curves are comparable to the behaviour shown at 20 Nm of load. The maximum reduction reaches 38% at the lowest engine speed with a slightly less favourable effect from the ‘Spiral’ configuration. Figure 5-15 shows the effect of a further increase in the load to 180 Nm. For speeds above 1500 rpm the emissions remain more or less constant at around 1750 ppm, while they increase rapidly for speeds below 1500 rpm to a value of 3500 ppm. With the application of the magnetic field, a marked decrease in the CO emissions occurs at all engine speeds. The different magnetic configurations have no noticeable effect above 1500 rpm, but they show a favourable discrepancy below 1500 rpm for the ‘Repulsion’ and ‘Attraction’ configurations with a maximum reduction of 48%. This behaviour is somewhat similar to the 20 Nm load, as depicted in Figure 5-11. 69 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Load = 140 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 5-14: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant load of 140 Nm 70 3250 2750 2250 1750 1250 750 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Load = 180 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 5-15: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant load of 180 Nm 71 5.2.2 Constant Speed Simulation The variation of the engine CO emissions against different loads at a constant speed of 1000 rpm and constant magnetic field strength of 4000 Gauss with three different magnetic field configurations is shown in Figure 5-16. With the magnetic field turned off, the CO emission initially decreases with rising engine load until it reaches a minimum of 700 ppm at an engine load of around 350 kPa. Then, the emission increases monotonically to around 3500 ppm at the highest engine load. The shape of the emissions curve resembles a parabola. As the magnetic field is turned on, the CO emission decreases substantially by 48% at both ends of the load spectrum. This magnetic field effect is more pronounced for the ‘Attraction’ and ‘Repulsion’ configurations than for the ‘Spiral’ configuration. However, the minimum value of the CO emissions remains nearly the same and also occurs at around the same engine load. This indicates a somewhat restricted effect of the magnetic field at that engine load of 350 kPa. Figure 5 -17 shows the variation in the same variables at a constant engine speed of 1500 rpm. With no magnetic field, the CO emission is observed to go down substantially near the lowest and the highest values of engine load in comparison with the previous lower engine speed setting. However, for moderate values of engine load, the CO emission goes drastically higher with the minimum now at around 1200 ppm occurring at nearly 500 kPa of engine load. As the magnetic field is turned on, the CO emissions again go down around the extreme values of the engine load, and the minimum CO emission remains approximately the same. The reduction varies between 15% and 30% at the lowest and highest load respectively. Moreover, it can be observed that now there is less discrepancy between the ‘Spiral’ magnetic configuration and the other two magnetic configurations at 72 most engine loads. Overall, the shape of all the curves is qualitatively the same in both previous figures. Figure 5 -18 shows a further increase in engine speed which is now set to 2000 rpm. It is observed, without magnetic field effect, that the maximum value of the CO emission has gone down slightly and the minimum value has gone up dramatically. In this regard, the CO emission variation is trying to become ‘flatter’ with increasing engine speed. On the other hand, the overall shape of the curve is now changed, where the minimum value of the CO emission has moved further right and occurs at a higher engine load of around 600 kPa and the curve now has a point of inflection at an engine load of 500 kPa, which was not observed in the previous two figures. When the magnetic field is turned on, the CO emissions at all engine loads goes down, and there is little effect in changing the magnetic field configuration. It is also noted that the minimum CO emission goes down by 30% once the magnetic field is applied at the highest engine load of 750 kPa while a reduction level of 10% remains constant at most other engine loads. Figure 5-19 and Figure 5-20 show the effect of a further increase in the engine speed, now set to 2500 and 3000 rpm respectively. With no magnetic field, a considerable rise in CO emission is observed for the first half of the engine loads. When the magnetic field is turned on, the CO emission goes down consistently by 15% for most values of engine loads. In addition, there is less variation between the emission curves corresponding to different magnetic configurations. 73 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Speed =1000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 5-16: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant speed of 1000 rpm 74 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Speed =1500 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 5-17: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant speed of 1500 rpm 75 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 1100 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Speed = 2000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 5-18: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant speed of 2000 rpm 76 2500 2300 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Speed = 2500 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 5-19: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant speed of 2500 rpm 77 2300 2100 1900 1700 1500 1300 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime OC Φ=1.0 Speed = 3000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 5-20: Magnetic configuration effect on CO at constant speed of 3000 rpm CHAPTER 6 6 NITROGEN OXIDES EMISSIONS (NOx) 6.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect 6.1.1 Constant Load Simulation The variation of NOx emissions in ppm against varying speeds at a constant load of 20 Nm and different aligned magnetic field strength in ‘Attraction’ configuration is shown in Figure 6-1. Before the magnetic field is applied, the NOx emissions increase almost linearly to a maximum of 600 ppm with increasing engine speed up to 2500 rpm, before they start to decrease again. Application of the magnetic field shows little unfavourable deviation from the base curve for field strength of 800 Gauss, especially for engine speeds higher than 2000 rpm. An increase to 1600 Gauss, however, starts to show a marked decrease of 15% in the emissions level at higher engine speeds. A further increase to 2400 Gauss now shows a clear decrease by 35% in the emissions level at the lowest engine speed. Stronger field strength of 3200 Gauss shows a slight decrease from the previous magnetic strength. However, as the field strength is increased to 4000 Gauss, the emissions once again rise and show no significant change from the base curve at virtually all engine speeds. This shows that the intermediate values of the field strengths improve the performance of NOx emissions at almost all engine speeds. Moreover, it is to be noted that almost all the curves exhibit the same qualitative behaviour. 78 79 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Load = 20 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 6-1: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant load of 20 Nm 80 With a load increase to 60 Nm, a marked change in the qualitative behaviour of the curves is observed, as portrayed in Figure 6 -2. The NOx emissions practically stabilize around a constant value of 950 ppm after 1500 rpm, before which the emissions decay rapidly from 1450 ppm at 1000 rpm. Application of the magnetic field of 800 Gauss shows a slight detriment in the NOx emission performance after 1500 rpm. An increase to 1600 Gauss shows an appreciable decrease of 10% in the emissions level at higher engine speeds. Further increase to 2400 and 3200 Gauss field strengths show a clear decrease in the emissions level by 20% at almost all engine speeds. This is the same result as observed in the previous load setting. At field strength of 4000 Gauss, deterioration is observed at almost all engine speeds compared to the previous field strength settings, but the decrease in the emissions level from the bases values is still appreciable. All the curves exhibit more or less the same trend across the entire engine speed interval. Moreover, it is to be noticed that the overall NOx emissions increase considerably at all engine speeds compared to the previous load setting. At a load of 100 Nm, the qualitative behaviour of the base curve tends to be decreasing more linearly as represented in Figure 6-3. Here, the NOx emissions decrease steeply from 2500 ppm with increasing engine load, reaching a minimum of 1500 ppm. Again, it can be seen that there is a considerable increase in the emissions level at all engine speeds compared to the previous load setting. Application of the magnetic field shows no appreciable deviation from the base curve, except a decrease by 15% at the lowest engine speed for the intermediate magnetic field strengths of 2400 and 3200 Gauss. This shows that increasing the load nullifies to some extent the effect of the magnetic field. 81 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Load = 60 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 6-2: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant load of 60 Nm 82 2600 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Load = 100 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 6-3: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant load of 100 Nm 83 Figure 6-4 shows the relationship between the same variables at a higher constant load of 140 where the behaviour of the curve changes again to remain decreasing monotonically as a function of engine speed. Application of the magnetic field initially increases the emissions level slightly at field strength of 800 Gauss. On the other hand, a slight decrease by 6% in the emissions level is observed for a field strength 1600 Gauss at higher engine speeds, which is analogous to the behaviour in the early load settings. In contrast, field strengths of 2400 and 3200 Gauss show an appreciable decrease of 12% at lower engine speeds similar to previous load settings. Finally, the emissions level remains virtually unchanged when 4000 Gauss is applied at essentially all engine speeds. The above observations also exhibit a strong effect of load on the effectiveness of the magnetic field. Figure 6-5 portrays a relationship between the same variables at a constant load of 180 Nm, where the qualitative behaviour and different magnetic field strengths mimic the previous figure to a certain extent. However, the 800 Gauss field strength shows little improvement over the base curve. The overall NOx emissions continue to increase with increasing loads. 84 3400 3200 3000 2800 2600 2400 2200 2000 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Load = 140 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 6-4: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant load of 140 Nm 85 4000 3800 3600 3400 3200 3000 2800 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Load = 180 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 6-5: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant load of 180 Nm 86 6.1.2 Constant Speed Simulation The variation of the NOx emissions against engine loads at a constant engine speed of 1000 rpm and different aligned magnetic field strengths in ‘Attraction’ configuration is shown in Figure 6 -6. Generally, the NOx emissions conform to a crude linear relation with increasing engine loads. The rate of increase of NOx emissions is high at low engine loads, but then they decrease continuously. When the magnetic field is turned on, an appreciable reduction of 15% in the NOx emissions is observed only for magnetic field strengths of 2400 and 3200 Gauss, especially at higher engine loads. As the engine speed is increased to 1500 rpm, as depicted in Figure 6-7, it is observed that the overall NOx emissions increase slightly at almost all engine loads to become more linear. Similarly, when the magnetic field is applied, a lower reduction of 10% is observed only for 2400 and 3200 Gauss values, especially for higher engine loads. Further increase in the engine speed to 2000 rpm, as shown in Figure 6-8, shows no noticeable change in the maximum and minimum NOx values. However, the qualitative behaviour of the curve changes, and now it has a point of inflection at about 600 kPa of engine load. The application of the magnetic field reduces the NOx emissions by 10% at most engine loads. Figure 6-9 and Figure 6-10 show the effect of a further increase in engine speed to 2500 and 3000 rpm respectively. It is observed that there is a slight decrease in the NOx production at a majority of engine loads with each rise in engine speed. In addition, the effect of a magnetic field is seen to be diminishing at 2500 and 3000 rpm as compared to an engine speed of 2000 rpm. 87 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Speed = 1000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 6-6: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant speed of 1000 rpm 88 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Speed = 1500 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 6-7: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant speed of 1500 rpm 89 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Speed = 2000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 6-8: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant speed of 2000 rpm 90 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Speed = 2500 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 6-9: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant speed of 2500 rpm 91 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Speed = 3000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 6-10: Magnetic strength effect on NOx at constant speed of 3000 rpm 92 6.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect 6.2.1 Constant Load Simulation The variation of the NOx emissions in ppm against varying engine speeds at a constant load of 20 Nm and constant magnetic field strength of 4000 Gauss with three different magnetic field configurations is shown in Figure 6-11. With the magnetic field turned off, the NOx emissions increase with increasing engine speed to a maximum of 600 ppm at around 2500 rpm. With the introduction of the magnetic field, a reduction in the NOx emissions is observed at almost all engine speeds with the ‘Spiral’ configuration performing marginally better, while the ‘Attraction’ configuration produces no significant change as observed in lower magnetic field strengths. The maximum emission reduction of 35% with the ‘Spiral’ configuration occurs at the lowest engine speed of 1000 rpm. Figure 6-12 shows the previous relationship at a higher constant load of 60 Nm. With zero magnetic field strength, the behaviour of the curve changes, where the NOx emissions decrease with increasing engine speed starting from the highest value of 1450 ppm to the lowest value of 800 ppm. For most parts, the emissions level settles down at around 950 ppm. The application of the magnetic field again demonstrates a decrease in the emissions at almost all engine loads. Less difference is now found in the different magnetic field configurations. However, the ‘Spiral’ configuration still gives the best performance with a reduction by 20% at the intermediate engine speeds. It is to be noted that in general the overall NOx emissions increase considerably at all engine speeds at this particular load. 93 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Load = 20 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 6-11: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant load of 20 Nm 94 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Load = 60 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 6-12: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant load of 60 Nm 95 Figure 6-13 shows the relationship among the same variables at a load of 100 Nm. The trend is the reverse of that seen in Figure 6-11 where the emissions decrease with increasing speed from 2500 ppm to a minimum of 1500 ppm. Overall, the emissions again increase considerably as compared to those at the previous load value. Application of the magnetic field now shows no overall appreciable decrease in the emissions for any magnetic configuration at most engine speeds. On the other hand, the ‘Spiral’ configuration continues to give the best performance at the lowest engine speed of 1000 rpm with a reduction in emissions by 15%. Effects of further increase in the load value to 140 Nm are depicted in Figure 6-14. The NOx emissions decrease monotonically with increasing engine speeds starting from the highest value of around 3100 ppm, which is an overall sharp increase in the emissions level compared to the previous load. Application of the magnetic field has little or no effect on the emissions at most engine speeds with any magnetic field configuration. On the other hand, the ‘Spiral’ configuration continues to give the best performance at the lowest engine speed of 1000 rpm with a reduction in emissions by 10%. Reaching the maximum tested load of 180 Nm again a sharp increase in the overall emissions level is observed at all engine speeds, as shown in Figure 6-15. Now, the trend is analogous to a conic section with a maximum value of 4000 ppm at around 1800 rpm. The introduction of the magnetic field is seen to affect the emissions level to some extent for the ‘Spiral’ configuration only at engine speeds lower than 2500 rpm. The maximum emission reduction reaches 8% at the lowest engine speed of 1000 rpm. 96 2600 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Load = 100 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 6-13: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant load of 100 Nm 97 3400 3200 3000 2800 2600 2400 2200 2000 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Load = 140 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 6-14: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant load of 140 Nm 98 4100 3900 3700 3500 3300 3100 2900 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Load = 180 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 6-15: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant load of 180 Nm 99 6.2.2 Constant Speed Simulation The variation of the NOx emissions against different engine loads at a constant speed of 1000 rpm and constant magnetic field strength of 4000 Gauss with three different magnetic field configurations is shown in Figure 6-16. With no magnetic field effect, the NOx emission increases steadily with increasing engine loads, where the curve crudely follows a straight line. When the magnetic field is turned on, a slight effect is observed on the NOx emissions, except the ‘Spiral’ magnetic configuration, which has a better effect at all engine loads with an average reduction by 10% at most engine loads. Figure 6-17 shows the variation in the same variables but at an increased engine speed of 1500 rpm. The NOx emissions are observed to follow a linear variation with increasing engine load. However, the overall NOx emissions increase slightly at all engine loads. In this case, the effect of the magnetic field is even less pronounced, with the ‘Spiral’ configuration acting slightly better at most engine loads. Figure 6-18, Figure 6-19, and Figure 6 -20 show the NOx emissions against engine load at 2000, 2500, and 3000 rpm respectively. The curves still follow a crudely near-linear behaviour similar to Figure 6-16. In addition, the magnetic field application in all its configurations again fails to produce a substantially different effect. 100 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Speed =1000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 6-16: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant speed of 1000 rpm 101 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Speed =1500 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 6-17: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant speed of 1500 rpm 102 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Speed = 2000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 6-18: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant speed of 2000 rpm 103 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Speed = 2500 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 6-19: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant speed of 2500 rpm 104 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 mpp ,snoissime xON Φ=1.0 Speed = 3000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 6-20: Magnetic configuration effect on NOx at constant speed of 3000 rpm CHAPTER 7 7 HYDROCARBONS EMISSIONS (HC) 7.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect 7.1.1 Constant Load Simulation The variation of HC emissions in vol% against varying speeds at a constant load of 20 Nm and different aligned magnetic field strength in ‘Attraction’ configuration is shown in Figure 7-1. For zero magnetic field strength, the HC emissions initially decrease in a nonlinear fashion with increasing engine speed, but they follow a linear relationship with a small slope after 1500 rpm. The difference between the maximum (0.32 vol%) and the minimum (0.15 vol%) emissions level is around 50%. With the application of the magnetic field, a general decrease by 10% in the emissions level is observed over virtually all engine speeds for all field strengths. For engine speeds higher than 2000 rpm not much difference in effect is observed for different field strengths. On the other hand, below this speed the curves corresponding to different field strengths begin to diverge significantly. The maximum reduction in emissions reaches 30% at the lowest engine speed of 1000 rpm with the magnetic field strength of 3200 Gauss. All the curves follow the same trend across the speed scale. There is an observed dependence on the magnetic field strength at the lowest engine speed in relation to the NOx emission reduction. 105 106 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Load = 20 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 7-1: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant load of 20 Nm 107 Increasing the load to 60 Nm, as portrayed in Figure 7-2, produces an almost linear curve with a negligible slope for the zero magnetic strength. The overall HC emissions go down for most engine speeds. Application of the magnetic field produces a considerable decrease by an average 15% in the emissions level, especially with field strengths of 800, 3200, and 4000 Gauss. However, at field strength of 1600 and 2400 Gauss, a similar appreciable decrease is seen at lower speeds only. Figure 7-3 shows the changes corresponding to a load increase to 100 Nm, where the curve is quite flat, suggesting a constant emission level at all engine speeds. Application of the magnetic field produces a constant average decrease by 10% in emissions level at all engine speeds. For higher field strengths except 1600 Gauss, the emission levels decreases further by 15% with the best result obtained for the strongest magnetic field. At a load of 140 Nm, as shown in Figure 7-4, a tendency to return to the behaviour exhibited at 20 Nm load in Figure 7-1 is observed. Application of the magnetic field produces a considerable decrease by 15% in the emissions level, more obvious at the strongest field strength. Finally, Figure 7-5 depicts the HC emissions level dependency on engine speed at the highest load of 180 Nm, where the overall emissions level goes up considerably compared to the previous load setting. The qualitative behaviour of the curves continues to match the 20 Nm load in Figure 7-1. The emissions level tends to stabilize at 0.16 vol% after 1500 rpm, before which it decreases nonlinearly from 0.26 vol%. Application of the magnetic field produces no significant improvement for almost all field strengths and engine speeds, except the 4000 Gauss strength with very little consistent decrease. 108 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.1 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Load = 60 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 7-2: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant load of 60 Nm 109 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.1 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Load = 100 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 7-3: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant load of 100 Nm 110 0.2 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.1 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Load = 140 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 7-4: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant load of 140 Nm 111 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Load = 180 Nm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss Engine speed, rpm Figure 7-5: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant load of 180 Nm 112 7.1.2 Constant Speed Simulation The variation of HC emissions against increasing engine load at 1000 rpm and different aligned magnetic field strengths in ‘Attraction’ configuration is shown in Figure 7-6. With the magnetic field turned off, it is observed that the HC emissions decrease from 0.31 vol% with increasing engine load to a minimum of 0.15 vol% at 400 kPa. After that, the HC emissions increase and reach a final value of approximately 0.25 vol%. The overall shape of the curve approximates a parabola. When the magnetic field is turned on, it is observed that at low engine loads most magnetic strengths show a remarkable decrease by 30% in the HC emissions. As the engine load is increased toward the extreme end of the engine load range, the HC emissions show inversely a rise under the magnetic field effect except at the highest strength of 4000 Gauss. It is seen that the strongest magnetic field gives reduced HC emissions at all engine loads. Figure 7-7 shows the same relationship but at a higher constant engine speed of 1500 rpm. It is seen that, without a magnetic field, the maximum value of the HC emissions decreases and the minimum value increases. However, it is observed that all magnetic field strengths produce an appreciable 15% reduction in HC emissions at most engine loads. The dependence of the HC emission reduction on the magnetic field strength seems to be insignificant except at the highest end of the engine load range. Overall, the 1600 and 4000 Gauss magnetic field strengths perform consistently the best at all engine loads. 113 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Speed = 1000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 7-6: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant speed of 1000 rpm 114 0.24 0.22 0.2 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Speed = 1500 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 7-7: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant speed of 1500 rpm 115 Figure 7-8 shows the same relationship but at a higher constant speed of 2000 rpm. Here, it is observed that the qualitative behaviour of the zero magnetic field curve remains the same with a slight overall reduction in HC emissions. However, this trend is not followed by the curves depicting the effect of the magnetic field. At almost all engine loads, all the magnetic field strengths show an increase in HC emissions, except the highest field strength which does not show a significant reduction either. Figure 7-9 and Figure 7-10 show the effects of increasing engine speeds to 2500 and 3000 rpm respectively. The previous trend of the zero magnetic field curve is back to flatten itself at a mean value near 0.16 vol%. Now, the application of the magnetic field shows a significant consistent average reduction by 15% in HC emissions at almost all engine loads, with a further reduction in HC emissions generally with increasing magnetic field strengths. 116 0.22 0.21 0.2 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Speed = 2000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 7-8: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant speed of 2000 rpm 117 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Speed = 2500 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 7-9: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant speed of 2500 rpm 118 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.1 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Speed = 3000 rpm Aligned Magnets No Magnet 800 Gauss 1600 Gauss 2400 Gauss 3200 Gauss 4000 Gauss bmep, kPa Figure 7-10: Magnetic strength effect on HC at constant speed of 3000 rpm 119 7.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect 7.2.1 Constant Load Simulation The variation of the HC emissions in vol% against varying engine speeds at a constant load of 20 Nm and constant magnetic field strength of 4000 Gauss with three different magnetic field configurations is shown in Figure 7-11. With zero magnetic field strength, the HC emissions decrease monotonically with increasing engine speed. Initially, the decrease in the emissions level is sharp, but then it becomes gradual at higher values of the independent variable. Application of the magnetic field induces an average 20% reduction in the emissions level at virtually all values of the engine speed. However, there is a slightly less desirable effect observed with the ‘Repulsion’ configuration since it increases in comparison with the other two configurations. When the load is increased to 60 Nm, as depicted in Figure 7-12, an overall reduction by almost half the volume in the emissions level is detected at all engine speeds. Also, the difference in the highest and lowest emission levels is small, so that the variation with engine speed is less meaningful. Rather, a linear relationship between the HC emissions and engine speed is a more appropriate description. The application of the magnetic field generally produces an average 15% reduction in the emissions level at almost all engine speeds, except the ‘Repulsion’ configuration. Figure 7-13 shows the relationship between the same variables at a load of 100 Nm where the general tendency of the curves to become flatter continues to be apparent. The application of the magnetic field produces a similar appreciable 15% decrease in the emissions level, where the ‘Attraction’ and ‘Spiral configuration seems to perform the best, while the ‘Repulsion’ configuration continues to give unfavourable results. 120 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Load = 20 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 7-11: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant load of 20 Nm 121 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Load = 60Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 7-12: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant load of 60 Nm 122 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Load = 100 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 7-13: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant load of 100 Nm 123 Figure 7-14 shows the variation in the HC emissions level against engine speed at a load of 140 Nm. It is observed that a slight increase in the emissions occurs at the lower range of the engine speed but the emissions tend to decrease at almost all other speeds. The curve may still be considered as tending towards a constant value, although, a linear relationship with a very small slope may be a better description. The application of the magnetic field again produces a 15% decrease in the emissions at all engine speeds. However, this continues to be true only for the ‘Attraction’ and ‘Spiral’ configurations since the ‘Repulsion’ configuration continues to produce unfavourable results. The curves corresponding to the application of the magnetic field follow the same trend as that of the zero magnetic field strength. Further increase in the load to 180 Nm, as shown in Figure 7-15, demonstrates a general increase in the HC emissions level, which is considerably greater at the lower engine speeds. The curve is almost horizontal at around 0.17 vol% for most of the speed range, but around 0.27 vol% for the lowest speed of 1000 rpm to be The application of the magnetic field now produces an almost vanishing effect for all magnetic configurations where all the curves essentially follow the same trend. 124 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.1 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Load = 140 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 7-14: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant load of 140 Nm 125 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Load = 180 Nm 4000 Gauss Different Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral Engine speed, rpm Figure 7-15: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant load of 180 Nm 126 7.2.2 Constant Speed Simulation The variation of HC emissions against different engine loads at a constant speed of 1000 rpm and constant magnetic field strength of 4000 Gauss with three different magnetic field configurations is shown in Figure 7-16. With no magnetic field effect, the HC emission decreases with increasing engine load, to a minimum of nearly 0.15 vol% at about 400 kPa of engine load. After that, the HC emission increases to a final value of approximately 0.25 vol%. The overall shape of the curve approximates a parabola. As the magnetic field is turned on, a substantial decrease by 20% in HC emissions occurs at the lowest engine loads. The favourable reduction effect becomes less noticeable as the engine load increases. The different magnetic field configurations exhibit varying behaviours, where the ‘Spiral’ configuration shows a sudden increase in HC emissions at the highest engine load, and the ‘Attraction’ configuration shows a consistent reduction at all engine loads. Overall, the application of a magnetic field reduces the HC emissions at almost all engine loads, but with varying degrees at different magnetic field configurations. Figure 7-17 shows the relationship between the same variables but at an increased engine speed of 1500 rpm. With no magnetic field, the maximum value of the HC emissions decreases significantly, whereas the minimum value increases noticeably. This shows a reduced sensitivity of HC emissions variation at this engine speed while varying the engine loads. Application of a magnetic field again reduces the HC emissions by 20% at almost all engine loads with slight varying degrees depending on the magnetic field configuration. However, the ‘Attraction’ configuration continues to give the best improvement which remains consistent at all engine loads. 127 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Speed =1000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 7-16: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant speed of 1000 rpm 128 0.24 0.22 0.2 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Speed =1500 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 7-17: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant speed of 1500 rpm 129 Figure 7-18, Figure 7 -19 and Figure 7-20 show the relationship of the same variables but at engine speeds of 2000, 2500 and 3000 rpm respectively. With no magnetic field, the overall trend of the HC emissions curve to become flatter can be observed obviously. Moreover, the difference between the maximum and the minimum values of HC emissions keeps decreasing with increasing engine speed. In addition, the ‘Attraction’ configuration is still turns out to be the best configuration for all engine speeds with an average reduction by 15% in HC emission level, whereas the ‘Spiral’ configuration nearly follows it. However, the application of a magnetic field shows a rather unusual behaviour at only 2000 rpm, where the ‘Repulsion’ and ‘Spiral’ configuration show a slight unfavourable effect at most engine loads. 130 0.2 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Speed = 2000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 7-18: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant speed of 2000 rpm 131 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Speed = 2500 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 7-19: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant speed of 2500 rpm 132 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 %lov ,snoissime CH Φ=1.0 Speed = 3000 rpm 4000 Gauss Diff. Config. No Magnet Attraction Repulsion Spiral bmep, kPa Figure 7-20: Magnetic configuration effect on HC at constant speed of 3000 rpm 133 CHAPTER 8 8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 8.1 Specific Fuel Consumption 8.1.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect There is little effect of magnetic field on the relationship of SFC to engine speed. In addition, the magnitude of magnetic field strength also has minimal effect to change this pattern at most engine speeds and loads. The difference between the maximum and minimum magnitude of SFC is small, depicting a relatively insensitive dependence of SFC on engine speed. The only considerable magnetic field effect can be observed at the lowest engine load of 20 Nm. This reduction by 10% is observed only at the lowest and highest engine speeds of 1000 rpm and 3000 rpm. 8.1.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect An increase in load reduces the SFC at all engine speeds, whether the magnetic field is turned on or off. A marked decrease by 10 % in SFC occurs only at the lowest load of 20 Nm during the maximum and minimum engine speeds of 1000 rpm and 3000 rpm. It is more apparent for the ‘Attraction’ configuration, with a more favourable effect for the ‘Repulsion’ configuration at an engine load of 60 Nm. However, with the increase in load, this minimal improvement due to configuration is dissipating within the error. 133 134 8.2 Carbon Monoxide Emissions 8.2.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect The application of a magnetic field produces no qualitative change in the relationship of CO emissions level against engine speed at a constant load. However, it does produce an appreciable consistent decrease by 10% in the emissions level for most engine loads and speeds. It can also be reduce by 40% at the lowest engine speeds of 1000 rpm and engine loads of 20 Nm, 140 Nm, and 180 Nm. The magnitude of the magnetic field strength has virtually no obvious distinctive variation in the effect. 8.2.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect With the increasing load, the CO emissions show a change in the qualitative behaviour for loads of 60 and 100 Nm. However, at the highest engine load of 180 Nm, the relationship reverts back to be similar to the lowest load of 20 Nm. Application of a magnetic field has an appreciable effect of 10% in decreasing the CO emissions at all engine speeds and loads. The influence of the different magnetic configurations is not pronounced, especially at the highest speed. Their effect is observed only below 1500 rpm and that too for the lowest and higher values of the load. In this regard, the ‘Repulsion’ and ‘Attraction’ configuration seems to perform better by achieving a reduction by 48% in CO emissions at extreme ends of the load settings. 135 8.3 Nitrogen Oxides Emissions 8.3.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect The application of the magnetic field decreases the NOx emissions considerably by an average of 15%. However, this is generally valid for intermediate ranges of the field strength from 1600 to 3200 Gauss where the reduction reaches 35% at the lowest engine load and speed. NOx emissions levels rise considerably with the increase of the load, and the dependence on the engine speed also changes, but then it settles down at a load of 140 Nm. The magnitude of the load also affects the influence of the magnetic field to produce enhanced performance, which can be clearly observed for the 100 Nm load setting. 8.3.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect The NOx emissions trend against increasing engine speed changes considerably with each increase in the load value. Moreover, with each increase in the load value, the NOx emissions level increases considerably at all engine speeds. The application of the magnetic field reduces the emissions significantly by 35%, especially at the lowest engine speed of 1000 rpm. The ‘Spiral’ configuration continues to be the best performing setup for all engine loads, especially at the lowest engine speed with an average reduction by 15% in emissions level. 136 8.4 Hydrocarbons Emissions 8.4.1 Magnetic Field Strength Effect Magnetic field strength has considerable influence on the emissions level reaching 30% reduction at higher magnetic field strengths. The best results are produced consistently by the strongest magnetic field at most engine loads and speeds, with an average of 15% reduction in NOx emission. The amount of reduction is generally following positively an increase in field strength. An isolated case occurs at an engine speed of 2000 rpm, where it is observed that the application of a magnetic field actually increases the HC emissions except at the highest field strength. It seems that the engine speed of 2000 rpm depicts a transition point. 8.4.2 Magnetic Field Configuration Effect With increasing load the HC emissions go down at all engine speeds to a minimum at a load of 100 Nm, but thereafter the emissions start to increase again. Also, generally the relationship between the HC emissions and the engine speed is a linear one, with strong nonlinearity occurring only at lower engine speeds, and that too for the lowest and highest load values. Generally, the ‘Attraction’ and ‘Spiral’ configurations are seen to perform best with an average reduction by 15% in HC emissions. However, the ‘Repulsion’ configuration is seen to have very little or negative effect on the emissions at different loads. CHAPTER 9 9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The effect of magnetic field on the combustion efficiency and emissions formulation of a four-stroke internal combustion engine with spark ignition, six cylinders, and fuel injection was investigated experimentally with unleaded gasoline fuel. The equilibrium combustion characteristics can be influenced by applying a magnetic field with a sufficient strength and a certain configuration. The magnetic force can affect the molecular energy and molecular arrangement of the fuel atoms. Moreover, the application of a magnetic field at the fuel injection point assures the impact on all combustion cycle processes. Furthermore, detailed experiments at different operating conditions and different magnetic field effects showed the effectiveness of applying a magnetic field on combustion efficiency and emissions formulation. The effect of magnetism can be utilized in other individual and industrial applications. This effect can vary according to the application, fuel type, and equipment design. The effect of magnetism on combustion efficiency and exhaust emissions holds great promise for both the financial and the environmental perspectives. It will save individuals and companies a great amount of money by improvemening of the combustion efficiency. At the same time, by reducing the noxious emissions it will reduce air pollution and save the earth from these pollutants which harm all living organisms. 137 138 The specific fuel consumption was reduced by 10% for the lowest load of 20 Nm where it was observed at the lowest and highest speed of 1000 rpm and 3000 rpm respectively. The CO emissions were reduced by 48% with the ‘Attraction’ and ‘Repulsion’ configurations at the lowest speed or 1000 rpm for several loads settings (20 Nm, 140 Nm, and 180 Nm) with an average 10% reduction across most other settings. The NOx emissions were reduced by 35% with the ‘Spiral’ configuration at the lowest speed and load of 1000 rpm and 20 Nm respectively, with an average reduction of 15% across most other settings. The HC emissions were reduced by 30% with a magnetic field strength of 3200 Gauss at the lowest speed and load of 1000 rpm and 20 Nm, with an average of 15% reduction across most other settings. In summary, the magnetic field effect is most useful while the engine is idling during warm-up, traffic jams, and at traffic lights at the lowest engine speed and load of 1000 rpm and 20 Nm respectively. Moreover, an appreciable reduction by 15% in exhaust emissions is achieved in almost all other settings, which will benefit the environment significantly. The magnetic field impact can be utilized in many other applications, equipment designs, and fuel types. I recommend conducting more extensive experiments utilizing other magnetic field effects such as generating a stronger magnetic field concentrated at one point instead of spreading the strength across the line by using several magnets. The real effect on molecular arrangements and atoms energy needs to be studied further by physicists and chemists to clarify the relationship between combustion and magnetism. 139 APPENDICES Table A-1: Experimental data of the base line without magnetic field effect Test Results Data Measured Calculations Speed Load CO NOx HC Time Power bmep SFC (rpm) (Nm) (ppm) (ppm) (vol%) (s) (kW) (kPa) (g/kWh) 3001 180.92 1606 3249 0.15 45.7 56.86 768.08 260.66 2999.9 140.06 1768 2229 0.15 55.5 44.00 594.61 277.36 3000 100.09 2069 1465 0.16 71.0 31.44 424.92 303.38 3000 59.78 2297 835 0.16 97.0 18.78 253.79 371.79 2998.23 18.7 1958 513 0.15 151.3 5.87 79.39 762.44 2499.5 180.3 1718 3807 0.17 54.5 47.19 765.44 263.33 2499.34 139.99 1889 2756 0.16 67.0 36.64 594.31 275.90 2499.7 99.95 2265 1777 0.17 85.5 26.16 424.33 302.77 2499.8 59.9 2343 1013 0.17 117.3 15.68 254.30 368.23 2498.2 20.73 2185 549 0.17 183.7 5.42 88.01 679.85 1999.5 180.75 1797 3884 0.16 67.5 37.85 767.36 265.12 1999.3 139.9 1538 2927 0.15 84.0 29.29 593.93 275.28 1999.37 100.17 1865 1577 0.14 106.6 20.97 425.26 302.94 1999.77 61.06 2008 891 0.15 145.0 12.79 259.22 365.30 1999.34 20.75 2130 627 0.19 234.4 4.34 88.09 665.10 1499.8 180.9 1743 4018 0.18 86.7 28.41 767.99 274.95 1500.1 141.27 1189 3288 0.16 108.9 22.19 599.75 280.25 1499.71 100.82 1347 2248 0.17 140.3 15.83 428.02 304.89 1499.66 60.47 1611 1017 0.18 195.6 9.50 256.72 364.63 1499.2 21.15 2126 412 0.22 301.0 3.32 89.79 677.66 1000.85 177.1 3500 3458 0.26 123.5 18.56 751.86 295.46 1000.3 141.29 1800 3063 0.18 152.8 14.80 599.83 299.49 1000.27 100.53 967 2466 0.17 204.2 10.53 426.79 314.98 1000 60 900 1443 0.17 288.7 6.28 254.72 373.38 1000 20 3000 350 0.31 454.9 2.09 84.91 710.89 140 Table A-2: Experimental data after applying one (1) magnet (Attraction) Test Results Data Measured Calculations Speed Load CO NOx HC Time Power bmep SFC (rpm) (Nm) (ppm) (ppm) (vol%) (s) (kW) (kPa) (g/kWh) 2999 180.45 1429 3563 0.15 45.5 56.67 766.08 262.67 3000.5 140.9 1566 2497 0.13 55.0 44.27 598.18 278.15 3000.6 99.9 1863 1584 0.14 71.0 31.39 424.12 303.89 3000 60.7 2067 944 0.14 96.0 19.07 257.70 369.97 3000.6 20.8 1800 502 0.14 148.0 6.54 88.30 700.19 2500 179.7 1555 3691 0.18 54.5 47.05 762.90 264.16 2501.5 141.35 1568 2961 0.15 66.7 37.03 600.09 274.24 2501.4 99.9 1977 1967 0.15 85.4 26.17 424.12 303.07 2501 60.06 2025 1138 0.15 117.1 15.73 254.98 367.70 2500 20.55 1912 604 0.15 182.2 5.38 87.24 690.96 2000.3 180.4 1321 3944 0.18 67.8 37.79 765.87 264.36 1999.8 139.8 1362 3194 0.15 84.5 29.28 593.51 273.78 1999.2 100.2 1608 1862 0.15 106.7 20.98 425.39 302.60 1998.8 60.5 1766 914 0.15 147.4 12.66 256.85 362.85 1999.7 20.5 1900 613 0.17 235.3 4.29 87.03 670.52 1499.4 180.6 1452 3779 0.19 87.6 28.36 766.72 272.65 1499.7 139.8 1092 3325 0.15 109.5 21.96 593.51 281.72 1499.4 100.15 1218 2310 0.15 142.5 15.73 425.18 302.25 1499.1 59.9 1456 1040 0.16 196.7 9.40 254.30 366.17 1498.8 20.5 1853 402 0.19 308.6 3.22 87.03 682.11 1000 178.13 3243 3229 0.32 124.4 18.65 756.23 291.87 999.9 139.7 1433 2969 0.18 156.4 14.63 593.08 296.05 1000 100.17 886 2428 0.15 205.3 10.49 425.26 314.50 999.9 59.46 885 1171 0.15 290.3 6.23 252.43 374.73 999.9 22.4 2424 259 0.28 448.8 2.35 95.10 643.42 141 Table A-3: Experimental data after applying two (2) magnets (Attraction) Test Results Data Measured Calculations Speed Load CO NOx HC Time Power Bmep SFC (rpm) (Nm) (ppm) (ppm) (vol%) (s) (kW) (kPa) (g/kWh) 2999.5 180.09 1446 3238 0.15 45.6 56.57 764.55 262.57 2999.47 139.6 1589 2058 0.14 55.4 43.85 592.66 278.81 2999.77 100.87 1920 1310 0.14 70.4 31.69 428.23 303.62 3000.75 60.16 2070 740 0.15 96.1 18.90 255.40 372.81 3000.5 20.57 1770 440 0.14 147.4 6.46 87.33 710.93 2500 180.91 1418 3558 0.18 54.2 47.36 768.03 263.84 2499.92 140.04 1688 2556 0.16 66.2 36.66 594.53 279.07 2500.15 100.28 1991 1621 0.16 84.7 26.25 425.73 304.57 2499.97 60.2 2054 929 0.17 116.1 15.76 255.57 370.16 2499.86 19.45 1929 476 0.17 184.1 5.09 82.57 722.54 2000.19 179.86 1212 3669 0.19 68.1 37.67 763.58 264.00 1999.79 139.64 1427 2717 0.17 83.5 29.24 592.83 277.38 2000.09 99.63 1651 1463 0.16 106.4 20.87 422.97 305.05 1999.3 59.45 1717 710 0.17 147.0 12.45 252.39 370.17 1999.3 20.1 1886 552 0.19 238.4 4.21 85.33 675.10 1500 179.9 1189 3757 0.16 90.0 28.26 763.75 266.31 1500 139.73 1103 3183 0.14 111.0 21.95 593.21 278.00 1500.08 100.03 1267 2139 0.14 142.3 15.71 424.67 302.90 1500.15 60.47 1461 1081 0.15 197.1 9.50 256.72 361.73 1500.26 20.5 1995 422 0.19 309.8 3.22 87.03 678.81 999.9 180.1 2950 3310 0.27 124.9 18.86 764.60 287.55 999.7 140.22 1339 2990 0.16 157.8 14.68 595.29 292.39 999.6 100.64 929 2421 0.14 205.3 10.53 427.26 313.16 999.75 60.34 884 1440 0.14 290.8 6.32 256.17 368.69 999.46 23.3 2800 303 0.33 440.0 2.44 98.92 631.21 142 Table A-4: Experimental data after applying three (3) magnets (Attraction) Test Results Data Measured Calculations Speed Load CO NOx HC Time Power bmep SFC (rpm) (Nm) (ppm) (ppm) (vol%) (s) (kW) (kPa) (g/kWh) 3000.2 180.45 1413 3428 0.15 46.1 56.69 766.08 259.14 3000.3 139.9 1528 2218 0.13 55.8 43.96 593.93 276.14 3000 100.07 1821 1377 0.14 71.2 31.44 424.84 302.58 3000.2 59.9 2039 772 0.15 96.2 18.82 254.30 374.11 3000.3 20.32 1826 449 0.14 147.5 6.38 86.27 719.23 2499.9 180.19 1441 3680 0.18 54.8 47.17 764.98 262.01 2500 140.28 1684 2807 0.15 66.6 36.73 595.54 276.91 2500 100.45 1993 1655 0.15 85.3 26.30 426.45 301.93 2500 59.79 2086 797 0.16 116.6 15.65 253.83 371.09 2500 20.3 1949 465 0.16 181.9 5.31 86.18 700.62 2000 180.1 1309 3750 0.19 68.1 37.72 764.60 263.67 2000 140.5 1395 2938 0.17 83.9 29.43 596.48 274.34 1999.9 100.59 1656 1588 0.15 107.1 21.07 427.04 300.19 2000 59.85 1800 695 0.16 146.6 12.53 254.09 368.57 2000 19.95 1891 483 0.17 238.7 4.18 84.70 679.09 1499.8 179.8 1229 3751 0.18 89.3 28.24 763.32 268.58 1499.8 140.1 1145 3090 0.15 110.7 22.00 594.78 278.06 1499.8 99.85 1308 1945 0.15 143.7 15.68 423.90 300.55 1499.77 59.76 1494 823 0.16 197.5 9.39 253.70 365.38 1499.7 19.98 1774 330 0.18 312.8 3.14 84.82 690.06 1000 179.77 2913 3237 0.29 125.1 18.83 763.19 287.59 1000.06 140.05 1320 2774 0.18 156.0 14.67 594.57 296.02 999.96 99.88 896 2138 0.16 203.9 10.46 424.03 317.59 1000 60.42 849 1294 0.14 291.9 6.33 256.51 366.72 1000 20.65 2276 237 0.27 454.8 2.16 87.67 688.67 143 Table A-5: Experimental data after applying four (4) magnets (Attraction) Test Results Data Measured Calculations Speed Load CO NOx HC Time Power Bmep SFC (rpm) (Nm) (ppm) (ppm) (vol%) (s) (kW) (kPa) (g/kWh) 3000 180.09 1464 3633 0.14 46.2 56.58 764.55 259.12 3000.4 140.09 1619 2438 0.13 57.0 44.02 594.74 269.95 3000.2 99.86 1913 1570 0.13 72.2 31.37 423.95 299.00 2999.3 59.48 2071 867 0.14 97.8 18.68 252.52 370.70 3000.8 20.42 1858 482 0.14 148.7 6.42 86.69 709.82 2499.6 179.96 1448 3840 0.16 55.1 47.11 764.00 260.95 2499.5 140.04 1731 2968 0.14 67.6 36.66 594.53 273.34 2499.3 100.16 2025 1749 0.15 85.6 26.21 425.22 301.83 2500 60.56 2140 861 0.15 116.1 15.85 257.10 367.95 2499.9 20.09 2009 473 0.15 182.5 5.26 85.29 705.64 2000.1 180.01 1486 3607 0.19 68.0 37.70 764.21 264.18 2000.2 139.66 1452 2834 0.15 84.4 29.25 592.91 274.32 2000.1 100.1 1717 1551 0.15 106.8 20.97 424.96 302.48 2000.3 59.9 1855 680 0.15 146.5 12.55 254.30 368.46 2000.1 20.48 1983 454 0.17 236.3 4.29 86.95 668.20 1499.9 179.92 1583 3573 0.2 87.4 28.26 763.83 274.22 1500 139.7 1180 2941 0.15 110.6 21.94 593.08 279.07 1499.9 100.4 1321 1930 0.15 141.6 15.77 426.24 303.31 1500 60.34 1509 777 0.16 196.3 9.48 256.17 364.03 1500.2 20.2 1848 316 0.19 310.0 3.17 85.76 688.48 999.66 179.06 3350 3015 0.31 125.6 18.74 760.18 287.68 1000 139.94 1500 2690 0.19 154.7 14.65 594.10 298.76 999.94 99.94 921 2052 0.15 203.6 10.47 424.28 317.88 1000 60.8 910 1200 0.14 291.6 6.37 258.12 364.80 1000 20.7 1550 230 0.21 451.8 2.17 87.88 691.57 144 Table A-6: Experimental data after applying five (5) magnets (Attraction) Test Results Data Measured Calculations Speed Load CO NOx HC Time Power bmep SFC (rpm) (Nm) (ppm) (ppm) (vol%) (s) (kW) (kPa) (g/kWh) 3000.16 180.72 1454 3291 0.14 45.9 56.78 767.23 259.89 2999.6 139.63 1630 2282 0.13 56.0 43.86 592.78 275.75 3000 99.72 1894 1426 0.13 71.0 31.33 423.35 304.50 2999.7 60.3 2085 804 0.14 95.0 18.94 256.00 376.38 3000.5 20.27 1778 484 0.14 147.7 6.37 86.05 719.98 2500.5 180.25 1425 3848 0.15 54.6 47.20 765.23 262.82 2500.1 140.52 1730 2713 0.14 66.4 36.79 596.56 277.26 2499.2 100.32 2020 1696 0.14 84.8 26.26 425.90 304.20 2499.4 59.83 2103 942 0.15 117.1 15.66 254.00 369.35 2499.26 20.59 1978 535 0.15 182.5 5.39 87.41 688.68 2000.4 180.45 1190 3997 0.16 68.0 37.80 766.08 263.49 2000.53 140.57 1458 2972 0.14 84.0 29.45 596.78 273.80 2000 99.92 1690 1631 0.14 107.2 20.93 424.20 301.91 2000 60.07 1789 800 0.15 146.9 12.58 255.02 366.47 2000.1 20.59 1898 615 0.16 237.4 4.31 87.41 661.55 1500 179.82 1095 3954 0.16 87.5 28.25 763.41 274.04 1499.73 139.74 1184 3190 0.14 109.6 21.95 593.25 281.58 1499.64 100.67 1304 2101 0.14 141.1 15.81 427.38 303.62 1499.5 59.72 1484 900 0.15 196.4 9.38 253.54 367.74 1499.65 20.57 1769 417 0.18 311.2 3.23 87.33 673.73 1000.7 180.08 1901 3540 0.24 124.9 18.87 764.51 287.35 1000.3 140.3 1074 3092 0.16 156.5 14.70 595.63 294.47 999.6 100.25 890 2427 0.14 206.4 10.49 425.60 312.70 1000.2 60 887 1480 0.14 292.4 6.28 254.72 368.58 999.8 22.9 2314 332 0.25 444.0 2.40 97.22 636.24 145 Table A-7: Experimental data after applying five (5) magnets (Repulsion) Test Results Data Measured Calculations Speed Load CO NOx HC Time Power bmep SFC (rpm) (Nm) (ppm) (ppm) (vol%) (s) (kW) (kPa) (g/kWh) 3000 180.43 1470 3789 0.15 46.4 56.68 766.00 257.51 3000.2 140.3 1621 2528 0.14 55.9 44.08 595.63 274.87 2999.92 99.75 1927 1619 0.15 71.2 31.34 423.48 303.56 2999 59.89 2092 908 0.15 97.1 18.81 254.26 370.85 3000.65 20.07 1840 512 0.15 151.4 6.31 85.21 709.35 2500.5 180.45 1431 4042 0.18 54.6 47.25 766.08 262.53 2500.6 140.38 1760 2914 0.16 67.5 36.76 595.97 272.96 2500.5 99.7 2113 1688 0.17 85.7 26.11 423.27 302.72 2500.76 60.35 2143 894 0.17 116.9 15.80 256.21 366.60 2500.78 20.36 2025 511 0.16 182.4 5.33 86.44 696.42 2000.4 179.74 1224 4048 0.18 68.6 37.65 763.07 262.22 2000 140.23 1475 3107 0.16 84.0 29.37 595.33 274.54 2000 99.64 1723 1698 0.16 107.1 20.87 423.01 303.04 2000.66 60.75 1839 781 0.16 145.7 12.73 257.91 365.23 2000.5 20.36 1935 538 0.18 238.2 4.27 86.44 666.64 1500.25 179.75 1149 3974 0.18 88.6 28.24 763.11 270.70 1500.33 140.77 1220 3214 0.16 109.2 22.12 597.62 280.43 1500.14 100.18 1304 2323 0.16 141.2 15.74 425.30 304.79 1500 59.74 1526 855 0.17 197.2 9.38 253.62 366.00 1500 20.75 1797 368 0.2 306.1 3.26 88.09 678.86 999.9 177.5 1914 3508 0.26 126.0 18.59 753.56 289.22 1000 140.23 1073 3026 0.17 155.2 14.68 595.33 297.18 999.85 100.7 916 2295 0.16 202.9 10.54 427.51 316.59 1000.2 60.7 912 1369 0.16 289.2 6.36 257.70 368.36 1000.53 20.47 1527 335 0.24 455.6 2.14 86.90 693.14 146 Table A-8: Experimental data after applying five (5) magnets (Spiral) Test Results Data Measured Calculations Speed Load CO NOx HC Time Power bmep SFC (rpm) (Nm) (ppm) (ppm) (vol%) (s) (kW) (kPa) (g/kWh) 2999.84 179.78 1410 3535 0.14 46.1 56.48 763.24 260.14 2999.8 139.6 1538 2346 0.13 55.8 43.85 592.66 276.78 2999.75 100.27 1810 1451 0.13 70.6 31.50 425.69 304.57 2999.4 60.13 2033 823 0.14 96.2 18.89 255.28 372.78 3000 19.98 1786 468 0.13 147.8 6.28 84.82 730.06 2499.82 180.08 1462 3787 0.17 54.5 47.14 764.51 263.62 2499.68 139.78 1680 2861 0.14 66.9 36.59 593.42 276.69 2499.45 100.95 1993 1787 0.15 84.2 26.42 428.57 304.43 2499.44 60.25 2083 831 0.15 116.1 15.77 255.79 369.93 2498.4 20.04 1953 472 0.15 182.1 5.24 85.08 709.38 1999.6 180.15 1286 3796 0.18 67.4 37.72 764.81 266.39 1999.34 139.88 1367 3047 0.15 83.5 29.29 593.85 276.96 1999.69 100.53 1663 1630 0.15 106.5 21.05 426.79 302.09 1999.6 60.5 1790 708 0.15 144.8 12.67 256.85 369.22 1999.2 20.38 1877 514 0.16 235.8 4.27 86.52 673.20 1499.9 180.95 1288 3776 0.18 87.3 28.42 768.20 272.97 1499.6 140.3 1208 3106 0.14 108.7 22.03 595.63 282.81 1500.26 100.13 1264 2081 0.15 141.2 15.73 425.09 304.92 1499.68 59.67 1460 848 0.16 195.8 9.37 253.32 369.13 1499 20.74 1768 350 0.19 304.8 3.26 88.05 682.54 1000.68 178.35 3033 3192 0.31 124.7 18.69 757.17 290.61 1000.45 139.95 1264 2794 0.18 155.7 14.66 594.14 296.68 1000.5 100.03 866 2090 0.15 204.0 10.48 424.67 316.79 1000.2 60.18 855 1188 0.15 290.7 6.30 255.49 369.63 1001.56 20.56 1792 222 0.24 455.0 2.16 87.29 690.30 147 NOMENCLATURE Φ Equivalence Ratio BC Bottom Centre bmep Brake mean effective pressure CI Compression Ignition CL Chemi-Luminescent Analyzer CO Carbon Monoxide HFID Heated Flame Ionization Detector HC Hydrocarbons ICE Internal Combustion Engine Gauss Magnetic Strength Unit kWh Kilo Watt per hour LHV Low Heating Value NDIR Non-Dispersive Infra-Red Analyzer Nm Newton meter NOx Nitrogen Oxides ppm part per million rpm Revolution per minute SFC Specific Fuel Consumption SI Spark Ignition T Tulsa (Magnetic Strength Unit) TC Top Centre 148 REFERENCES 1. AL-Dawood, A. M., “Effects of Blending MTBE, Methanol, or Ethanol with Gasoline on Performance and Exhaust Emissions of SI Engines”, KFUPM, Mechanical Engineering Thesis, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 1998. 2. Heywood, J. B., Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988. 3. Obert, E. D., “Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution”, Harper & Row Publishers, 1973. 4. Taylor, C. F., “The Internal Combustion Engines in Theory and Practice”, Vol 1 & 2, MIT Press, 2nd Edition, 1985. 5. Stone, R., “Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines”, SAE International, 2nd Edition, 1992. 6. Wark, K., and Warner, C. F., Air Pollution, its Origin and Control, Harber and Row Publishers, New York. 7. Masterton, W. L., Hurley, C. N., “Chemistry: Principles and Reactions”, Saunders, College Publishing, 1989. 8. Jiles, D., Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Chapman and Hall, New York, 1991. 9. Ulaby, F. T., Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2001. 10. Ueno, S., and Harada, K., “Experimental Difficulties in Observing the Effect of Magnetic Fields on Biological and Chemical Processes,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, MAG-22, No.5, 1986, pp. 868-873. 11. Ueno, S., and Harada, K., “Effects of Magnetic Fields on Flames and Gas Flow,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, MAG-23, No.5, 1987, pp. 2752-2754. 12. Aoki, T., “Radicals Emissions and Butane Diffusion Flames Exposed to Upward Decreasing Magnetic Fields,” Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 28, No. 5, 1989, pp.776-785. 13. Aoki, T., “Radicals Emissions and Butane Diffusion Flames Exposed to Uniform Magnetic Fields Encircled by Magnetic Gradient Fields,” Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 29, No. 5, 1990, pp.952-957. 14. Wakayama, N. I., “Magnetic Promotion of Combustion in Diffusion Flames,” Combustion and Flame, Vol. 93, 1993, pp.207-214. 15. Wakayama, N. I., Ito, H., Kurida, Y., Fujita, O., and Ito, K., “Magnetic Support of Combustion in Diffusion Flames under Microgravity,” Combustion and Flame, Vol. 107, 1996, pp.187-192. 149 16. Energy Management Solution, “Magnetism Making Fuel Burn More Completely?” Metallurgia, Vol. 63, July 1996, p. 244. 17. Nayyar, N., “Combustion Efficiency with Magnetism,” Metallurgia, Vol. 65, No. 7, July 1998, pp. 233-234. 18. Baker J., and Saito K., “Magnetocombustion: A Thermodynamic Analysis,” Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 16, No. 2, March 2000, pp. 263-268. 19. Pankhurst, Q., and Parkin I, “Magnetism Adds Sparkle to Combustion,” Physics World, Vol. 14, Issue. 11, 2001, pp. 20-21. VITA Name of Student : Rashid Mohammed Ali Al-Dossary Date of Birth : April 7, 1975 Nationality : Saudi Arabian • Bachelor of Science, Mechanical Engineering (1999), Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA. o GPA: 3.69 o Major: Mechanical Engineering o Minor: Computer Science • Currently working as a Utility Operation Engineer for Abqaiq Plants, Saudi Aramco, Abqaiq, KSA."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Patent on a fuel magnetization apparatus using permanent magnets arranged in repulsion to create a powerful flux and optimize combustion [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Brevet sur une méthode pour créer un champ magnétique intense en utilisant des aimants permanents disposés de manière à se repousser."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "United States Patent (19) 4,716,024 11 Patent Number: Dec. 29, 1987 45) Date of Patent: Pera 4,026,805 5/1977 Fowler ................................ 210/223 (54) MAGNETIZING HYDROCARBON FUELS 4,050,426 9/1977 Sanderson ........................... 123/119 AND OTHER FLUDS 4,26,092 8/1980 Shalhoob et al. ................... 210/222 (75) Inventor: Ivo Pera, Pembroke Pines, Fla. 4,366,053 12/1982 Lindler ................................ 210/222 4,367,143 1/1983 Carpenter ........................... 210/222 73 Assignee: Goliarda Mugnai Trust, Miami 4,414,951 1 1/1983 Saneto........... ... 123/538 Lakes, Fla. 4,428,837 1/1984 Kronenberg........................ 210/222 21 Appl. No.: 878,208 FOREIGN PATENT DOCUMENTS 22 Filed: Jun. 25, 1986 814269 6/1959 United Kingdom . 51) Int. Cl.......................... B01J 19/08; B03C 1/30; Primary Examiner-John F. Terapane CO2F 1/48 Assistant Examiner-Susan Wolffe 52 U.S. C. ................................ 422/186.01; 210/222 Attorney, Agent, or Firm-Richard M. Saccocio 58) Field of Search .............. 422/186, 186.01, 186.02, 57 ABSTRACT 422/186.03; 210/222, 223 Apparatus for magnetically treating a fluid is disclosed. (56) References Cited The magnetized fluid may comprise a hydrocarbon fuel U.S. PATENT DOCUMENTS or water. The apparatus is arranged to maximize the magnetic fields generated by magnets within the appa 210/222 2,317,774 4/1943 Kiek et al. ..... . 210/222 ratus and to cause the fluid to flow therethrough in a 2,825,464 3/1958 Mack ......... 3,059,910 10/1962 Moriya. ... 261/72 manner to maximize the exposure of the fluid to the 3,060,339 10/1962 Moriya ................................ 313/153 optimized magnetic fields. 3,349,354 10/1967 Miyata ................................ 335/209 3,680,705 8/1972 Happ et al. ......................... 210/222 5 Claims, 6 Drawing Figures 3,830,621 8/1974 Miller .................................. 431/356 2 S. a essy's 337 yes S&šS SES&lasse s a 9. 32 2 a J) 4/ % N % Ne W :K% / SESSE2S3/SSEES L 1N ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ e NNNNNNNNNNNNNZNNNNNNNANNNNNN ZZZZZZZZZaaaaaZaha 222 23 U.S. Patent Dec. 29, 1987 Sheet 1 of 2 4716,024 (3, 3.3 ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ , s S (AYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYZYYYYYS (RN i 7 N ZZ Z Z 27 Z Z ZZZ ZZZZ 42 ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ , 3NSSESSS&N235R,2SSS S S 4. W. NY 2 s 2A N i (5. (7.77 Z. E Z777 77 NL, 444 ZZ s 5 s S. 28 N XN N S S < SSSSSSS z^ SSANN 7N X x K-x K-4 1st KSAt Za Z21272.277 V22777.727.7272.2777. ZZZZZ 23 2O 2 4,716,024 U.S. Patent Dec. 29, 1987 4,716,024 2 1. netic alignment then permits rapid bonding with the respective oxidizing media. The result of which is, of MAGNETZNG HYDROCARBON FUELS AND course, more complete and rapid burning of the hydro OTHER FLUIDS carbon fuel. Increased oxidation of the hydrocarbon fuel causes BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 5 several effects. Faster and more complete oxidation 1. Field of the Invention results in more rapid and more complete combustion of This invention relates in general to the field of mag the fuel. Faster and more efficient combustion creates a netic apparatus for the treatment of fluids and more more concentrated and more forceful driving force on specifically, to the field of improved apparatus for mag the pistons of an internal combustion engine, albeit for a O netizing liquid organic fuels which are used with inter shorter duration of time. Typically, this results in the nal combustion engines such as gasoline, kerosene, die desirable effect of increasing the engine's revolutions sel fuel, and even gaseous fuels such as propane. The per minute (rpm) for the same amount of fuel burned. invention further relates in particular to apparatus for The net effect is increased power and/or a correspond magnetizing other liquids such as water so as to inhibit ing decrease in fuel consumption for a given power 15 scaling and corrosion caused by the flow of such fluid through pipes. output. The second effect of increased oxidation is a reduc 2. Description of the Prior Art tion in the toxic compound nitrous oxide during the In today's energy conservation society and as well as combustion process. This is so even though, in general, for political reasons, it has become increasingly impor 20 tant to conserve energy and, in particular, hydrocarbon an increase in temperature results in an increase in the fuels such as gasoline. Governmental pressure is causing formation of nitrous oxide because of the counter many automobile manufacturers to re-think and re prevailing effect of the reduction in the length of time of define the definition of fuel economy. The size of auto burn. Additionally, the heat produced during the com mobiles has been drastically reduced from the decades bustion process is more rapidly used by the increased 25 of the fifties and sixties; the concept of power produced gas expansion and heat transfer through conductance to by automobiles as well as engine size has been similarly a greater available surface area. Stated differently, the reduced; and, more efficient driving habits are being net production of nitrous oxide is decreased because promoted. Yet, and despite all of these improvements in production of the same is directly proportional to the fuel economy, the average person is driving more and increase in temperature in the length or duration ofburn 30 more which tends to offset the gains achieved by the time and inversely proportional to the expansion of the aforementioned methods of improving fuel economy. gas and resulting cooling. Thus, the net effect of the Of course, the use of internal combustion engines is reduction in nitrous oxide formation is caused by the not restricted to the automotive field. Diesel engines, rapid quenchtioning of the post-flame gases (where for example, power many of the world's trains. Turbine nitrous oxide formation continues within the post-flame engines power a majority of the world's commercial air 35 region) by heat removal or by gas expansion reduces the planes and a good many of the world’ electric power net nitrous oxide formation in combustion systems. generating stations. Magnetization of fuel, as previously described, breaks Accordingly, one object of the present invention is to down the bonds between hydrocarbon chains which provide apparatus which increases the combustion effi results in decreased density and, hence, smaller particu ciency of fuel which is used to power internal combus lars and droplets during atomization or injection within tion engines. an internal combustion engine. Smaller particles and In the prior art, a number of devices have been dis droplets causes increased evaporation rates, improved closed whereby the liquid or gaseous fuel is magnetized mixing of fuel and oxidizer, and improved promotion of just prior to the entrance point to a carburetor or just oxidation. The net effect is an increase in the rate of prior to being injected by a fuel injection system into 45 combustion, an increase in power, and reduced pollut the cylinders of an internal combustion engine. In this ants. prior art it is well established that magnetization of the It is accordingly highly desirable to magnetize fuel in fuel increases fuel economy as well as reduce the pollut order to achieve the above-stated benefits therefrom. It ants introduced into the atmosphere as a result of ex is, therefore, another object of the present invention to haust gas emissions. In general, these advantageous 50 provide fuel magnetizing apparatus which completely results are obtained by changes in the fuel which in and thoroughly magnetizes fuel for use in any internal clude changes in viscosity, boiling points, magnetic combustion engine. susceptibility, electrical conductivity, volatility, atom A further object of the present invention is to provide ization, and surface tension. magnetic treating apparatus which subjects fuel during It is now well accepted that a hydrocarbon fuel can 55 passage therethrough to powerful magnetic flux fields be polarized by exposure to external force such as mag without the use of electricity and with the use of perma netism. The effect of such magnetism is the production nent magnets in an arrangement whereby magnetic of a moment created by the movement of the outer fields are arranged to promote high magnetization of electrons of a hydrocarbon chain moving the electrons the fluids passing therethrough. into states of higher principal quantum number. This Another object of the present invention is to provide state effectively breaks down the fixed vailance elec magnetic treatment means for fluids which is small, trons that partake in the bonding process of the fuel inexpensive and easy to install. compounds. These states create the condition for freer Magnetization of fluids provides advantages not only association of fuel particulars. In so doing, the hydro to the hydrocarbon fuels as stated above, but even, for carbon fuel becomes directionalized or aligned which 65 example, to water where the magnetic field operates as does not necessarily create new hydrocarbon chains but a water conditioner. Traditional methods of water con more explainably aligns the conduced magnetic mo ditioning fall into two categories. These are condition ment into a dipole relationship within itself. This mag 4,716,024 3 4. ing through chemical additions and conditioning by tached thereto is provided around permanent magnets ion-exchange. to house the same. The chemical method requires a fairly accurate Various other objects, advantages and features of the chemical analysis of the scaling materials in the water invention will become apparent to those skilled in the which then requires the addition of the necessary chem art from the following discussion taken in conjunction icals to precipitate the scaling materials out of the water with the following drawings, in which: in the form of a harmless sludge. Sodium hydroxide and BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS sodium aluminate are typical of such chemicals used for this purpose. There are certain disadvantages of the FIG. 1 is an overall isometric view of one embodi chemical method, namely, a chemical analysis of the ment of the fluid magnetic treatment apparatus accord 10 water is needed; dosing has to be carried out accurately; ing to the present invention; the chemicals are expensive; and, that in some situations FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional transverse view of the the added chemicals result in unwholesome water. apparatus of FIG. 1 taken along the line 2-2 thereof; In the ion-exchange technique, water is passed FIG. 3 is an isometric view of a typical permanent through a bed or several beds of crystals which remove magnet according to the present invention; 15 the scale-producing materials. After a period of use, the FIG. 4 is one embodiment of a flow diverter appara bed of crystals have to be re-generated which involves tus according to the present invention; using expensive and sometimes unhealthful chemicals. FIG. 5 is an isometric view of a porous covering for In this technique there is also the factor of the cost of the assembly of permanent magnets; and, the electrical energy consumed within the technique. FIG. 6 is a schematic rendition of the magnetic flux The treatment of water by magnetic fields works on fields generated by the magnets of the present invention a completely different basis from the two traditional in accordance with there orientation within the appara methods. In the prior art it is well documented that tus of FIG. 1. many physico-chemical changes take place in the water DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED when treated magnetically including changes in viscos 25 EMBODIMENTS ity, boiling point, magnetic susceptibility, electrical conductivity, and surface tension. But, no actual chemi As required, detailed embodiments of the present cal changes are involved and the hardness salts are not invention are disclosed herein; however, it is to be un removed from the water by the treatment. derstood that the disclosed embodiments are merely Thus, while it is well accepted that magnetic treat exemplary of the invention which may be embodied in ment of water will significantly reduce scaling and cor various forms. Therefore, specific structural and func rosion caused by untreated water, the prior art devices tional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted to accomplish the same are generally inadequate for the as limiting, but merely as a basis for the claims and as a same reasons described above with regard to the hydro representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to carbon fuels referred to above. That is, better and more variously employ the present invention in virtually any 35 efficient apparatus is needed in order to expose other appropriately detailed structure. fluids, such as water, to high-magnetic flux fields utiliz Reference is now made to the drawings where like ing ceramic magnets within compact apparatus which is characteristics or elements are referred to by the same small and inexpensive and easy to install. reference characters throughout the various figures of The above-stated objects as well other objects which the drawings. although not specifically stated, but are intended to be The overall shape and external characteristics of the included within the scope of the present invention, are inventive apparatus 9 for magnetically treating fluids is accomplished by the present invention. illustrated in FIG. 1. A housing 10 comprises a gener ally cylindrical container made up of cylindrical halves SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 11 and 12 which are hermetically joined together at the The above-stated objects, as well as others, are ob approximate center of the cylinder. Hence, joint 13 tained by the present invention which comprises im comprises a seal joint to prevent leakage of the fluid proved apparatus for magnetically treating fluids and flowing within housing 10. Cylindrical halves 11 and 12 gases. A plurality of annular-shaped permanent magnets may be made from steel and therefore seal joint 13 may are arranged in a side-by-side spaced relationship with comprise any conventionally known type of joint such 50 the adjacent faces of each pair of side-by-side magnets as welding or crimping. A fluid inlet port 14 is con being of the same polarity so that the fluid flow is ex nected to cap 15 of cylindrical half 12. Similarly, a fluid posed to the additive effect of the magnet field created outlet port 16 is connected to cap 17 of cylindrical half by the magnets. 11. Inlet port 14 and outlet port 16 are seal connected to Between each pair of side-by-side magnets is posi their respective caps to prevent leakage. Hence, the 55 tioned a spring washer which serves to space each mag external container comprises a completely leak free net from each other and thereby create a fluid flow sealed unit whereby fluid enters inlet port 14 and exits path. A screened member may be provided at the outlet outlet port 16. to the magnetic portion of the apparatus to filter out The size of the inventive apparatus 9 depends, of potentially damaging debris. A flow directional spacer course, on the application for which it is used. For is also provided at the inlet of the apparatus which example, assuming the same to be used for automotive functions to distribute the inflow of the fluid to the purposes, an outer diameter of approximately two various and diverse fuel passageways within the appara inches with a length of approximately three and one tus. A porous cylindrical outer covering is placed half inches may be used for the cylinder. The length of around the stacked circumference of the magnets. The inlet and outlet ports 14 and 16, respectively, may be of 65 porosity of the covering allows flow around the outer the order of one inch with an outer diameter of approxi circumference of the magnets. Finally, a non-magnetic mately three-eights of an inch, and an internal diameter outer casing having an inlet and an outflow port at of approximately five-sixteenths of an inch. In accor 4,716,024 6 5 lishes the flow pattern of the flow of fluid within inven dance with such sizing, the inventive apparatus 9 may tive apparatus 9 as described above. The porous outer easily be installed within the fuel line immediately up covering 30 which is provided around the flow deflec stream of the carburetor or the fuel injection ports. tion plate 24 and around the assembly of permanent Such installation may be accomplished by simply cut magnets 20 and wave springs 23, further promotes this ting the fuel line and inserting the inventive apparatus 9 5 pattern of fluid flow within inventive apparatus 9. The therebetween using appropriately sized rubber or neo porosity of covering 30, of course, allows for flow prene hoses and hose clamps. In this manner, the fuel is therethrough. Porous covering 30 may, therefore, com caused to flow into, through and out of the inventive apparatus 9 just prior to being vaporized or atomized. prise an open-celled sponge-like structure made from a The internal construction and makeup of the inven material which is impervious to the hydrocarbon fuel or O tive apparatus 9 is shown in cross section in FIG. 2. A other fluid flowing through inventive apparatus 9. plurality of annularly-shaped permanent magnets 20 are A debris collecting screen 28 is provided at the outlet arranged in a side-by-side relationship within housing end of the magnetizing apparatus 9 to filter out any 10. Individual permanent magnets 20 each comprise a debris emanating from the inventive apparatus 9 or any ceramic magnet which, as also shown in FIGS. 3 and 6, 15 member downstream of the same such as a fuel tank. In includes a hole or opening 21 therethrough. Each per this manner, apparatus upstream of the inventive appa manent magnet 20 is arranged relative to the adjacent ratus 9, such as a carburetor or fuel injection apparatus, permanent magnet 20 such that like poles are facing is protected from potentially harmful debris. However, each other which causes the magnets to repel each it is to be noted that the arrangement of flow deflector other (see FIG. 6). The effect of such arrangement is to 20 plate 24 and porous covering 30, without a screen 28, produce powerful flux fields between and around adja serves to trap any potentially harmful debris and yet cent magnets so as to provide an intensive magnetiza allows for uninterrupted flow through inventive appa tion of the fluid or fuel flowing therearound and there ratus 9. between and therethrough. FIG. 6 shows the increase in An inner container 34, which may be made from a flux fields due to the additive effect of the individual 25 material such as high-density polypropylene, is used to flux fields as provided by the arrangement and shape of encase the inner assembly comprising permanent mag the individual magnets 20. Such positional arrange nets 20, wave washers 23, flow deflection plate 24, and ments of the magnets 20 contributes to the most com porous outer covering 30 within housing 10. A neo plete and properly oriented polarization of the fluid as it prene or other impervious material washer 31 is pro flows through the inventive apparatus 9 and thereby 30 vided between outer housing 10 and inner container 34. attains the advantages stated in the aforesaid description In this manner, the fluid flowing within the inventive of the prior art. For the automotive example described apparatus 9 is prevented from coming into contact with above, each individual magnet 20 may be of the size the steel outer casing 10. In a further embodiment, the whereby the thickness is approximately three-eights of steel outer casing 10 may be made from a highly density an inch, the outer diameter is approximately one and 35 plastic which then would eliminate the need for the one-halfinches and the inner diameter is approximately inner container 34. five-sixteenths of an inch. In this regard it is to be noted In FIG. 6, the effect of the use of annular ceramic that the inner diameter is approximately equal to the magnets in conjunction with the side-by-side position inner diameter of the fuel inlet and outlet ports 14 and ing of like polarity can be seen in schematic form with 16, respectively. regard to the magnetic flux fields thereby created. Of Each permanent magnet 20 is spaced from an adja particular interest is the magnification of the flux due to cent permanent magnet by a spring washer 23 which the similarity of directions of the lines of flux. may be made from a material such as stainless steel or In prototype testing it has been demonstratively chrome-plated spring steel or other non-corroding ma proven that fuel economy in a gasoline engine increased terial. Wave washers 23, in addition to providing spac 45 by as much as twenty percent, a reduction of carbon ing between each permanent magnet 20, allows for flow monoxide percentage in the exhaust from 0.30% to of the fluid fuel between the faces of permanent mag 0.24% was achieved, hydrocarbon emissions of carbon nets 20. At this point it is to be noted that the flow of accumulation within the engine allowed the use of regu fluid through the inventive apparatus 9 and especially lar gasoline rather than higher octane gasoline that with regard to magnets 20 is intended to be in all direc- 50 became necessary due to the carbon accumulation. tions through and around each permanent magnet 20 so When the inventive apparatus 9 is to be used, for as to be exposed a maximum of the magnetic flux field as example, with trucks or permanent power generating is reasonably possible. stations, the size of the inventive apparatus 9 may be At the inlet end to the arrangement of the permanent appropriately increased as compared to the representa magnets 20 and wave washers 23, is provided a flow 55 tive sizes stated above. The size of inventive apparatus deflection plate 24 which may also be seen in FIG. 4. It 9 and the components therein may also be changed as is to be noted that there is no hole within the center of appropriate when the inventive apparatus 9 is used, for flow deflection plate 24. The lack of such a hole pre example, for water treatment. When used for treatment vents flow which enters through port 14 from merely of water, the inventive apparatus 9 will, as described flowing through the successive holes 21 of permanent 60 above, reduce scaling on pipes and inhibit corrosion. magnets 20 and out of the assembly through outlet ports While the invention has been described, disclosed, 16, and without being exposed to the intense magnetic illustrated and shown in certain terms or certain em flux provided by the inventive apparatus 9. Accord ingly, flow deflection plate 24 comprises a flat plate bodiments or modifications which is has assumed in practice, the scope of the invention is not intended to be having a plurality of flanges 25 extending therefrom in 65 nor should it be deemed to be limited thereby and such a direction away from magnets 20. Flanges 25 are pro other modifications or embodiments as may be sug vided with a spaces 26 therebetween which allow the gested by the teachings herein are particularly reserved fluid to flow therethrough. Such arrangement estab 4,716,024 7 8 especially as they fall within the breadth and scope of past said flow openings and into a space surrounding the the claims here appended. outer periphery of said circular magnets and between I claim as my invention: said housing whereby said fluid flow is radially inward 1. Apparatus for magnetically treating fluid compris past the flat surfaces of said magnets and then axially ing hydrocarbon fuels or water comprising a housing through said opening at the center of said magnets to 5 having an inlet port and an outlet port attached thereto said outlet port of said housing. in substantially coaxial relationship with each other, a 2. The apparatus of claim including a porous cylindri plurality of flat circular magnets with an opening at the cal shell around said magnets, said wave washers and center thereof positioned within said housing, said mag said circular plate whereby fluid flow may flow nets being arranged with surfaces of like polarity adja through said openings in said magnets, between adja 10 cent each other, said magnets being separated from each cent faces of said magnets and around the outer circum other by a wave washer positioned between adjacent ference of said magnets and through said porous sleeve. magnets whereby flow of the fluid passed said magnets 3. The apparatus of claim 1, including a non-metallic maximize the exposure of said fluid to the magnetic and non-corrosive sleeve within said housing and fields surrounding said magnets, and a circular plate around said magnets. 15 positioned upstream of the first circular magnet, said 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said housing circular plate. having a flange extending axially there comprises a plastic material. from with a plurality of flow openings provided 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the magnets through said flange around the circumference thereof comprise ceramic magnets. whereby inlet flow within said housing flows radially 20 k Ek s : k 25 30 35 45 50 55"}}

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{"page_1": {"en_base": "Patent describing a magnetization device (ferrite magnets) for a boiler. The claim is for improving hydrocarbon combustion, with CO reduction up to 90.00% [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Brevet visant à améliorer la combustion dans les brûleurs et les chaudières en utilisant des aimants en ferrite pour réduire la pollution (CO jusqu'à 90%)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "United States Patent [191 [11] _ 4,188,296 Fujita [45] Feb. 12, 1980 [54] FUEL COMBUSTION AND MAGNETIZING 3,952,716 4/1976 McCauley .................. .. 123/119 E X APPARATUS USED THEREFOR 3,973,899 8/1976 Reed et a1. ...... .. 431/202 4,050,426 9/ 1977 Sanderson 431/356 X [76] Inventor: Etuo Fujita, No. 24547, Jiyugaoka, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan, 152 FOREIGN PATENT DOCUMENTS [21] Appl. No.: 868,291 2256379 5/1974 Fed. Rep. of Germany ..... 4. 123/ 119 E 2459324 7/1975 Fed. Rep. of Germany ......... .. 431/202 [22] Filed: Jan. 10, 1978 342411 12/ 1959 Switzerland ............... .. 123/119 E [30] Foreign Application Priority Data 765495 1/ 1957 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . .. 210/222 814269 6/1959 United Kingdom .............. .. 123/119 E Jan. 10, 1977 [JP] Japan .................................... .. 52/774 Primary Examiner-Samuel Scott [51] Int. Cl.2 ........................ .. B01D 35/06; F23D 0/0 Assistant Examiner—Randall L. Green Attorney, Agent, or Firm—Armstrong, Nikaido, [52] US. Cl. .................................. ., 210/222; 210/425; 123/119 E; 431/356 Marmelstein & Kubovcik [58] Field of Search ............. .. 431/356, 3, 121; 239/3; [57] ABSTRACT 123/119 E; 210/222, 425; 335/219, 210 The combustion of ?uid fuel, typically fuel oil in burn [56] References Cited ers or boilers is improved by applying a magnetic ?eld U.S. PATENT DOCUMENTS to the fuel at the point upstream of the burner to impart a magnetic flux density of at least 10 gauss to the fuel, 2,087,399 7/1937 Elfving et a1. ....................... .. 431/90 and adjusting the magnetic ?eld to reduce to a minimum 2,926,276 2/ 1960 Moriya et a1. .. 123/119 E 3,059,910 10/1962 Moriya 123/119 E the dust and residual oxygen contents in an exhaust gas. 3,228,878 1/1966 Moody 210/222 X A magnetizing apparatus is also disclosed which com prises permanent magnets and movable yokes for ad 3,349,354 10/1967 Miyata . . . . . . . . . . . .. 123/119 E 3,402,820 9/1968 Lohmann 210/222 justing a magnetic flux density traversing a pipe for 3,567,026 3/1971 Kolm . . . . . . . . . . . .. 210/222 feeding fuel. The magnetizing apparatus is located on 3,719,583 3/1973 Ustick . . . . . . . . .. 210/222 X the pipe between pumping means and the burner. 3,830,621 8/1974 Miller ........ .. 123/119 E X 3,923,660 12/1975 Kottmeier . . . . . . . . . . .. 210/222 3 Claims, 11 Drawing Figures 3,951,807 4/1976 Sanderson ................... .. 210/222 US. Patent Feb. 12,1980 Sheet 1 of6 4,188,296 4 5 s E 50 §\\ N NK/7/A/ s 2 ( 6 '5 U.S. Patent Feb. 12, 1980 Sheet 2 of6 4,188,296 FIG. 3 l2 IO '5 / I3 14 ) n 30°- FIG. 40 I60 IT 80 E 3 E” I 40 5 20 l l | I I 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Magnetic flux density (gouss) U.S. Patent Feb. 12, 1980 Sheet 3 of6 4,188,296 00mm “333 n.QvE O0_O0NNN 3523;65:23 2 v 000m 009 -ON US. Patent Feb. 12,1980 Sheet4 of6 4,188,296 FIG. 5 4- 02 102% gK/ 3 _ \\ , / N(tSe0sm.toek)re lDenudisngf 4T'.“ o 500 1000 $00 éxm Magnetic flux density (gouss) imported to steam FIG. 6 021.2% - (tN)eSs0mtoe.kre 1 Dlcussdtm g 02 2.0% \\o/ N—~ - lA 1000 2000 O Mogne Tic flux density (gouss) imported to air 4,188,296 U.S. Patent Feb. 12, 1980 Sheet 5 of 6 FIG. 7 2| 6.0 5.0- ‘” N(tSOems.otke)er 40 o 22 lDouasditn g 3.0- o 23 2.0\" o r | l 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 O2(%) FIG. 8 23 160 150 2' o (NpOpxm) 14 130 22 ‘I20 110 , ' I 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 02 (%) US. Patent Feb. 12, 1980 Sheet 6 of6 4,188,296 FIG. 9 100 AmnpEz5\\ 00 46 ~- 0 3 6a.:8502 24| 00. 210 5.0 is 1.0 02 (%) AxE0QQ2V 02 (%) 4,188,296 ‘ 1 2 tom thereof, a plurality of permanent magnets placed in FUEL COMBUSTION AND MAGNETIZING two rows between'the connecting yokes, a pair of mov APPARATUS USED THEREFOR able yokes sandwiched between the magnets in each row and facing the pipe, and adjusting means for mov BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION ing themovable yokes toward and away from the pipe, wherein a variable ?ux density of at least 10 gauss tra This invention relates to an improvement in ?uid fuel versing the pipe is produced by the arrangement of the combustion, more particularly to a method of effec vmagnets and yokes. tively burning ?uid fuel by applying a magnetic ?eld to Electromagnet assemblies are also included in this the fuel and optionally to steam or air to be fed to com bustion devices. invention. With the increased attention to pollution problems The method and the magnetizing apparatus ofv this and resource saving problems, it has become important invention can be applied to any desired combustion to reduce the dust, residual oxygen and nitrogen oxide system comprising a ‘fuel tank, a pump, a combustion contents in exhaust ‘gases from burners and boilers. device, for example, a burner, and a pipe for connecting them in ?uid communication. The magnetizing appara SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION tus should be located between the pump and the burner The inventor has found that the combustion of ?uid because it is unnecessary for any‘ other parts to be mag fuel,vfor example, fuel oil in burners can be effectively netized. improved by applying a magnetic ?eld to the fuel to be The ?uid fuel which may be used in this invention fed to burners. 20 includes liquid and gaseous fuel, for example, fuel oil A primary object of this invention is to improve the such as Diesel, bunker and burner fuel oils and those combustion of ?uid fuel in combustion devices, for known as “A”, “B” or “C” fuel oil classi?ed according example, fuel oil in boilers. to the Japanese Industrial Standard; light fuel oil; burn Another object of this invention is to provide a ing kerosene and light oil; fuel gas or the like. method” of effectively performing the combustion of 25 The combustion devices used herein include general ?uid fuel so that boilers can be operated with a lower burners and boilers covering from home appliance boil ‘content of residual oxygen in exhaust gas. ers to heat power boilers, various combustion furnaces, Still another object of this invention is to reduce the and internal combustion engines, for example, Diesel dust loading in exhaust gas from combustion devices. and gasoline engines for automobile and ships. Any A further object of this invention is to provide a 30 burner or nozzle may be equipped, for example, pres ‘magnetizing apparatus of a simple construction for ap sure spraying, air or steam spraying, or rotary type. plying a magnetic ?eld to fuel to be fed to combustion According to this invention, the magnitude of mag devices to ensure more complete combustion. netic ?eld to be applied to the fuel is adjusted to reduce The above and other objects of the invention will the dust loading in the exhaust gas to a minimum level. appear more fully from the following description. At the optimum range of magnetic ?ux density, an oxy According to this invention, there is provided a gen supply can be throttled so that the content of resid ‘method of effectively performing the combustion of ual or non-consumed oxygen in the exhaust gas may be ?uid fuel comprising the steps of feeding ?uid fuel and minimized. Operating boilers at a lower residual oxygen oxygen-containing gas to a combustion device, applying content in exhaust gas is advantageous in cost and pollu a magnetic ?eld having a magnetic ?ux density of at 40 tion control since dust is also reduced through the mag least 10 gauss to the fuel at a point upstream of said netizing treatment of fuel. combustion device, and adjusting the flux density to The principle of magnetization of fuel does not form reduce the dust and residual oxygen contents in exhaust a part of this invention, but will be explained as follows. gas to a minimum. ' Fuel carriers magnetism. This is con?rmed by the fact The ‘magnetic flux density to be imparted to fuel 45 widely varies depending upon fuel, air or steam, and that a burner made of magnetizable material and located combustion equipment and conditions. In general, the downstream of the magnetizing apparatus is magne tized. Fuel mainly consists of hydrocarbons. Groupings preferred range of magnetic ?ux density is from 1000 to of hydrocarbons, when ?owing through a magnetic 3500 gauss, and the most preferred range is from 1400 to ?eld or between opposite magnetic poles, change their 1800 gauss when fuel oil is used in combination with conventional heat power boilers. However, these pre orientation of magnetization in a direction opposite to ferred ranges are merely illustrative since preferred that of the magnetic ?eld. The molecules of hydrocar ranges will shift to lower or higher value if one or more bons shift from a certain con?guration to another. At of the above-described factors are changed. The opti the same time, intermolecular force (van der Waals mum range will be determined through experimental force) is considerably reduced or depressed. These 55 mechanisms are believed to help to disperse oil particles runs. - In the preferred embodiment of this invention, a mag and to become ?nely divided. In addition, hydrogen netic flux density of at least 500 gauss may additionally ions in fuel and oxygen ions in air or steam are magne be imparted to air which is supplied to burners together tized to form magnetic domains which are believed to with fuel. A magnetic flux density of 500 to 2000 gauss assist in atomizing fuel into ?ner particles. 60 maybe imparted when steam is used. Dust in exhaust gas from a boiler was measured by This invention also provides a magnetizing apparatus both weight and concentration methods. It was found in combination with pipes for feeding ?uid fuel and that at the same weight of dust contained in exhaust gas, air-containing gas to combustion devices, which com the exhaust. gas generated after the magnetizing treat prises a casing which has suitable means for securing the 65 ment according to this invention exhibited a higher casing on the pipe so that the pipe penetrates the casing value in concentration than that generated without substantially at the center thereof, a pair of connecting magnetization. This fact means that dust particles after yokes ?xedly disposed in the casing at the top and bot magnetization are finer than those usually found, which 4,188,296 4 3 FIG. 6 is a diagram showing the relationship of dust in turn, means that oil particles are made ?ner by the loading to magnetic ?ux density imparted to air in Ex magnetizing treatment of this invention. ample 3; This invention may be applied to compact boilers as FIGS. 7 and 8 are diagrams showing the relationships well as large-scale boilers exemplified by heat power of residual oxygen content to dust loading and nitrogen boilers. Generally, compact boilers suffer from short oxide content in Example 3; and comings that a comparatively large proportion of fuel FIGS. 9 and 10 are diagrams showing the relation fed is not consumed, ?ame is red, spark is generated and ships of residual oxygen content to dust loading and vibrating combustion occurs. Combustion conditions nitrogen oxide content in Example 4. are improved by applying magnetism to fuel according Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, a magnetizing apparatus to this invention. (1) The ?ame becomes brighter and of this invention generally designated by numeral 10 turns from red to white orange. A high temperature comprises a rectangular casing 1. Numeral 11 designates bright ?ame is observed. (2) The ?ame is reduced in a pipe for feeding fuel to a burner (15 in FIG. 3 as de vertical length and extended laterally. The rate of com scribed later). The casing 1 has suitable openings and bustion becomes higher. (3) Spark in the ?ame is re ?xtures (not shown) for mounting and centering the duced or eliminated. (4) Vibrating combustion is pre casing 1 on the pipe 11. The casing 1 accommodates a vented. (5) Pollution material content in exhaust gas is plurality of permanent magnets 2 for example ferrite reduced. magnet, arrayed in two rows with one on top of the The combustion mechanisms due to the magnetiza other in each row, and connecting yokes 3 are ?xedly tion of fuel according to this invention will be summa placed at the top and bottom of the casing 1. Two mov rized as follows: able yokes 4 are located on opposite sides of the interior (1) After passing a magnetic ?eld, fuel carrying mag of the casing 1 so as to sandwich the pipe 11. The mov~ netism is atomized from nozzles. able yoke 4 is slidable relative to the adjoining magnets (2) Groupings of hydrocarbons are made repulsive 2. The arrangements of magnets 2, connecting yokes 3 under an in?uence of a high magnetic ?eld and thus and movable yokes 4 at the right and left sides in FIG. dispersed effectively, resulting in more ?nely divided 2 are substantially symmetrical with respect to the fuel fuel particles. pipe 11 located at the center of the casing l. A screw 5 (3) Hydrocarbons are pyrolyzed to generate atomic penetrates the side wall of the casing 1 and is threaded carbon and hydrogen which combine with oxygen in a bore in the yoke 4 so that the yoke 4 may be moved atoms supplied from air or steam to provide explosion toward and away from the pipe 11 by turning a knob 50 reaction, resulting in a high temperature bright ?ame. A of the screw 5. More particularly, the magnets 2 each having N and non-combusted carbon value, otherwise appearing as S poles at opposite main sides are arranged alternately soot, is diminished to a considerable extent. (4) Fineness of atomized fuel particles accelerates the in each unit as shown in FIG. 2. Such an arrangement of magnets produces a magnetic ?eld represented by mag oxidation rate so that combustion may be carried out at netic lines of force 6. With orientation of magnetic poles a lower oxygen concentration. as shown, the magnetic force ?ows along loops con (5) The degree of dilution of the fuel stream by low necting the right-hand magnets 2, connecting yoke 3, temperature air is thus reduced, resulting in an increase left-hand magnets 2, left-hand movable yoke 4, fuel pipe in ?ame temperature. . 11, and right-hand movable yoke 4 in a direction shown (6) Combustion reaction with atomic carbon prevails. by the arrows. In other words, the magnets 2 and con As a result, CO2 is increased in quantity, formation of necting yokes 3 provide the same repulsive poles in the CO is prevented, and dust is reduced in quantity. proximity of the pipe 11 on each side thereof. The (7) An increase in ?ame temperature causes a slight screws 5 and hence the movable yokes 4 serve to adjust increase of nitrogen oxide formation (which can be the magnetic ?eld applied to the pipe 11 from the mag compensated by other known methods). nets 2. Therefore, a variable magnetic ?ux traversing (8) A reduction in oxygen concentration and an in the pipe 11 is produced by the arrangement of magnets crease in radiation heat due to high temperature bright and yokes. ?ame result in an increase of combustion ef?ciency. With the above arrangement, a compact magnetizing apparatus is provided which can effectively apply mag DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED netic ?eld to the pipe 11 and hence to the fuel. In addi EMBODIMENTS tion, the magnetic ?eld can readily be adjusted by turn Other features and advantages of the invention will ing the knobs 5a to move the yokes 4 toward and away be apparent from the following description taken in from the pipe 11. The knobs 50 can easily be calibrated connection with the accompanying drawings, wherein: through simple experimental measurements to show the 5 FIG. 1 is a side view showing one example of a mag magnitude of any magnetic ?eld produced. netizing apparatus mounted on a fuel pipe according to The magnetizing apparatus of this invention can be this invention; applied to a conventional fuel feeding system depicted FIG. 2 is a transverse cross section of the magnetizing in FIG. 3. The fuel feeding system comprises a tank 12 apparatus taken on line II——II of FIG. 1; from which fuel is fed via a valve 13 and a pump 14 to 60 FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a fuel combustion system a burner 15. Between the pump 14 and the burner 15 is of this invention; located a magnetizing apparatus 10 like that shown in FIG. 4a is a diagram showing the relationship of FIG. 1 and 2. The fuel pumped from the tank ?ows magnetic ?ux density to dust loading in Example 1; through the magnetic ?eld generated by the magnetiz~ FIG. 4b is an enlarged diagram of FIG. 4a; ing apparatus 10 and then to the burner 15 through the 65 FIG. 5 is a diagram showing the relationship of dust pipe 11. Typically, the magnetizing apparatus 10 is loading to magnetic ?ux density imparted to steam in adapted to impart to fuel a magnetic energy as high as Example 2; 1000 gauss or more in ?ux density. 4,188,296 6 5. At the initial state of operation of the magnetizing EXAMPLE 2 ' apparatus, most of the magnetism imparted is absorbed A general heat power boiler having a steam capacity or consumed by the pipe 11 if a pipe is made of magne of 130 tons/hour was used. In this example, not only tisable material; This absorptionrcontinues until the pipe fuel fed to the boiler, but also steam for assisting com 5 11 is magnetized to saturation: The magnetization of bustion were subjected to magnetizing treatment. Oper pipes is con?rmed by the fact-that it takes 72 hours or ating conditions were as follows. more until dust reduction comes into effect after the Fuel oil: “C” fuel oil magnetizing apparatus is actuated, and that the pipes Fuel pipe: Magnetization to a flux density of 2000 gauss have residual magnetism after the magnetizing effect or Steam pipe: Magnetization to a flux density varying 0 apparatus is removed. The magnetization of associated from 0 to 2000 gauss parts also constitutes a reason why the magnetizing Period: 10 days apparatus of this invention should be located down The content of residual oxygen in exhaust gas from stream of pumps, valves or the like. the boiler was adjusted to 2.0%, 1.2%, or 1.0% by When it is desired to avoid such a delay, pipes made volume in each test run. The dust loading in exhaust gas of non-magnetic material such as non-magnetic steel was measured according to ASTM D2156-65 “Stan (e. g. SUS 316) may preferably be used. A portion of the dard Test Method for Smoke Density in Flue Gases fuel feeding system extending from a point downstream from Burning Distillate Fuels.” A smake tester from of the magnetizing apparatus to the burner may be made Bacharach Industrial Instrument Co. was used and the of non-magnetic material. In this case, magnetized fuel dust loading was expressed in terms of Smoke Tester is directly fed to burners or atomizing nozzles with a Number. minimum reduction of magnetism. The results obtained by varying the flux density from Although the magnetizing apparatus is combined 0 to 2000 gauss in the steam feeding pipe are shown in with the pipe for feeding fuel in the above-illustrated FIG. 5. As seen from FIG. 5, dust loading is reduced to embodiment, it may also be combined with pipes for a minimum when the ?ux density in steam is in the feeding air and steam for assisting the combustion of range between 1400 and 1800 gauss. fuel. Such applications are similar to that shown in FIG. At a ?ux density of 1500 gauss in steam, the dust . 3 and may easily be designed by those skilled in the art. loading in exhaust gas was measured according to J IS Z The following examples illustrate certain applications 8808 and the content of nitrogen oxides (NOX) was also according to the invention. These are merely illustra determined. The results are tabulated in Table I. tive and are not to be construed to limit the claims in I Table I any manner whatsoever. _ Dust loading EXAMPLE 1 Smoke 01 NOX tester .118 Z 8808 A fuel feeding system as shown in FIG. 3 was em (vol %) (ppm) (N0) (ms/Nut‘) ployed. The magnetizing apparatus of this invention Magnetized fuel 2.0 155 2.0 40 was set on a pipe for feeding fuel to a medium-type 1.2 130 3.5 120 combustion furnace equipped with six burners. Fuel oil Magnetized fuel + 2.0 160 1.0 20 magnetized steam 1.2 135 2.5 60 classi?ed as “C” fuel oil according to JIS K 2205 and _ 1.0 125 3.0 80 having sulfur and nitrogen contents of 2.7% and 0.3%, respectively, was fed at a ?ow rate of 8.9 tons/hour. Magnetic flux density was varied from 0 to 5000 gauss EXAMPLE 3 at internals of 100 gauss. The dust content in exhaust gas Example 2 was repeated except that air was used from the furnace was measured according to .115 Z instead of steam and ‘subjected to magnetizing treat 45 8808. ment. The results are shown in FIG. 4a, in which the dust The results obtained by varying the flux density from content expressed in terms of mg per Nm3 (normal 0 to 2000 gauss in the air feeding pipe are shown in FIG. cubic meters) is plotted as ordinate and the ?ux density 6. As seen from the relationship of dust content to flux in gauss is plotted as abscissa. As seen from FIG. 4a, a density shown in FIG. 6, the dust content is lowest at reduction of dust content appears in the range of about 1500 gauss. 500 to 600 gauss. The dust content is reduced to a mini At a flux density of 1500 gauss in air, the dust and mum in the ranges of 2000:200 gauss, 3000:200 gauss, nitrogen oxide (NOX) contents in exhaust gas were de and about 4400 gauss. termined. The results are tabulated in Table II. It should be noted that such optimum flux density Table II ensuring a signi?cant dust content reduction in exhaust gas varies depending on fuel, air or steam and combus Dust loading tion equipment. Smoke 03 N01 tester 115 Z 8808 The relationship of dust content to flux density in the (vol %) (ppm) (NO) (mg/Nm’) proximity of 2000 gauss is shown in FIG. 417 on an Magnetized fuel 2.0 160 1.0 20 enlarged scale. The dust content is reduced to a mini 1.2 135 2.5 60 mum at a ?ux density of 2000 gauss and gradually in Magnetized fuel + 2.0 165 0.5 10 creases as the flux density deviates from the optimum magnetized air 1.2 140 1.5 30 value. The magnetizing apparatus of this invention per 0.8 120 3.5 120 mits adjustment of the flux density to the optimum 65 range, for example, of 2000i 100 gauss simply by turn In order to show how the magnetizing treatment ing the knobs to move the slide yokes in relation to the according to this invention can in?uence the relation pipe through which fuel flows. ships of residual oxygen to dust and NOX contents in 4,188,296 8 7 exhaust gas, the data obtained are plotted in diagrams of EXAMPLE 5 FIGS. 7 and 8. In these diagrams, line 21 (appearing as A 90 tons/hour heat power boiler was used. “C” fuel triangle 21 in FIG. 8) is a reference test run conducted oil having a sulfur content of 2.7% was fed and sub under usual conditions without magnetization. Line 22 jected to magnetizing treatment to impart a flux density corresponds to a test run where only fuel was subjected of 1800 gauss. Steam fed to the boiler was also subjected to magnetizing treatment and line 23 corresponds to a to magnetizing treatment to impart a flux density of run where both fuel and air were subjected to magnetiz 1200 gauss. When only fuel was magnetized, the oxygen ing treatment as described above. It should be noted content was reduced from 3.8% of usual run to 3.3%. that a usual NOX reducing technique was used in the When steam was further magnetized, the oxygen con latter two test runs. tent was reduced to 2.3%. It was found that the boiler can be operated at a What I claim is: comparatively low oxygen content of 1.3 to 1.5% by 1. In combination with pipes for feeding ?uid fuel and air-containing gas to combustion devices, a magnetizing volume in the flux density range of 1400 to 1800 gauss. apparatus comprising A maximum reduction of dust loading according to this 5 a casing having means for securing the casing on the invention was 67% in comparison with the usual run. pipe so that the pipe penetrates the casing substan EXAMPLE 4 tially at the center thereof, a pair of connecting yokes ?xedly disposed in the A heat power boiler having a steam capacity of 135 casing at opposite sides thereof, tons/hour was used. “C5” gasoline series fuel oil was a plurality of permanent magnets placed in two paral used and the flux density was varied from 0 to 3000 lel rows between said connecting yokes said mag gauss to magnetize the fuel. It was found that the pre nets being oriented such that the poles of all of the ferred range was 1600 to 2300 gauss and the most pre magnets in each row are aligned along a single axis ferred was 2150 gauss. and the axes of the two rows are parallel to one 25 The results are shown in FIGS. 9 and 10. Line 31 is a another, reference test run conducted under usual conditions a pair of movable yokes sandwiched between said without magnetization. Line 22 corresponds to a test magnets in each row, said movable yokes facing run where fuel is magnetized to 1600 gauss and line 33 the pipe and being movable in a direction perpen dicular to the direction of the rows of said perma corresponds to a test run where fuel is magnetized to nent magnets and 2150 gauss. adjusting means for moving said movable yokes As apparent from FIG. 9, according to the magnetiz towards and away from the pipe in the direction ing treatment of this invention, the dust loading can be perpendicular to the direction of the rows of said reduced by 90% at the same oxygen content of 2.5% as permanent magnets, shown by line a. The oxygen content can be reduced wherein said magnets and yokes produce a variable from 2.5% to 1.7% at the same dust loading of 34 flux density of at least 10 gauss traversing the pipe. mg/Nm3 as shown by line b. As seen from FIG. 10, for 2. A magnetizing apparatus as set forth in claim 1 example, the content of residual oxygen in exhaust gas wherein the arrangements of said connecting yoke, can be reduced from 2.5 vol% of the reference run to magnets and movable yoke on opposite sides of said 2.1 vol% at the same nitrogen oxide content of 60 ppm. pipe are substantially symmetrical with respect to the In another test run, air was subjected to magnetizing plpe- . treatment. An additional substantially uniform effect 3. A magnetizing apparatus as set forth in claim 1 was found over the range from 1000 to 2000 gauss. wherein said adjusting means is a screw and knob threaded into the casing and the movable yoke. After the magnetizing apparatus was removed, an 45 * * * * ll‘ effect due to residual magnetism was observed. 55 60 65"}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "Fundamental study on hydrocarbon electrification (gasoline, benzene). Gasoline can accumulate potential > 200 volts, potentially up to 1000 volts. The study characterizes three conduction regimes (insulating, unstable semi-conducting, conducting) in thin liquid films (~10 μm), a crucial element for ionization and MHD theories.", "fr_vulgarise": "Cette recherche montre que l'essence devient fortement électrostatique (>200 V) lorsqu'elle circule. Les forces électro-physiques influencent les fluides hydrocarbonés, ce qui est pertinent pour l'ionisation (MHD)."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Électrisation et conduction électrique des hydrocarbures liquides L. Bruninghaus To cite this version: L. Bruninghaus. Électrisation et conduction électrique des hydrocarbures liquides. J. Phys. Radium, 1930, 1 (1), pp.11-36. ￿10.1051/jphysrad:019300010101100￿. ￿jpa-00205405￿ HAL Id: jpa-00205405 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jpa-00205405 Submitted on 1 Jan 1930 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. ÉLECTRISATION ET CONDUCTION ÉLECTRIQUE DES HYDROCARBURES LIQUIDES par L. BRUNINGHAUS. hydrocarbures Sommaire. - I. Electrisation des hydrocarbures. Les liquides - s’électrisent (négativement) lorsqu’ils s’écoulent le long d’une paroi métallique. Le phéno- mène résulte d’une action de contact comparable à celles qui s’exercent à l’intersurface de métaux d’électroaffinités différentes. Il n’est possible que grâce à une légère conduc- tivité du liquide. La discussion montre qu’il doit y avoir, pour un liquide de conduc- tivité donnée, une valeur optima du débit liquide; que, pour un débit donné, il doit y avoir une valeur optima de la conductivité. On vérifie quelques conséquences de ces prévisions. II. Conduction électrique des hydrocarbures. Les hydrocarbures liquides mani- - festent trois régimes de conduction : 1° En couches épaisses et sous l’action de champs électriques modérés, on a un régime isolant stable, caractérisé par une très grande résistivité. A cet état, la conduction est liée à la présence de traces d’eau dissoute dans l’hydrocarbure; elle a pour effet d’éliminer lentement cette eau, élimination corrélative d’un accroissement indéfini de la résistivité. 2° En couches minces, et en général sous l’action de champs plus intenses, apparaît un régime semi-conducteur instable. Il se manifeste par des courants considérablement plus intenses que ceux auxquels donne lieu le régime isolant, mais ces courants sont essentiellement irréguliers, une poussée de courant fort étant généralement suivie d’un retour à une intensité très faible. Ce régime est indépendant de la présence de l’eau dans le liquide. 3° En couches de l’ordre de 1003BC, et en appliquant des champs de l’ordre de 100 000 volts /cm, on observe un régime conducteur, pour lequel le liquide acquiert une conductivité comparable à celle des métaux. Ce régime est relativement stable; cependant, il disparaît en général par suppression ou diminution suffisante du champ appliqué, pour réapparaître lorsqu’on restitue au champ sa valeur initiale. I. L’ELECTRISATION DES HYDROCARBURES. Il est aujourd’hui bien connu que les hydrocarbures liquides, comme l’essence minérale, le pétrole, le benzène, etc., peuvent acquérir des charges électriques relativement considérables en s’écoulant dans des tuyaux métalliques, sur lesquels apparaissent égale- ment des charges, si leur isolement est suffisant. Ce phénomène très simple a permis d’expliquer les explosions redoutables suivies d’incendies, qui surgissent de temps à autre de façon qui sembla tout d’abord mystérieuse, dans les usines de raffinage des pétroles, et dans les dépôts d’essence. Ayant eu à rechercher un moyen simple et immédiatement applicable d’éviter ces explosions, j’ai été conduit à étudier le phénomène au laboratoire, afin de démêler les circonstances dont il peut dépendre, et la façon dont il se produit. Ce premier travail est consacré à une exploration rapide de ce domaine, et de celui de la conduction électrique des mêmes corps qui, comme nous le verrons, se trouve étroite- ment liée au phénomène d’électrisation. Il s’agit donc ici d’un simple dégrossissage par des procédés souvent assez rudimentaires. Il est clair que cela ne saurait suffire : une étude ultérieure permettra, je l’espère, de préciser les faits rapporlés dans ce qui va suivre. ’ Essais préliminaires. - Lorsque j’ai entrepris ces expériences la réalité du phéno- nomène d’électrisation n’était pas douteuse. En particulier, Dolezalek avait monté qu’en faisant passer dans un tube métallique, avec une vitesse convenable, un petit volume d’essence minérale, l’on pouvait obtenir des potentiels de l’ordre de 1 000 volts. Mais, à ma Article published online by EDP Sciences and available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/jphysrad:019300010101100 12 connaissance, cet auteur n’a pas publié ses essais de façon détaillée, et c’est pourquoi j’ai dû reprendre complètement la question. Mon premier montage comportait un tube de cuivre de 2 m de longueur et 2 mm environ de diamètre intérieur, qui mettait un récipient contenant de 100 à 200 cm~3 d’essence, en relation avec un cylindre de Faraday garni intérieurement sur presque toute sa hauteur d’une toile métallique enroulée en spirale. On pouvait chasser l’essence du récipient en poussant le liquide au moyen d’azote comprimé, de façon à provoquer son passage rapide dans le tube et de là dans le cylindre. Le tube de cuivre était au sol, le cylindre de Faraday était de son côté connecté à un électromètre à feuille d’or et à observation micrométrique. L’essence parcourant le tube devait s’y charger et abandonner ses charges au cylindre de Faraday, d’où déplacement de la feuille d’or de l’électromètre. Fig. 1. Schéma du montage des premières expériences d’électrisation des hydrocarbure, liquides. - L’expérience ainsi faite fut concluante. On obtint un écart très net de la feuille d’or, la charge décelée ainsi étant invariablement négative. D’autres expériences montrèrent que le tube se chargeait lui-même positivement. Ceci est conforme aux résultats de Dolezalek. Mais, en répétant l’expérience plusieurs fois de suite, je m’aperçus que le phénomène était irrégulier et capricieux. Lorsqu’on opère avec de l’essence fraîche et des appareils n’ayant encore jamais servi, on obtient de fortes charges. Au deuxième passage, les charges boni faibles, et plus faibles encore aux passages suivants. , Ces irrégularités rendaient presque impossible l’étude du phénomène. C’est qu’en effet il ne suffisait pas toujours de changer l’essence pour remettre l’appareil en état de font- tionner. Celui-ci était parfois en quelque manière « empoisonné o, et sa remise en état, souvent incertaine, était en tout cas très laborieuse : la dessication complète des appareils suivie d’une certaine période de repos se montrait nécessaire. Afin de démêler la cause de ces variations, j’eus recours à un électromètre plus sensible, l’électromètre Szilard, qui s’est montré d’un emploi très commode pour ces expériences. La sensibilité de cet instrument est de l’ordre de 10 volts par division au 13 voisinage du potentiel zéro, et de 1 volt par division à l’autre extrémité de l’échelle, qui correspond à peu près à 200 volts. La graduation comporte en tout 120 divisions. Ces indications suffisent pour l’intelligence de ce qui va suivre. Le montage est représenté par la figure 1 ci-contre. R est un réservoir en cuivre contenant le liquide en expérience. P est le tube métallique dans lequel l’essence acquiert sa charge, et qui sera désigné dorénavant du nom de proclzccteur 1. C est le cylindre de Faraday garni de toile métallique ou de feuille métallique : c’est le collecteur. L’essence pénètre dans le collecteur par un tube de métal, en relation avec le producteur par l’intermédiaire d’un morceau de tube de caoutchouc à vide, qui s’est révélé comme un excellent isolant, et qui d’autre part ne se dissout pas dans l’essence (1). On voit sur la figure que le collecteur est électrostatiquement protégé par une enveloppe métallique au sol, précaution qui s’est montrée indispensable. E est l’électromètre. La liaison entre le collecteur et l’électromètre est assurée par un fil métallique passant dans l’axe d’un tube, de laiton au sol; les cales terminales entre lesquelles est tendu le fil sont en paraffine; de même, le collecteur repose sur trois cales de paraffine. Le robinet à trois voies r permet de relier le réservoir, soit à une trompe à eau destinée à aCpirer le liquide dans le réservoir R soit au détendeur d’une bouteille d’azote comprimé dont le rôle est de chasser le liquide, en un temps mesurable au chronomètre, dans le collecteur. Fig. 2. - Vue en coupe du producteur 11. Première série d’expériencea. - 100 cm3 d’essence traversent le tube de cuivre en 50 secondes. Le premier passage envoie l’aiguille de l’électromètre hors de l’échelle, ce qui correspond à un potentiel supérieur à 200 volts (120 divisions). Les passages suivants don- nent de 0 à 4 divisions, donc de 0 à 40 volts. il ne suffit pas toujours de dessécher sommai- rement les appareils pour faire réapparaître le phénomène. Le renouvellement de l’essence, passant dans le tube soigneusement desséché, le rétablit au contraire généralement. 3Iais le renouvellement des surfaces métalliques se montre beaucoup plus efficace. J’ai pensé que cette. sorte de fatigue du métal se rattachait peut-ètre à une oxydation. Cependant, en remplaçant le tube de cuivre par un tube d’étain, métal moins oxydable, on obtient des résultats analogues. En ce qui concerne l’essence, l’application préalable à ce liquide d’un champ de 1000 volts/cm pendant 30 minutes environ lui enlève en partie la propriété de se charger : il la suite de ce traitement, la déviation de l’électromètre passe de 120 à 30 divisions, pour des conditions par ailleurs identiques. , Lorsqu’ayant introduit de l’essence directement dans le collecteur, l’on soutire celle-ci en faisant le vide, l’électromètre accuse, à la première passe, une forte charge passes suivantes, les charges sont de plus en plus faibles. Deuxième série d’expériences. - .Bfin d’accroître l’étendue relative des surfaces de contact, on a construit l’appareil suivant (fig. ‘~), qui sera appelé le producteur Il, que l’on&#x3E; a disposé à la place du tube métallique et qui est mis au sol, comme l’était celui-ci. On envoie 150 cm’ d’essence, qui traverse l’appareil en 5 secondes. Aux premières (l) D’autres variétés de caoutchouc se ramollissent au contact de l’essence, et s’y dissolvent peut-être partiellement.. ’ 14 passes, l’aiguille oe l’électromètre est violemment lancée lors de l’échcllc, et ceci plus de 10 fois de suite. La violence Lles impulsions s’atténup cependant avec le nombre des opéra- tions. Comme précédemment, la charge apportée par l’essence au collecteur est toujours négative. ° Ainsi, avec ce dispositif, le phénomène est plus intense et plus régulier clu’avec le tube. On vérifie du reste qu’ii s’agit bien d’une action inhérente à l’appareil, car en revidant l’essence par pompage du cylindre de Faraday tout d’abord déchargé, l’aiguille de l’électro- mètre ne se déplace presque pas, ce qui prouve que l’essence est devenue presque inactive par rapport au premier procédé d’investigation. Dans une deuxième expérience, on isole le producteur et on le connecte à l’électromètre, après avoÿr séparé celui-ci du collecteur. En faisant passer le même volume d’essence fraiche dans le même temps, l’aiguille de l’électromètre est à nouveau violemment lancée hors de l’échelle aux premières passes, pour l’ètre moins vivement lorsqu’on multiplie le nombre des opérations. La charge apparue dans ces conditions est positive. En rétablissant les premières connexions, et faisant varier légèrement le débit de pour le même volume total, on constate que la charge apparaît plus lentement, mais que sa grancleur finale est à peu près indépendante du débit. Ceci indique que la charge produite par le passage du liquide est déterminée par son volume, et non par sa durée de passage, sous la réserve que la fuite de long de la veine liquide reste négligeable. Nons reprendrons ce dernier point de vue un peu plus loin. Enfin, on compare directement l’efficacité du tube mé lall ique et du nouveau producteur. Pour un même volume de la même essence, et à débit égal, on obtient à l’électromètre une déviation de 2 à 3 divisions par passage dans le tube (essence ayant déjà servi), alors que son passage dans le nouveau producteur envoie encore l’aiguille hors de l’échelle. Troisiérne série d’expériences. - Elles sont destinées à préciser l’influence du débit liquide, en faisant varier celui-ci dans de larges limites. On prend pour cela 200 cm3 d’essence, que l’on fait passer dans l’appareil en des temps variables. Voici des résultats obtenus :-. Ce tableau montre, d’abord que l’appareil a fonctionné de façon raisonnablement fidèle, ensuite que l’apport des charges devient faible lorsque la durée du passage s’accroît notablement. Cet effet correspond certainement au rôle croissant de la conduction par la veine liquide, à mesure qu’augmente le temps pendant lequel cette conduction agit. Quatrième série d’expériences. - Cette série est relative à un effet désactivant qu’exercent sur l’essence certaines limailles métalliques. Comme il s’est montré inconstant, pour des raisons que je n’ai pas encore réussi à démêler complètement, je n’y insisterai pas outre mesure, et me bornerai à signaler les faits les plus typiques. Voici comment se présente l’action des limaille. On fait passer 200 cn13 d’essence en 7 secondes dans le producteur II, ce qui donne une déviation de 120 divisions à l’électro- 15 mètre. La même essence, après avoir traversé une couche de limaille de bronze de quelques centimètres d’épaisseur, est filtrée grossièrement sur une peau de chamois. Envoyée dans l’appareil, on obtient une déviation exactement nulle à Félectrom’tre. Fait plus inattendu encore, en faisant passer alors de l’essence fraîche, l’électromètre ne dévie plus que d’une division. La limaille Oe cuivre produit des résultats identiques. Mais, d’autres limailles ou pou- dres métalliques (zinc, magnésium, cuivre chimiquement pur, laiton, et même bronze d’une autre provenance) donnent des effets beaucoup plus faibles ou même nuls. Ceci m’a fait penser à une impureté que la limaille active apporterait avec elle, et qui serail- entraînée par l’essence. J’ai essayé, en conséquence, divers corps gras susceptibles de souiller une limaille métallique, mais sans résultats nets. Je cherchai alors à procéder de façon plus directe, et pus constater que l’essence rendue inactive par passage siir la pre- mière limaille de bronze, reste inactive après filtration sur papier et même après traitement au dialyseur, mais qu’elle redevient active par filtration sur porcelaine. L’impureté entraînée par l’essence inactive est donc à l’état de très fins granules, puis- qu’ils traversent la membrane d’un dialyseur, tout en se laissant arrêter par la porcelaine poreuse. Etant donné la provenance de cette impureté, l’on ne peut guère songer à autre chose qu’à des granules métalliques particulièrement ténus. Mais alors, pourquoi certaines limailles sont-elles sans action °1 Laissant provisoirement ce problème de côté, je me suis demandé par quel mécanisme l’essence ayant filtré sur de la limaille perdait son activité. Si l’on admet la présence de granules métalliques dans cette essence, il est logique de penser à un accroissement de con- ductivité du liquide, exagérant les fuites par la veine liquide, au cours du phénomène d’élec- trisation. En faisant des essais comparatifs sommaires de conduction à travers une colonne d’essence fraîche et une colonne de mêmes dimensions d’essence rendue inactive par la limaille, cette manière de voir s’est trouvée confirmée : l’essence traitée à la limaille conduit environ DOO fois plus que l’essence pure. La filtration sur porcelaine restitue au liquide sa résistivité initiale; enfin, l’essence passée sur une limaille qui ne la désactive pas est aussi isolante que l’essence pure. Il semble donc bien que le rôle de la limaille soit de rendre l’essence relativement con- ductrice par cataphorèse vraisemblablement. Mais, il n’y a pas à se dissimuler que deux faits restent inexpliqués. Pourquoi deux poudres métalliques, qui semblent égalemeiit divisées, n’agissent elles pas de la même façon\"? D’où vient r ernpoisounententprolongé de :1ppareils où a circulé de l’essence inactive’ Cinquième série d’expériences. - Nous avons invoqué à plusieurs reprises le rôle des fuites à travers la veine liquide plus ou moins conductrice. Ce rôle est très probable, puisque, si la veine liquide conduit, elle connecte les régions du liquide à haut potentiel négatif qui se sont séparées du métal (liquide sorti du producteur) avec la terre, par l’inter- médiaire du producteur. On peut le vérifier directement, en rendant le liquide conducteur, par dissolution de substances convenablement choisies. C’est à une telle action que correspondent les résultats de quelques expériences faites à la demande de MM. Clément et Rivière, ingénieurs chimistes à Pantin, qui désiraient savoir si l’addition d’alcool au benzène pouvait rendre ce liquide inapte à se charger électrique- ment, et quelle était la proportion minima d’alcool à employer pour cela. Les expériences ont porté sur du benzène cristallisable et de l’alcool éthylique à 95(B qui conduit bien l’électricité, est soluble dans le benzène, et rend conducteur ce liquide, isolant à l’état de pureté. Les essais ont été effectués au moyen de mon producteur à limaille (producteur III), décrit plus loin. Les résultats en sont donc d’un poids tout particulier, en raison de la très grande sensibilité du dispositif pour mettre en évidence l’aptitude d’un liquide à se charger. A 300 cm3 de benzène, j’ai ajouté progressiveinent l’alcool, à raison de i cm3 à chaque fois. A chaque addition d’alcool, je mesurais la charge produite par passage de la solution . 16 dans le producteur à limaille. J’ai observé ainsi une diminution progressive de la charge, jusqu’à zéro exactement, pour 10 cm3 d’alcool. Ainsi, l’addition de l./30e de son volume d’alcool au benzène rend celui-ci inapte à se charger, donc inoffensif au point de vue des dangers d’incendie par explosion d’origine électrique. Il était indiqué de rechercher une action similaire sur l’essence. Malheureusement, l’alcool n’est pas soluble dans l’essence en toutes proportions, et l’on obtient dans ce cas nn minimum petit, mais non nul, de déviation à l’électromètre, qui est atteint pour l’addition de 9 cm3 d’alcool à 300 cm~ d’essence. La déviation tombe alors d’une valeur non mesurable, parce que trop grande, à 5 divisions. Après quoi, de nouvelles quantités d’alcool ajoutées n’entrent plus en solution, mais se précipitent. Il faudrait donc rechercher un autre corps conducteur, et qui soit soluble dans l’essence, en la rendant elle-même conductrice. Premières conclusions. - Les expériences précédentes permettent déjà de se faire une idée du mécanisme probable qui préside à l’électrisation des hydrocarburec liquides en mouvement par rapport à une paroi métallique. _ Le phénomène initial est très certainement un phénomène d’électrisation de contact, analogue à la grandeur près à ce qui se produit au contact de deux métaux. Des charges équivalentes d’électricité positive et négative existent donc de part et d’autre de l’intersnr- face liquide-métal, avant tout déplacement. S’il y a mouvement, à mesure que de nouvelles quantités de liquide arrivent, elles sont le siège du même phénomène. La quantité d’électri- cité entraînée croit donc, à mesure que le volume écoulé augmente, à condition que le liquide soit, d’une part assez conducteur pour que la force électromotrice de contact puisse agir en un temps court sur le liquide (1), d’autre part assez isolant pour que les charges portées par la veine liquide, après séparation du métal, ne puissent faire retour à celui-ci. On peut donc conclure, en se plaçant dans deux cas limites : Il Si l’un au moins des deux corps, par exemple le liquide, est très isolant, on n’obtiendra au collecteur que des charges insignifiantes, et d’ailleurs d’autant plus petites que le débit liquide sera plus grand. ~° Si les corps sont tous deux conducteurs, par exemple alcool ou eau s’écoulant dans un tube métallique, le phénomène d’électrisation de contact jouera à la perfection, mais on ne pourra à nouveau obtenir que de très faibles charges au collecteur, car les charges libérées feront rapidement retour au métal par la veine liquide; d’ailleurs, les charges entraînées seront d’autant plus importantes que le débit sera plus grand. D’une façon plus générale, â un liquide de conductivité donnée correspondra 2cn rlébit optimum,. ci un débit donné coi-resl)oîzdra une conductivité opti1na. Ces conclusions permettent de comprendre l’effet de fatigue du liquide, observe dans les premières expériences. L’électrisation de contact correspond vraisemblablement à une conduction à travers le liquide. Elle a donc les mêmes conséquences que l’application d’un champ électrique. Nous avons déjà constaté, et nous verrons plus loin en détail que l’essence et les liquides similaires sont légèrement conducteurs, et que l’application d’un champ élec- trique à ces liquides tend à faire disparaître leur faible conductivité. Ainsi, à une première passe va correspondre une forte électrisation par contact; elle sera beaucoup plus faible aux passes suivantes, parce que le liquide sera devenu trop isolant. C’est ce qui se passe dans le producteur I. L’effet est moins sensible dans le producteur II, car un résidu de conductivité du liquide pourra s’y montrer suffisant, en raison de la très faible épaisseur des couches liquides interposées entre les mailles du producteiir. Enfin, je rappelle que l’application directe d’un champ électrique au liquide suffit à diminuer notablement son actiyilé. Le rôle de l’alcool, et peut-être celui des limailles métalliques s’explique de son côté par un accroissement de la conductivité du liquide. (1) Comme nous le verrons plus tard, il est vraisemblable que, dans les conditions usuelles, les charges apparues proviennent du liquide. ’ 17 Autre conséquence. - Les considérations précédentes conduisent à penser qu’il y a intérêt à réaliser un producteur dans lequel : 1° L’intersurface liquide-métal soit aussi grande que possible, de façon à multiplier les effets de contact, pour un volume donné de liquide. 2° L’épaisseur de la couche liquide au contact du métal soit extrêmement réduite, afin déparer au mieux à l’accroissement de résistivité que subit le liquide au cours des premières passes. Ces conditions se trouvaient déjà mieux remplies dans le producteur II que dans le producteur I. Pour améliorer encore le rendement, j’ai pensé à substituer dans le producteur de la fine limaille métallique ne désactivant pas l’essence à la toile métallique. Description de l’appareil. - L’appareil construit sur ce principe est formé de deux récipients R, R’ isolés, et communiquant entre eux par un tube isolant (verres et joints de caoutchouc). Le récipient R, que nous appelons le producteur III, est à demi rempli d’une fine (1) limaille de laiton. Le liquide est mu par une pompe P, il filtre à travers la limaille, et se rend dans le , ’ Fig. 3. - Dispositif du producteur III et de ses accessoires. collecteur R‘. A mesure que le liquide quitte R, il emporte avec lui des charges négatives, ’ et libère sur R des charges positives équivalentes qui passent sur la surface externe de R. Le liquide pénètre dans R’, lui abandonne ses charges, qui passent à mesure à l’exté- rieur, tout au moins en grande partie, par conduction à travers le liquide. R et R’ se trouvent ainsi portés il des potentiels respectivement positif et négatif, et par le jeu alternatif du piston, les charges s’accumulent sur ld et sur R’. Les charges obtenues de cette façon sont d’un ordre de grandeur tout à fait inattendu. L’électromètre et même l’électroscope sont devenus des instruments beaucoup trop sensibles, et l’on a du faire appel, pour une mesure approximative des différences de potentiel, à un amicromètre à étincelles. -L’appareil fournit en effet des étincelles, dont la longueur ne paraît limitée que par les fuites à travers la colonne de liquide contenue dans le tube de communication entre R etR’, et tenant à ce qu’inévitablement une certaine quantité de limaille se trouve entraînée dans ce tube : il sera certainement aisé d’améliorer l’appareil à ce point de vue. Quoiqu’il en soit, ainsi que nous venons de le voir, le débit électrique de l’appareil est considérablement plus grand que celui des précédents, et en outre beaucoup plus constant, pour des conditions données de fonctionnement. L’effet de fatigue a pratiquement ’ (1) Grains de 0,1 mm de dimension moyenne. 9 18 disparu, et même, contrairement à toutes prévisions, les limailles qui, avec les autres dispositifs, désactivaient l’essence1 peuvent être employées sans aucun inconvénient pour garnir le producteur : ce qui signifie que le débit est tel que les fuites à travers la colonne d’essence, rendue plus conductrice par la présence de fins granules de limaille, ne jouant plus ici qu’un rôle négligeable. ’ Au point de vue débit liquide, on constate qu’il y a une valeur optima qu’il ne faut pas dépasser. En tenant compte des dimensions moyennes des grains de limaille, de leur nombre approximatif, et de la grandeur moyenne des interstices, on peut calculer sans difficultés l’ordre de grandeur des intersurfaces et de la vitesse relative. On obtient ce résultat que le système équivaut à celui formé pardeux lames métalliques rectangulaires parallèles d’environ 2m2 d’aire, séparées l’une de l’autre par un intervalle de o,1 mm, et entre lesquelles l’essence circulerait avec la vitesse de 4 cm/s environ (1). Origine des charges. - Nous avons esquissé plus haut le mécanisme probable de l’électrisation des hydrocarbures liquides, et montré que la cause première est vraisem- blablement une force électromotrice de contact (2). ’ Reste à savoir d’où viennent les charges apparues respectivement dans le liquide et sur le métal. Il est a priori malaisé de se prononcer sur ce point. Tout au plus convient-il d’examiner quelques hypothèses au moins plausibles, entre lesquelles l’expérience aura à décider. i° On peut d’abord penser à une électrisation de contact analogue à celle qui se produit entre métaux, l’hydrocarbure jouant le rôle du métal électronégatif : le métal laisserait échapper des électrons dans le liquide, jusqu’à ce que la force électromotrice de contact se trouve équilibrée par le jeu des attractions électrostatiques entre les électrons libérés et la paroi positive. ° Cette hypothèse implique celle d’un échange possible d’électrons entre un métal et un liquide isolant, mais cet échange entraîne à son tour comme conséquence la conduction dépourvus métallique, dont les liquides isolants sont par définition, au moins clans les con- ditions expérimentales actuellement usitées : à moins de champ électrique très intense, un métal ne saurait céder d’électrons à la température ordinaire (sans un éclairement conve- nable) au milieu ambiant, vide, gaz ou liquide isolant. Il semble donc que le mécanisme qui vient d’être esquissé ne soit à envisager que dans des conditions permettant à un champ électrostatique intense de s’établir. 2° On peut admettre que le passage des électrons du métal au liquide se fait par l’inter- médiaire des molécules d’hydrocarbure : de temps à autre, une molécule capterait un élec- tron au moment où elle vient choquer la paroi, et cela jusqu’à ce que se réalise un équilibre statistique correspondant à des vitesses égales de formation et de destruction des gros ions d’hydrocarbure. Si l’intensité du champ dû à la force électromotrice de contact est suffi- sante, on ne rencontre pas d’opposition de principe à cette manière de voir, mais elle aboutit à une conséquence vérifiable : le liquide devrait présenter une conductivité, faible en raison de la grosseur des ions formés, donc de leur petite mobilité, mais constante. 3° Enfin, il se pourrait que l’essence et les liquides similaires soient susceptibles d’ioniser les traces d’impuretés dissoutes. Je sais que cette conception rattachant les liquides isolants à des électrolytes n’a rencontré jusqu’à présent qu’un médiocre succès, mais il n’est pas interdit de la retenir au point de vue qui nous occupe, et qui est fort particulier. Dans ce cas le liquide contiendrait des ions des deux signes portant au total des charges équivalentes. Au contact du métal, les ions positifs viendraient emprunter à celui-ci des électrons, et se trouveraient de ce fait neutralisés ; resteraient les ions négatifs qui, attirés par la paroi posi- tive, formeraient avec elle la couche double habituelle. En raison de l’agitation moléculaire, (i) Pour les détails de ce calcul, voir L. BnrNiN&#x26;sAus, Annales de l’Office JBTationaitles Combustibles Liquides, 2 (1927), 501.. ~ (2) L’électrisation par frottement parait relever d’un mécanisme analogue. 19 cependant, les ions négatifs resteraient répartis dans une couche liquide d’une certaine épais- seur, contigüe à la paroi, de sorte que par écoulement du liquide une certaine proportion d’ions négatifs se trouverait entraînée. Onaurait ainsi à la sortie une veine liquide négative, le métal débitant à mesure des quantités équivalentes d’électricité positive. Ce point de vue implique implique une conduction du liquide, petite si les ions sont rares, mais présentant ce caractère probable de décroître avec le temps d’application du champ, puisque les ions porteurs des charges en mouvement vont se trouver progressive- ment drainés aux électrodes, donc éliminés de façon peut-être définitive. Il est à noter que cette explication cadrerait bien avec l’existence de l’effet de fatigue du liquide que nous avons constaté lorsque l’essence s’écoule dans un tube. Elle ne semble au contraire pas valable dans le cas où l’essence filtre à travers une couche de limaille métallique, et dans lequel la même essence peut produire des charges sans diminution de son activité. Il semblerait donc que deux hypothèses différentes doivent être envisagées, selon que le liquide qui se charge est réparti en volume ou en surface, c’est-à-dire en couche épaisse ou mince. IL LA CONDUCTION DE L’ÉLECTRICITÉ PAR LES HYDROCARBURES LIQUIDES. INTRODUCTION. _ Généralités. - La première partie de ce travail nous a montré la connexion étroite existant entre l’électrisation des liquides et leur conductivité. Nous avons vu d’abord qu’il ne peut y avoir électrisation de contact que si les corps en présence sont plus ou mous con- ducteurs, mais que celle-ci n’estt observable par écoulement d’un liquide au contact d’un métal, que si la conductivité du liquide est petite. De plus, et surtout, le mécanisme de l’électrisation de contact des liquides isolants ne peut être précisé que par la connaissance de la façon dont ces liquides conduisent l’électricité. Donc, outre l’intérêt que présente en soi cette question, j’ai été tout naturellement conduit à l’étudier dans le but d’élucider plus complètement celle de l’électrisation. Le problème, à vrai dire, n’est pas nouveau, mais il ne me paraît pas avoir été traité jusqu’à présent sous une forme qui permette d’apporter les éclaircissements désirables au mécanisme de l’électrisation de contact, que j’avais plus spécialement en vue. En particulier, il fallait être à même de suivre pas à pas la marche de la conduction en fonction du temps, puisque l’un des buts principaux était d’en observer les variations, ainsi qu’il ressort du dernier paragraphe de la première partie de ce travail. La méthode de la perte de charge d’un condensateur dont la lame diélectrique est cons- tituée par l’isolant à étudier, méthode d’ordinaire employée dans des recherches de cette sorte, ne pouvait donc servir, puisqu’elle ne donne qu’un effet d’ensemble de la conduction pendant un temps donné, et en laisse les particularités inaccessibles. Je me suis donc adressé à la méthode, moins sensible, mais préférable dans le cas pré- sent, de mesure directe, au galvanomètre, du courant électrique traversant le liquide. Me proposant d’opérer sur des couches, soit très étendues, soit très minces, j’avais du reste l’espoir de compenser une sensibilité moindre de l’appareillage par l’existence d’une plus grande conductance. Méthode de mesure. - Le principe de la méthode est donc extrêment simple : elle consiste à mettre en série l’électromoteur, le film liquide et le galvanomètre. Mais, lors- qu’on procède ainsi, sans précautions spéciales, on se butte à des difficultés qui se tra- duisent par des incertitudes de lecture inacceptables, et tiennent à la sensibilité inévita- blement grande du galvanomètre : le moindre courant parasite dépasse aisément celui, très faible, qu’il s’agit de mesurer. Après divers tâtonnements, l’on s’est arrêté au montage que représente le schéma ci- contre (fig. 5). A et B sont les pôles du système électromoteur, batterie d’accumulateurs ou 20 potentiomètre. C est ce que nous appellerons dorénavant la cellule, c’e8t-à-dire le système formé par le film liquide en expérience et les électrodes plus ou moins voisines entre les- quelles il est compris; D est le dispositif de commutation, dont le rôle est de faire passer le courant dans la cellule dans le sens des flèches ou en sens inverse, selon l’établissement des connexions entre a, b, c et d; G est le galvanomètre, muni de trois shunts Sh S2, S3 ayant en général respectivement ~U 000; 20 et 1 en régime normal, Si est seul branché; si le courant devient trop intense, on tranche Sz ou même S3. J’ai été conduit, par tâtonnements successifs, à établir les connexions très soigneu- sement. On remarquera d’abord, sur la figure, que le galvanomètre est placé sur le circuit (il)rès la cellule, par rapport au sens de passage du courant. En effet, en raison de la très grande résistance de la cellule, la presque totalité de la chute de potentiel a lieu à travers Fig. 4. - Sliéina du montage pour l’étude de la conduction des films de liquide isolant. celle-ci, de sorte que l’électrode de sortie, telle que f si le courant passe dans le sens des flèches, est presque au même potentiel que B : il en résulte qu’un défaut d’isolement des fils de connexion situés entre f et B, ne saurait se traduire que par une fuite en dehors du galvanomètre qui ne soit qu’une faible fraction du courant issu de la cellule, et que, si l’iso- lement est assez soigné, la lecture au galvanomètre ne sera entachée de ce fait que d’une erreur par défaut absolument négligeable. Les fuites importantes ne peuvent avoir lieu qu’entre le système Aace, qui est au potentiel le plus élevé, et le sol, et par conséquent le pôle B, maintenu en relation constante avec le sol. Si le galvanomètre était inséré entre c et e, une partie de ces fuites se traduirait par un courantt traversant le galvanomètre, et j’ai constaté que, dans ces conditions, même avec l’isolement le plus soigné, le courant de fuite pouvait dépasser celui qu’il s’agissait de mesurer. Comme d’ailleurs ce courant de fuite se montre essentiellement variable (’), il ne peut en aucune façon en être tenu compte avec quelque certitude. a veillé d’autre part à ce que l’isolement des diverses parties du circuit soit aussi parfait que possible. Dans toutes les mesures, la cellule repose invaria- (1) Il diminue d’ordinaire en fonction du temps, à partir du moment où les connexions sont établies, pour reprendre à peu près sa valeur initiale au repos. 21 hlement sur une ou plusieurs cales de paraffine ; les fils de connexion sont tendus dans l’air, sans contact avec quoi que ce soit d’autre que leurs bornes d’attache, et pour les plus longs, c’est-à-dire ce et df, avec un support isolateur de paraffine à chaque bout; le commutateur D est formé de deux blocs d’ébonite bien isolante, percés chacun de deux petites cavités, a et b pour le premier, c et d pour le second, dans lesquelles on a introduit une goutte de mercure, les connexions étant établies au moyen de ponts métalliques formés de gros fil isolé; ces blocs reposent sur une plaque de paraffine. Les bornes du galvanomètre sont portées par le socle en ébonite supportant l’instrument, de sbrte que son isolement est satisfaisant, sans autre précaution. Le shunt Si est porté par de petits blocs d’ébonite; S~ et S3 reposent sur des plaques de paraffine. Le circuit ainsi monté fonctionne sans donner lieu à aucun ennui. En particulier, lorsque la cellule est vide, le zéro du galvanomètre ne subit aucun déplacement, ni au moment du branchement de la batterie d’accumulateurs HO volts sur le circuit, ni au moment de l’établissement du pont bd, ni au moment où l’on place à son tour le pont ac, conditions qui n’étaient pas remplies avec des montages moins soignés tout d’abord uti- lisés. Ce résultat montre que, s’il passe inévitablement un courant de fuite entre les bornes A et B de la batterie, il n’en passe aucun qui soit décelable entre }B et b, ni entre a ou c et b ou d, car ces courants de fuite traverseraient tous le galvanomètre, et seraient respecti- vement accusés par lui au moment de la connexion de la batterie, et aux instants d’éta- blissement des ponts bd, puis ac. Si j’insiste plus qu’il ne semblerait nécessaire sur cette description un peu fastidieuse des précautions prises, c’est qu’elle me semble en réalité fondamentale. En effet, si le montage est défectueux, on croira étudier ce qui se passe dans la cellule, alors que l’on ne fera qu’enregistrer la loi de variation du courant de fuite par les supports, qui peut mas- quer complètement les phénomènes souvent très petits dont la cellule est le siège. , Le galvanomètre est du type courant, à cadre mobile, de Carpentier. Sa sensibilité est de 1 mm de déplacement du spot sur l’échelle pour un courant de IO-11 à 11-1~, ampère avec le shunt de 20 000 Q, fournissant l’amortissement convenable pour une mise rapide à la position d’équilibre. Sa résistance est de 9000 ~ environ. Afin de pouvoir faire varier avec une continuité suffisante la différence de potentiel appliquée à la cellule, on a en général employé une boîte de résistance de 11 000 Q, montée en potentiomètre, en relation avec la batterie d’accumulateurs de I10 volts. Expériences. - Au cours de ces expériences, en dehors des difficultés de montage, résolues ainsi qu’il vient d’être expliqué, se sont présentées d’autres difficultés, considé- rables, tenant à la nature même des phénomènes, et que j’ai été assez long à débrouiller complètement. Un exposé qui suivrait pas à pas le détail des faits observés serait, pour cette raison, fort laborieux et à peu près inintelligible. Je me trouve donc conduit, afin d’éclaircir la situation, à établir dès maintenant un classement des faits, et à les décrire dans un ordre plus logique que celui suivant lequel ils se sont présentés en réalité. * En effet; en faisant passer le courant dans un hydrocarbure liquide, et en laissant de côté le régime disruptif, trois régimes se montrent possibles, et il leur arrive de s’enchevê- trer, sans cause apparente, de façon souvent irrégulière, de sorte que, avant d’avoir reconnu cette complexité, il m’est arrivé de croire assister à l’évolution naturelle de l’un de ces régimes de conduction électrique, alors qu’il y avait en réalité mélange de celui-ci avec un autre. Ce n’est qu’après la répétition des mêmes expériences à de nombreuses reprises que j’ai pu isoler l’un de l’autre les trois régimes en question. Ceux-ci peuvent être désignés de la façon suivante : A. Régime isolant stable. B. Régime semi-conducteur instable. C. Régime conducteur. Nous les étudierons successivement. 22 A. - 11ÛGDIE ISOLANT STAm.E. Ce régime est caractérisé par les énormes résistivités, de l’ordre de 10~ Q cm, qui sont d’ordinaire attribuées aux hydrocarbures. Il s’observe le plus facilement dans le cas ’de champs faibles, et surtout avec des lames liquides relativement épaisses. Le polissage des électrodes a pour effet d’étendre ses limites vers les champs plus intenses, de même d’ailleurs qu’il recule le point d’apparition du régime disruptif, de sorte que, pour avoir un phénomène plus pur, je me euis efforcé d’opérer avec des électrodes soigneusement polies. Premières expériences. - L’objectif initial de ces expériences était de voir comment varie l’intensité du courant en fonction du temps, pour une différence de potentiel appliquée invariable. Il est clair qu’une réponse nette ne peut être donnée à cette question qu’en régime isolant stable. Le liquide, essence minérale ou huile de vaseline, est compris entre deux plaques carrées horizontales de glace argentée, les deux couches d’argent en regard servant d’élec- trodes. Les portions utiles des électrodes sont des rectangles de 5fi m 51 cm de côtés. Elles sont maintenues à une distance de 0, 48 mm l’une de l’autre, grâce à l’interposition de petites cales de mica, disposées aux quatre sommets des électrodes. Le système repose dans une cuvette plate de porcelaine contenant l’essence, et le tout est recouvert par une lame de verre. Ce dispositif sera appelé la cellule A. Plusieurs expériences préliminaires ont fourni des résultats parfaitement concordants : laissant constante la différence de potentiel appliquée, le courant diminue, d’abord rapi- dement, puis de plus en plus lentement, suivant une loi d’allure hyperbolique ; la chute initiale est d’ailleurs d’autant plus rapide que le champ appliqué est plus intense. Pour préciser, et décider si le courant tend vers une limite finie, ou au contraire nulle, je fis ,l’expérience définitive suivante. Le liquide est de l’huile de vaseline purifiée. On applique à la cellule A une différence de potentiel de 110 volts, le galvanomètre étant shunté par 1 000 ~3. Au moment de la fermeture, le spot dévie de 200 mm; puis, presque aussitôt, le courant commence à diminuer. On note alors les déviations du galvanomètre, que je traduirai en intensités, en raison des changements successifs de shunt au cours des mesures. Le tableau suivant contient ces résultats obtenus. &#x3E; t La courbe de la ligure 5 représente la variation du courant pendant les 120 premières minutes. Son allure est caractéristique, du régime isolant stable des hydrocarbures ; l’essence minérale fournit des courbes de même forme. Les résultats obtenus jusqu’à 168 heures ne se laisseraient pas représenter graphiquement avec précision; ils montrent du moins que, lorsqu’on prolonge indéfiniment la durée de passage du courant, son intensité diminue indéfiniment, et qu’il n’y a donc pas de conductivité résiduelle. On s’est demandé si, abandonnant la cellule à elle-même pendant un temps assez long, dans l’état actuel extrêmement isolant du liquide, sa conductivité initiale pourrait réappa- raître. 23 L’essai dura un mois, au bout duquel l’intensité du courant est passée, sous volts, de 5. iO-l1 ampère à 9~. ~ 0-l~ ampères alors que l’huile dans son état initial se laissait traverser, sous 110 volts, par un courant de 22 ~00. ~0-r1 ampère. La conductivité du liquide ne réapparaît donc qu’avec une extrême lenteur. Tig. 5. - Variation de l’intensité du courant en fonction du temps, dans un film d’huile de vaseline. Conclusions. - Ces expériences conduisent aux conclusions suivantes : i 0 Lorsqu’on applique à un hydrocarbure liquide un champ d’intensité il débite un courant dont l’intensité varie suivant une loi d’allure fi yperôolique. 2° Ce courant paraît tendre vers zéro, ou tout au moins vers une limite trop faible pour pourvoir être décelée : la densité de courant limite de la dernière expérience, cchrès ~ 68 heures d’application du était, sous 110 volts, égale à 3° Lorsqu’on accroît le champ appliqué, révolution du liquide reste la tnême, 1nais en ,un temps d’autant plus couî-t que le champ appliqué est plus intense. 40 La modification apportée au liquide par passage du courant pendant urz certain ,temps semble dé finitive. En 1&#x3E;rése&#x3E;ùce de l’atmosphère, toute fois, la conductibilité dit liquide réapparait très lentement. Expériences sur le rôle possible de l’eau. - J’ai pensé que le lent retour de la conductibilité de l’huile abandonnée à elle-même pouvait être rapproché du fait que l’on ,.opérait en présence de l’atmosphère et j’ai admis que ragent actif en devait être la, vapeur d’eau. Afin d’élucider ce point, j’ai constrit une cellule de dimensions plus maniables que la ¡précédente, et dans laquelle la petitesse des électrodes devait se trouver dans une certaine mesure compensée par leur très faible distance : ce sera la cellule Ce), dont voici la .descri ption. Les deux électrodes sont constituées par deux disques métalliques d’environ 35 mm de diamètre, l’un E1 en laiton, l’autre E2 en acier (miroir d’acier). Les deux faces en regard sont ,planes et polies. Elles sont séparées l’une de l’autre par trois cales de mica de mêlne épais- (I) Je ne décrirai pas ici une cellule B, qui m’a également servi au cours des premières expériences. . 24 seur. Le système repose sur une plaque de laiton L fixée à une tige T du même métal. Saisis- sant la tige T à la main, on peut facilement immerger le tout dans le liquide à étudier, qui vient alors remplir l’intervalle compris entre les électrodes. Le liquide est contenu dans un verre de Bohème, reposant lui-même sur un épais bloc de paraffine. On a étudié avec ce dispositif le benzène cristallisable, l’essence minérale et l’huile de vaseline, avec des résultats tout à fait similaires. C’est pourquoi je me bornerai à décrire- l’expérience la plus typique et la plus nette faite avec l’huile de vaseline. L’épaisseur de la couche liquide est égale à 0,03 mm. On vérifie que la conduction par Fig. 6. Disposition de la cellule C. - par les cales de mica, autrement dit la conduction de la cellule sans liquide, est trop faible pour pouvoir être décelée. Les électrodes sont soigneusement polies, afin d’éviter l’apparition du régime disruptif, qui était à craindre en raison de la faible distance des électrodes. L’huile est desséchée par chauffage à l10-130° pendant 2 heures, introduite dans la cellule, et le tout est placé sous une cloche bien étanche, en présence d’anhydride phosphorique (1). On applique à la cellule ainsi préparée une différence de potentiel de 6 volts (accumu- lateurs). Aua premiers instants, courant relativement intense : la déviation du galvanomètre est de 20 mm, avec le shunt de 10. Après quelques seconde, la déviation devient nulle. Le caractère erratique de cette première déviation, suivie d’un retour au zéro sont, ainsi que nous le verrons, les signes d’une poussée de régime semi-conducteur. Après que le courant ’ s’est annulé, on assiste à une longue suite d’impulsions erratiques du spot, ayant toutes le sens du champ appliqué, et qui ont été décrites dans leur détail ailleurs (z). Le phénomène se retrouve à plusieurs jours d’intervalle, chaque fois que l’on applique le champ. Mais, leurs minima correspondent en général à une déviation nulle, ce qui indique que le courant de régime stable est nul, luais qu’il s’y superpose un régime instable persistant : nous verrons que le fait est fréquent. La cellule est alors abandonnée à elle-même pendant trois mois, toujours en présence de l’anhydride phosphorique. En lui appliquant à nouveau, au bout de cette longue période, la même différence de potentiel de 6 volts, on constate que, à part de grandes impulsions initiales du spot à la fermeture du courant, et des impulsions erratiques plus ou moins importantes en cours de mesure, le courant est exactement nul lorsque le spot est stable. Cette constatation se vérifie encore au cours d’essais fait de temps à autre pendant plusieurs semaines consécutives. La stabilité du spot au zéro est parfaitement nette : le (1) On a vérifié au préalable que, en l’absence d’anhydride phosphorique et la cellule étant vide, le ourant de fuite est exactement nul. Les effets que nous allons décrire sont donc indépendants d’une onduction quelconque par les supports et par les isolateurs en contact avec le circuit. r2) L. nRÜNINGlIAUS, R. G. E., t. 26 (1929), pp. 181, 831 et 8 î 1. 25 spot reste très bien immobile au zéro pendant une heure par exemple, le circuit étant fermé. . En définitive, nous nous trouvons en présence d’un liquide complètement isolant, en régime stable. On substitue alors, sous la cloche, du carbonate de sodium à 10 molécules d’eau à l’anhydride phosphorique, de façon à y faire régner une pression de vapeur d’eau égale à la pression de dissociation de cet hydrate, à la température ordinaire. Pour laisser à cette vapeur d’eau le temps de diffuser dans le liquide, et en particulier vers le mince film contenu entre les électrodes, on attend une semaine, ce qui du reste est certainement insuffisant pour que l’eau ait acquis uniformément dans le film sa concentration d’équilibre, Quoiqu’il en soit, au bout de ce temps, on observe sous 6 voltes une déviation de 4 mm, qui s’annule en 2 minutes environ, pour reprendre sa valeur initiale, si l’on attend un certain temps, par exemple ‘_&#x3E;0 minutes, en circuit ouvert. Ce résultat vérifie bien le rôle de la vapeur d’eau; une trace d’eau certainement infime suffit à restituer au liquide une conductivité observable. L’annulation de la déviation correspond à l’élimination de cette trace d’eau par le jeu de la conduction; le rétablissement de la déviation par repos du liquide en circuit ouvert est corrélatif d’un retour au film de l’eau contenu dans les couches liquides qui l’entourent. Afin de pouvoir prolonger l’expérience dans un domaine de potentiels plus étendu, on a substitué le potentiomètre à la batterie d’accumulateurs, tout en conservant le même liquide, la même cellule et la même distance des électrodes. Celles-ci avaient été simplement repolies, de façon à leur permettre de supporter de plus grandes différences de potentiel sans dPcharge disruptive. D’autre part, on avait renouvelé le carbonate de sodium sous la cloche. Comme précédemment, je laisse provisoirement de côté les effets de l’apparition du régime instable, pour ne mentionner ici que les indications du galvanomètre lorsque le spot est bien fixe. La déviation permanente se montre dès lors égale à 10 mm sous 110 volts, avec le shunt de 20 000 Q. On remplace alors sous la cloche le carbonate de sodium par de l’eau. Au bout d’une semaine, on observe sous i10 volts une déviation stable de 9i mm, toujours avec le shunt de 20 000 O. Au bout d’une nouvelle semaine d’exposition de la cellule à la vapeur d’eau saturante, on note quelques déviations stables 5.’ sous diverses différences de potentiel VA - Yn. Avec de plus hauts potentiels, le régime instable se mêle trop complètement au régime stable pour permettre des lectures ayant une signification précise. On coupe alors, et l’on refait au bout de quelques instants, après avoir constaté que le régime instable a disparu, une nouvelle suite d’observations, pour tâcher d’atteindre des potentiels plus élevés. ° puis le régime instable s’établit. Ces lectures sont notablement inférieures aux précédentes. Le fait est parfaitement normal, si l’on se rappelle (premières expériences) que la résistance stable des hydrocar- bures liquides croît à mesure que l’on prolonge la durée de passage du courant. C’est ce qui ressort notamment des précédentes lectures : à 9 volts, la déviation était passée en peu de temps de 26 à 10 mm - à 20 volts, elle était tombée, plus lentement (30 minutes), de 26 à 26 6,5 mm; à 29 volts, elle diminuait, plus lentement encore, à partir de 13 min. L’allure hyperbolique du phénoinène se retrouve. A vrai dire, nous sommes en présence de vapeur saturante, niais il est tout à fait pro- bable que le retour de l’eau au film par diffusion est beaucoup trop lent pour compenser son élimination, qui est, à coup sûr, provoquée par la conduction. Trois jours après, on fit une nouvelle série de mesures, dans les mêmes conditions, sur le filin, resté naturellement en présence de la vapeur d’eau saturante. Chaque nombre du tableau ci-dessous donne la valeur iïiiiiale de la déviation observée, à .partir de laquelle le courant diminue lente ment, ainsi que nous venons de le faire remarquer. La dernière lecture est sujette à caution, car accompagnée de déplacements erratiques du spot, après lesquels le courant diminue lentement. Ce tableau montre d’abord des déviations notablement plus grandes que celles du tableau précédent, ce qui indique qu’en présence de la vapeur d’eau saturante le liquide reprend assez rapidement sa conductivité, alors qu’à l’air libre (beaucoup moins humide), ainsi que nous l’avons~vu (premières expériences, fin) le retour de la conductivité est consi- dérablement plus lent, et qu-’il ne se produit pas du tout en présence d’une atmosphère sèche. Par exemple, pour 9 volts, on a 0 = 20 alors que trois jours avant, 9 volts donnaient seulement 8 = 2 mm. Il montre en second lieu que le courant est très loin de croître proportionnellement à la différence de potentiel appliquée. A mesure que l’expérience se prolonge, le liquide se modifie de plus en plus, comme nous l’avons déjà constaté à plusieurs reprises, dans le sens de l’accroissement de sa résistivité, de sorte que 1-’effet de l’augmentation du champ est de moins en moins sensible, et qu’il dépend du reste de la durée de chaque lecture et de l’intervalle de temps qui sépare les lectures successives ; ce qui d’autre part explique les irrégularités de variation des déviations, tenant principalement à ce que ces durées et ces intervalles variaient inévitablement un peu d’une mesure à l’autre. L’effet du prolongement de l’expérience est rendu particulièrement net par l’essai sui- vant : aussitôt les mesures terminées, je suis revenu au potentiel de 10 volts. J’ai obtenu une déviation de 2, 5 mm, au lieu des 20 mm observés au cours des mesures. Pour corroborer l’effet de la dessication, j’ai alors à nouveau desséché l’atmosphère de la cloche, en y replaçant un flacon d’anhydride phosphorique. J’ai laissé s’écouler i8 jours en présence de ce corps. Au bout de ce temps, l’anyclricle phosphorique est retrouvé à l’état pâteux, ce qui prouve que l’atmosphère de la cloche ne saurait être considérée comme 27 complètement desséchée. Cependant, il est non moins clair qu’elle est maintenant considé- rablement plus sèche qu’auparavant. En établisssant la différence de potentiel, on constate que le courant de régime stable est devenu exactement nul sous tous les potentiels, jusqu’à 110 volts inclus. En définitive, l’huile est devenue complètement isolante en régime stable, en présence d’une atmosphère, . sinon sèche, du moins dans un état de dessication avancée. Pour poursuivre l’e-,xpérience,@oli renouvelle alors l’anhydride phosphorique, on laisse s’écouler trois jours, et l’on reprend les observations. Il est certain qu’au bout de ce temps, en raison de la lenteur de diffusion des très faibles traces d’eau pouvant rester dans le film liquide, l’on ne doit pas s’attendre à une modification de la conductivité stable du liquide, si celle-ci est sous la dépendance de l’eau y-contenue. Il s’agit bien plutôt de vérifier que l’atmosphère avait bien été pratiquement desséchée antérieurement, et que la fermeture de la cloche était bien étanche vis-à-vis d’un apport de vapeur d’eau de l’extérieur. Or, au bout de trois jours, l’anhydride phosphorique est resté sec. On vérifie toutefois, chemin faisant, l’état isolant du liquide : en régime stable, le spot continue à indiquer une déviation nulle. La situation est restée inchangée plusieurs jours (deux semaines environ), puis un mois, puis un mois et demi après, en ce qui concerne tout à la fois l’état bien sec de l’anhydride phosphorique et l’état isolant de l’huile. L’expérience est alors arrêtée. Les conclusions à tirer de cette suite d’expériences s’imposent de la façon la plus nette : 1 ° L’état stable des hydrocarbures liquides secs étudiés est hautejrcent isolccnt. 2’ La tl’ès faible conductivité de ces liquides à l’état norarml est liée à la de traces de ri’ eau dissoute dans le liquide. Le passage du courant effet d’éliminer cette eau dissoute. Ces conclusions ne sont naturellement valables que par rapport au procédé d’investi- gation utilisé, c’est-à-dire pour des courants de densité supérieure ou au moins égale à 10-t’- amp./cm2 environ. Elles ne s’étendent pas forcément à des courants plus faibles, qui sont en dehors du champ de nos instruments d’observation. Il est à présumer qu’elles sont valables pour les autres hydrocarbures liquides. B. - RÉGIME SEMI-CONDUCTEUR INSTABLE. Le régime instable peut apparaître dans deux cas différents :i 1° /k la fermeture du courant, ’ 2\" En faisant croître le champ, ou sans cause apparente. . 9 ° La fermeture du courant constitue, surtout si le champ appliqué est notable, une perturbation qui s’accompagne quelquefois d’une poussée de régime semi-conducteur ins- table : brusque lancement du spot à une grande distance sur l’échelle, ou même hors de l’échelle, et dans le sens du champ appliqué. Il est des cas où elle se discerne mal du début du régime stable, qui, avec un liquide vierge, est relative)Jlent conducteur. Il en est d’autres, au contraire, où la violence de lancement du spot, la grandeur de l’impulsion et le retour rapide vers le zéro sont tout à fait caractéristiques. Les expériences précédemment décrites ont fréquemment donié lieu à des manifestations de ce genre. L’examen de ces cas permet de conclure que le 1’égiJJle instable provoqué par fermeture du courant est en général très fugiti f, qu’il se produit tout aussi bien dans le liquide sec que dans le liquide saturé d’eau, qu’il ne relève donc en rien de la présence de l’eau dans le liquide, qu’il est en fin alti-ibitable à une toute autre cccuse que la fccible conduction étudiée hlus haut. 20 Plus énigmatiques encore sont ces nombreuses manifestations d’instabilité qui se produisent au cours des mesures, soit lorsqu’on fait croître le champ appliqué, soit même sans aucune espèce de cause apparente, qui parfois disparaissent aussitôt pour laisser reprendre aux mesures leur cours normal, d’autres fois, persistent pendant des heures, et rendent toute mesure du régime stable complètement impossible. 28 ’ On a pu constater, sur de nombreux exemples, dont quelques-uns figurent dans les tableaux précédents que le réginae instable s’établit alors de lorsque le appl’iqué esi intense, bien qu’il y ait à cela des exceptions; qu’il n’est pas lié à la présence de l’eau dans le liquide; que son Jnécanisn¿e est très différent de celai de la conduction en réginle stable.. On s’est assuré, naturellement, que le phénomène est bien réel, et qu’il ne s’agit pas de déplacements erratiques du zéro du galvanomètre, qui se produisent si facilement avec un galvanomètre mal supendu ou mal réglé. Avant chaque mesure, on avait toujours soin de s’assurer de la fixité du zéro du galva- nomètre. ou tout au moins de l’extrême lenteur et de la continuité de ses déplacements, provoqués comme on sait. par effet thermoélectrique sur un circuit forcément hétérogène, lorsque la température du local varie. On a vérifié également que, pour un faible courant constant, les indications de l’instrument restaient invariables. Je ne crois donc pas que l’on puisse imputer ici quelque défaut de fonctionnement des instruments. Mais on pourrait penser à l’interposition d’une petite parcelle de métal qui, voyageant librement entre les électrodes, s’orienterait différemment selon la grandeur du champ appliqué, ou sous l’effet des courants de convection. Je considère une telle éven- tualité comme très improbable, étant donné les soins apportés au polissage et au nettoyage des électrodes, et que l’effet le plus fréquent de la présence d’une parcelle de métal serait la mise en court-circuit de la cellule, alors que ce que l’on observe en réalité exclut toute idée de continuité métallique. On pourrait évidemment penser aux déplacements d’une particule non métallique, telle qu’un petit morceau de fibre végétale (papier ou autre). Mais il a été montré récem- ment (’) que ces fibres conduisent dans la mesure où elles contiennent de l’eau : en ce cas, le régime instable devrait disparaître, ou tout au moins être très atténué, lorsqu’on opère dans un liquide sec : ce qui n’est pas. Au reste, on opérait avec un liquide parfaitement limpide : et nous verrons plus loin que la filt,ration du liquide sur porcelaine ne fait pas non plus disparaître le régime ~ instable. En défintive, le semi-conducteur 1&#x3E;istaôle doit èlî-e considéré conzoae nne jJar.ticulière aux liquides étudiés. Nous verrons qu’elle constitue une sorte de préparation à l’apparition du régime conducteur. Cette conclusion est d’ailleurs conforme à de récentes observations dont je n’ai eu connaissance qu’après mes propres expériences. Il s’agit d’un travail de Watson et Menon (2 j , relatif à la conduction électrique des minces films d’huile. On y étudie une huile lourde de paraffine très isolante, et l’on trouve qu’il y a une épaisseur critique de 10 li. . pour laquelle la rigidité diélectrique du liquide tombe très brusquement, la rupture se produisant en deux étapes. La première période de la rupture est, dans presque tous les cas, un état partiellement conducteur, où la résistance est comprise entre 10 000 Q et quelques mégohms. La conduction est fréquenunent intern1ittente. Elle se montre parfois stable, surtout pour les courants intenses. La résistance dit lilni alors lorsque l’intensité du courant croit. Ces observations SOIIt en accord au moins qualitatif avec les précédentes et avec celles qui seront décrites plus loin au sujet du régime conducteur. C. - RÉGIME CONDUCTEUR. Essais préliminaires. - L’idée des expériences que je vais maintenant décrire éma- nait en principe simplement du désir de contrôler la réalité de l’état semi-conducteur instable, dont il vient d’être traité. Nous allons voir qu’elles ont, non seulement vérifié l’existence de cet état semi-conducteur instable mais en outre conduit à la découverte plus inattendue encore, d’un état de conductivité comparable à celle des métaux. (1) E.-s MURPIIY et A.-C, W,&#x26;LKER. J. phys. 32 (1928), 1 161 et 33 (1929), 509. (2) WATSON (H.-E) et 1BIENON (A.-S). Proc. Roy. Soc., t. 123 (1929), p. 185. 29 En effet, dans les expériences précédentes, toutes les circonstances étrangères capables de produire une instabilité accidentelle du courant avaient été éliminées. Toutefois, il me restait encore quelques doutes sur le rôle, improbable certes, mais après tout possible, étant donné le caractère si imprévu des effets observés, des cales de mica séparant les électrodes dans ces diverses expériences. Ce mica s’était montré hautement isolant, à sec, c’est-à-dire avec la cellule vide. ylais il était permis de penser que, peut-être par suite d’un effet ayant pour siège l’intersur- face entre le liquide isolant et les cales de mica, la conduction par les cales immergées dans l’huile n’était pas la même qu’en l’absence du liquide. Il était difficile de prouver directement la présence ou l’absence d’un tel eîîet. C’est pourquoi j’ai résolu de construire une cellule dans laquelle aucune matière auúe le liquide ne soit interposée entre les électrodes. On a d’abord réalisé un dispositif remplissant cette condition avec lequel on retrouva exactement les précédents phénomènes, mais dont le fonctionnement ne me parut pas encore assez sûr, par suite de déformations possibles de l’isolant. Il était d’autre part désirable de pouvoir faire varier à volonté, et de façon aisément mesurable, la distance entre les électrodes. Le dispositif réalisé dans ce but portera le nom de cellule niicroncé- trique.. Description de la cellule micrométrique. L’électrode inférieure E2 de cette - cellule est fixe, elle est en acier et son diamètre est d’environ 10 mm. Cette électrode est légèrement convexe. L’électrode supérieure E, est un petit disque de laiton d’environ 15 mm de diamètre ; Fib. ’1. - La cellule micrométrique. elle est parallèle à la première, et à peu près coaxiale avec elle ; elle est supportée par une vis micrométrique permettant les lectures par centième de millimètre. L’électrode est fixée à la vis par l’intermédiaire d’un petit disque de gel d’acroléine, de 5 mm de diamètre et ~ mm de hauteur environ, qui s’est montré parfaitement isolant et présentait les garanties de rigidité nécessaire. La fixation était assurée par une trace de golaz. Les connexions sont établies de la façon suivante: le socle de la cellule, qui est en bronze et qui est métalliquement solidaire de l’électrode inférieure, repose sur une plaque de laiton L connectée au reste du circuit par l’intermédiaire de la tige T ; la plaque est supportée par un bloc de paraffine. On a, d’autre part, disposé une goutte de mercure sur la face supérieure de l’autre électrode, et près du bord; dans cette goutte plonge l’extré- 30 mité d’un fil de cuivre solidaire d’un bloc de paraffine. Le bloc est creusé d’une petite cavité contenant du mercure, qui est en relation avec le fil de cuivre ; on peut y plonger l’extrémité du deuxième fil de ligne. Ainsi, la cellule micrométrique peut être enlevée et remise en place à lrolollte : les connexions se trouvent d’elles-mêmes instantané- ment. Pour faire une expérience, les électrodes sont d’abord soigneusement polies ; on vérifie ensuite, à la loupe, qu’aucune particule solide n’est restée adhérente aux électrodes, puis on dispose celles-ci à la distance désirée, et l’on vise une source de lumière à travers le mince espace compris entre les électrodes : on vérifie que cet espace est entièrement libre. On connecte alors la cellule au circuit et l’on vérifie enfin que, SOlIS f 10 volts, le système est rigou&#x3E;.euse»ieTit isolant. Il ne reste plus qu’à déposer sur l’électrode inférieure, avec une baguette de verre très propre, une goutte du liquide à étudier, à régler la distance entre les électrodes et à mettre la cellule en place sur le circuit. C’est dans ces conditions que les expériences ont été effectuées. J’ajouterai que, pour éviter les conséquences fâcheuses d’un court-circuit accidentel, on, avait pris la précaution de disposer en série avec la cellule une résistance de 20 000 Q (résistance de T. S. F.) et en outre une lampe à incandescence de 32 bougies, dont nous verrons plus loin l’utilité. Expvriences. - Je ne décrirai pas les multiples essais faits avec la cellule micromé- trique, dont les résultats généraux ont été uniformément les mêmes. Je me bornerai à la description de quelques expériences particulièrement caractéristiques. Je dirai seulement que les premiers essais .avaient non seulement vérifié l’établissement du régime instable dans les conditions indiquées plus haut, mais montré que, pour des champs appliqués croissants, il arrivait un moment où la résistance de la cellule paraissait s’annuler brusque- ment ; que je crus tout d’abord à l’établissement d’un court-circuit accidentel, mais que, en vérifiant soigneusement toute l’installation, je fus contraint de renoncer à cette explica- tion. Pour poursuivre les expériences sur les grands courants ainsi débités par la cellule, j’avais installé sur le circuit, en série avec la cellule, encore un nouvel instrument, un milliampèremètre. Voici une première expérience typique. On porte la distance des électrodes à 20 N. ; on essaye l’isolement à vide: courant de fuite exactement nul sous 110 volts. On introduit alors une goutte d’huile de vaseline sous la même épaisseur de 20 p. En établissant entre les électrodes la différence de potentiel de 0,01 volt, en observe une déviation de 418 mm, puis un instant après de 410 mm. Il s’agit déjà peut-être de l’éta- blissement de ce que j’ai été conduit à appeler le « régime conducteur ». Et en effet, en appli- quant 110 volts, le milliampèremètre entre en action, et indique un courant de 5 milli- ampères, courant qui correspond à la résistance de 20 000 SZ insérée sur le circuit : ainsi, tout se passe comme si la résistance de la cellule s’était annulée. L’écart des électrodes était resté cependant de 20 p. : sans couper le courant, je tourne la vis jusqu’au contact des électrodes; je mesure ainsi un déplacement de 20 ~L; et le courant reste égal à 5 milli- ampères. Je reprends les observations en mettant les électrodes à 30 pL l’une de l’autre. Le courant reste exactement nul jusqu’à 30 volts inclus. Il est imperceptible à 40 volts. Il se traduit par une déviation de 3 mm à 70 volts, mais avec retour au zéro. Gependant. il se produit aussitôt après une déviation de 107 mm, avec retour au zéro. Autrement dit, le régime irrégulier s’établit. La déviation permanente est à peine observable, soit de l’ordre de 0,25 mm. Sous 110 volts, la déviation permanente est de l’ordre du millimètre, avec, de temps à autre, une impulsion erratique tout d’abord modérée, mais croissant bientôt rapidement, en passant par 160 mm, puis 300 mm, le spot sortant finalement de l’échelle au bout de quelques instants. Il a fallu en tout au spot 30 minutes pour sortir de l’échelle. Il y rentre du reste quelques instants plus tard, pour en ressortir ensuite et y rentrer alternati- vement. 31 Ainsi, à la distance de 30 ¡L, le régime instable semi-conducteur s’est seul manifesté. Le régime conducteur n’est pas apparu. Avec l’essence minérale, on obtient des résultats similaires. On a alors fait une expérience ttestinée à comparer l’essence limpide avec de l’essence tenant en suspension des grains très fins de limaille métallique, de façon à décider si le régime conducteur pourrait être attribué à la production d’un court-circuit par un fin granule de métal ou par un chapelet de granules unissant les électrodes à travers le film liquide. Dans ce but, on agite l’essence à essayer avec de la très fine limaille de laiton, puis on filtre sur papier. Nous avons vu plus haut que l’essence ainsi traitée entraîne avec elle de fins granules métalliques. a) Epaisseur, 10 ~; croissance progressive de la différence de potentiel. A partir de ’ 50 volts, impulsions erratiques de grande amplitude, couvrant toute l’échelle. Puis, la différence de potentiel continuant à croître jusqu’à 110 volts, le spot se calme cependant, et marque finalement un courant nul, à quelques impulsions erratiques près, de 2 ou 3 mm d’amplitude. . b) Ayant observé antérieurement que le régime conducteur apparaît plus aisément lorsqu’on établit brusquement une forte différence de potentiel, au lieu de procéder de façon progressive, j’applique directement i10 volts ; le régime conducteur apparaît. c) Même résultat, en renouvelant l’essence. c~) On dispose alors de l’essence pure. Epaisseur 10 IL; 110 volts. Courant de 6 mil- liampères, très stable (observation pendant 15 minutes). En démontant, on constate que l’essence est restée limpide, et que les électrodes ont conservé leur poli. Cet essai est renouvelé à deux reprises différentes, avec les mêmes résultats. Au cours du dernier essai, j’ai mis en court-circuit le galvanomètre, le milliampère- mètre, puis la résistance de 20 000 Q. A ce moment, la lampe s’est allumée, comme si la cellule n’existait pas. Ce dernier essai fut prolongé pendant 1 heure, au régime de 20 mil- liampères, suivi de quelques instants de fonctionnement de la lampe. En démontant alors la cellule, on observe une petite tache noire au centre de chaque électrode, d’ailleurs peu adhérente, mais laissant subsister un léger dépoli de couleur grisâtre après essuyage, cor- respondant probablement à une faible corrosion. Comme cette corrosion ne se produit pas lorsque le courant ne passe que peu de temps, il est raisonnable de la considérer comme la conséquence, et non la cause de l’établissement du régime conducteur. Ces expériences montrent que l’essence chargée de très fins granules métalliques, et l’essence limpide se comportent de même. Q11 s’est alors demandé pour quelles distances apparaît ou disparaît le régime conduc- teur dans l’essence, sous 110 volts. On constate que l’épaisseur critique d’apparition du régime conducteur est de 10 [1.. Le régime conducteur établi, je mets les instruments de mesure et la résistance de 20 000 Q en court-circuit, afin que la lampe s’allume, et je cherche, en agissant sur la vis micrométrique, pour quelle distance des électrodes la lampe s’éteint, donc le régime conducteur cesse. Ce résultat est obtenu pour une distance de 70 En revissant, la lame se rallume pour e = 23 p. Je remarque que, lorsqu’en dévissant la lampe s’éteint, son extinction est suivie de la production de nombreuses étincelles, qui traversent le liquide en le vaporisant rapidement, et en le décomposant partiellement. Lorsqu’on revisse, pour revenir de 70 à 25 y, à un moment donné les étincelles deviennent plus fréquentes, et la lampe luit au rouge sombre; puis elle s’allume fran- chement, et alors les étincelles cessent. Ceci montre, entre autres, que le régime conducteur et le régime disruptif sont de nature essentiellement différente. En étudiant l’huile de vaseline au même point de vue, les expériences conduisent à une épaisseur critique le plus souvent égale à 10 IL, mais quelquefois légèrement supé- 32 rieure. Au cours de ces expériences, on a pu laisser passer dans l’huile pendant 45 minutes un courant capable de faire briller la lampe, sans observer aucune modification du liquide ni des électrodes, ce qui montre que la corrosion des électrodes n’est pas une conséquence nécessaire d’un passage prolongé du courant. Nous avons vu plus haut que l’essence additionnée de fins granules métalliques se com- porte exactement comme l’essence limpide. Réciproquement, l’huile de vaseline filtrée sur porcelaine, donc ne pouvant tenir en suspension que des particules d’une extrême ténuité, se comporte comme l’huile ordinaire. J’ai observé qu’avec l’huile ainsi filtrée, le régime conducteur s’établit également, et pour la même épaisseur critique de 10 V. environ. Le courant intense subsiste jusqu’à 15 p, inclus. J’ai pu, sous cette épaisseur, faire passer dans le liquide des courants de 8 et même de 1~ ampères, et seule une chauffe exagérée des fils de connexion, qui n’étaient évidemment pas prévus pour ce régime, m’a empêché d’aller plus loin. En définitive, à l’état conducteur, l’huile ne paraît opposer au passage du courant qu’une résistance négligeable, comme si elle s’était trouvée soudain métamorphosée en une goutte de mercure. Résiinié. - Je me rends compte de l’étrangeté des faits que je viens de rapporter; ils frisent l’invraisemblance, et en tous cas renversent nos notions les plus solidement assises sur le comportement des isolants liquides. On voudra les attribuer, comme je l’ai tout d’abord fait moi-même, à quelque cause d’erreur venant vicier les expériences de façon for- tuite et insidieuse. C’est pour cette raison, c’est afin de permettre une discussion directe de ces expériences, que je me suis gardé soigneusement d’en interpréter les résultats, me bornant à décrire scrupuleusement, dans quelques cas types, les phénomènes observés, dans le désordre même suivant lequel ils se sont présentés au cours de la recherche. Le moment est venu maintenant de tâcher de mettre un peu d’ordre dans cette longue suite d’obseryations, en les résumant aussi fidèlement que possible, et d’en dégager les résultats essentiels. Le plus souvent, le régime conducteur apparaît dans un film liquide de l’ordre de 10 p d’épaisseur, qui semble être une épaisseur critique, bien qu’il y ait à cela des exceptions : ce point sera précisé, ainsi que plusieurs autres, lorsque je pourrai reprendre ces expé- riences avec un matériel moins rudimentaire que celui que j’avais à ma disposition pour commencer à explorer ce sujet difficile. Lorsqu’on fait croître la différence de potentiel appliquée, les phénomènes tendent à se dérouler différemment, selon que la croissance est progressive ou rapide. En général (ici encore il y a des exceptions), si la croissance est progressive, le régime isolant stable tend à subsister, avec les caractères généraux que nous lui connaissons (voir partie A), jusqu’à 110 volts. Cette tendance est peut-être favorisée par un poli particuliè- rement soigné des électrodes. Parfois, il se superpose de temps à autre au régime isolant stable des poussées de régime semi-conducteur instable, du type étudié dans la partie B. Si la croissance est plus rapide, si par exemple les sauts de potentiel se produisent par 10 volts à la fois ou plus, le régime isolant réserve une bien plus large place au régime semi-conducteur instable; ce dernier finit en général par s’installer de façon exclusive, en débitant un courant moyen considérablement plus intense que ne le,fait le régime isolant. Parfois, l’on parvient ainsi jusqu’à 110 volts, sans observer d’autre anomalie. Mais, il arriye très fréquemment que la cellule se laisse traverser brusquement, à un moment donné, par un courant exceptionnellement intense, comme si l’appareil se trouvait soudain mis en court-circuit. L’on parvient à coup sîlr (je n’ai noté qu’une seule exception) à ce résultat en appliquant directement les 110 volts. On peut appeler potentiel critique la différence de potentiel à appliquer brusquement, à partir de zéro, pour obtenir sûrement le régime conducteur. Jusqu’à présent, le potentiel critique s’est montré assez mal déterminé. Il peut se trouver 33 sous la dépendance de Fêtât des surfaces clos électrodes. Mais il est à noter qu’un poli même extrêmement soigné des suilaces pas le polpntiel critique au-delà de 110volLs, pour l’épaisseur de t1l li.. Le régime conducteur apparaît sensiblement dans les marnes conditions pour un liquide filtré snr porcelaine, pour un liquide limpide, mais iioii spécialement filtré, et pour un liquide contenant en suspension de très fins granules métalliques. L’apparition du régime conducteur se présente avec les caractères d’un court-circuit. On pourrait iiivoquer, pour en rendre compte, soit un déplacement accidentel de l’électrode supérieure, soit l’arrachement par le champ de particules métalliques,se disposant ensuite en chapelets de façon à établir un pont entre les électrodes, soit enfin la formation de sem- blables chapelets aux dépens de particules métalliques préexistantes. La première explication n’est pas valable : ,j’ai pu vérifier, a de nombreuses reprises, que, une fois le régime conducteur établi, l’intervalle initial subsistait entre les électrodes ; pour cela, je ne me bornais pas il constater clue le même trait de lu tétc de la vis était toujours en face du repère, je m’assurais, en agissant sur la vis nÜcrométrique sans couper le courant, que l’espace à parcourir pour ohtenir le contact n’avait pas varié, ce qui exclut l’idée d’une dilatation thermique (suivie de contraction après arrêt de l’expérience), ou d’une défor- mation réversible de l’isolant supportant l’électrode mobile. Le rôle de particules métalliques arrachées par le champ aux électrodes, ou préexis- tantes, est également improbable, car nous avons vu que, si parfois les électrodes se sonl montrées corrodées, d’autres fois elles avaient intégralement conservé leur poli après pas- sage prolongé d’un courant intense ; et l’expérience faite avec de l’essence contenant en sus- pension de très fins granules métalliques montre que le seuil du régime conducteur n’est pas modifié par la présence de ces granules, alors que s’il dépendait de la formation préalable de particules arrachées aux électrodes lorsque le champ est assez intense, il devraitL évi- demment être atteint pour des différences de potentiel plus faibles dans le cas d’un liquide contenant déjà des granules métalliques. Lorsque, après avoir obtenu le régime conducteur, on annule le champ, le liquide reprend en général aussitôt ses propriétés isolantes, c’est-à-dire qu’il débite à nouveau un courant nul ou très faible sous une faible différence de potentiel: et le régime conducteur ne réapparait que pour une différence de potentiel du même ordre que celle qui l’avait initialement produit. Ce fait est également en désaccord avec l’hypothèse d’un court- circuit. Enfin, lorsque le régime conducteur s’est établi, le phénomène de conduction est complètement obscur et silencieux : il ne saurait être question d’un régime intense de décharge par aigrettes, par étincelle, ou enfin de la production d’un arc électrique. Le régime disruptif peut s’établir dans des circonstances que nous avons décrites, mais il est caractérisé par une résistance beaucoup plus grande que celle qui correspond au régime conducteur. Ainsi, nous sommes conduits à conclure que, aes épaisseurs de tordre de 10 rnierons, et par aplJ/ication de différences de poleittiet de l’ordre de quelques dizaines (le volts, les hydrocarbures liquides acquièrent bl’llsquernell t une conductivité conlparable à celle des que cette nlodification être est par un état de transition, où les deux régiiJies sellli-coudlfcteur instable et isolant stable se de façon désOl’donuée. Pour surprenante que soit cette conductivité métallique chez un liquide isolant, elle est cependant conforme à des faits connus, et même à certaines pratiques devenues d’usage courant. En particulier, Price (1) a indiqué par les contacts de potentiomètres étaient amé- liorés par immersion dans l’huile de kérosène ; Manley (~) a observé que la résistance des fiches des boîtes de résistance était invariablement plus constante, et presque toujours PRICr., l’roc Soc., 18 (i~03), 4j~. ) MANLEY, 33 2H. 8 34 abaissée par lubrification à la vaseline. Krauss C) el Melson et Bontli (2) ont obtenu des résultats analogues. D’où l’emploi déplus en plus large et fréquent de vaseline ou d’huile de paraffine pour améliorer les contacts glissan ts des instruments de mesure. Par quel mécanisme cette amélioration peut-elle se produire ? Il servait malaisé de la comprendre si les huiles dites isolantes le restaient à toutes les épaisseurs ; elle devient évidente si les films extrêmement minces de ces liquides, interposés entre les pièces fixe et mobile des contacts électriques sont susceptibles de conduire comme les métaux : remplis- sant les minces intervalles laissés entre les deux pièces du contact, du fait de légères irrégularités de surface, ils assurent la conduction à travers ces intervalles, alors que celle-ci serait nulle à sec dans les mêmes intervalles. J’ajouterai, pour terminer, que 11% atson et Menon (;, déjà cités, ont signalé tout récemlnent avoir observé l’existence d’un régime conducteur dans les huiles isolantes, dans des conditions qui me semblent assez voisines de celles décrites dans les pages qui précèdent. , III. CONSIDÉRA’rIOS THÉORIQUES. - ’ Le régime isolant. -- Le régime isolant se présente dans le cas de couches liquides relativement épaisses et de champs électriques appliqués relativement faibles. ll est carac- térisé par tes propriétés suivantes : accroissement illimité de la résistivité du liquide, en maintenant le champ appliqué ;-, modification permanente du liquide, dans l’état où l’a laissé l’application du champ, eIl l’absence de vapeur d’eau ; retour à l’état initial par addition de traces d’eau au liquide. Le rôle de l’ealu dans la faible conduction des hydrocarbures liquides ne semble dès lors pas pouvoir être mis en duute : ta conduction a lieu par l’eau dissoute, et elle a pour effet d’éliminer l’eau dissoute. Ce résultat est en accord avec certaines observations très nettes relatives à un autre isolant, solide il est vrai, le celluloïd ~1). La résistivité du celluloïd d’exposé à l’air libre, à la température ordinaire, est de l’ordre de ohm x cm. Fin faisant varier la quan- tité d’eau absorbée, et elle extrapolant ics résultats pour un titre nul, la présomption apparaît que la résistance du celluloïd sec serait pratiquement infinie ; l’enlèvement des dernières traces d eau est du reste extrêmement difficile, et la présence d’une trace d’eau, au titre de 10\" B se traduit encore par uii effet mesurable,. ,le dois signaler toutefois que, si la plupart des auteurs s’accordent sur ce fait que le courant traversant le liquide isolanl- diminue d abord vüc. puis de plus en plus lentement, si certains reconnaissent ull rôle joue dans ce phénomène nar des traces d’eau dissoutes dans le liquide, il semble admis que la du liquide tend vers une valeur petite, mais fiuie, ctui subsisterait uii liquide même parfaitement scc. Dans un travail récent, notamment, Btaek (~’) émet une théorie basée sur cette hypo- tllèse que, dalls lcs huiles isolantes, ta résistance provient de l’édification de films haute- tement isolants à la surfaae des électrodes, du faitdu passage du courant. Divers chercheurs ont bien, en effet, enregistré la présence d’une résistance de contact avec des solutiolls ordinaires et, plus récemment, Bryrson (5), travaillant sur le verre fouclu, observe un effet siiniliiii&#x3E;h, la résistance étant due en grande partie à la formation d’une couche due gaz a F une des élecLrodps. Mais il importe de remarquer que la résistance de contact qui peut intervenir dans le phèiioinèiie de conduction à travers un eteetrotyte, si elle est grande par rapport à celle (je L’étect,rolyte, estt en générât1 considérablement plus petite que celle des films cliélec- ti-iquqs liquides : il s’agit d’actions qui Jle sont pas du même oidie, En admettant qu’un (~) KiLÀuss, EleA-. li. Jlasr-hin., 30 ~ ~!~~?0), 1. () 1BlELsoN et BOOTH, J. Irtsl. Eleci. 60(1922), e) H.-E. ivATsox el B.-s. Proc. roy. 123 (I99), 15.’ ( 1) ADDKNBROOK (G.-L.) wature, 113 (i~} ~4), 490. Phil. Mag., 6 ~369. (6) Bplrsorï, J. Soc. Glass. Tach., Il (1921). 35 film gazeux se forme aux électrodes, comme ce film reste complètement invisible, il devrait être adsorbé par le métal, c’est-à-dire dans un état voisin de celui des films gazeux d’un voltamètre polarisé, dont la résistance est absolument négligeable par rapport à celles que nous étudions ici:’’ Commet l’eau dissoute conduit-elle’? Ces premières expériences n’ont pas encore été poussées assez loin pour permettre de préciser. L’existence d’ions paraît probable. Mais leur nature est douteuse : ions H+ et OH-, ou molécules d’eau chargées, ou ions encore plus complexes? Ce qui est certain, c’est que le champ n’a pas seulement pour effet de drainer les ions vers les électrodes, auquel cas on aurait un courant inverse, que je n’ai pas observé, en connectant directement la cellule ainsi « polarisée » au galvanomètre, et auquel cas le liquide au repos reprpnrlrait spontanément sa conductivité, ce qui est égale- ment contraire aux faits. Les ions sont donc détruits aux électho(les en se déchargeant sur elles, avec élirnina- tion de la matière neutre ainsi formée, ou sa transformation en matière non ionisable. Que des traces de gaz apparaissent dans ces conditions avec occlusion dans le métal n’est pas impossible. Mais je ne vois pas que la surface métallique ainsi modifiée doive acquérir une résistance infinie pour devenir d’ailleurs à nouveau conductrice par addition de traces d’eau. Si lu conduction fait disparaître Les ions, elle a pour conséquence un accroissement de résistivitè: aux premiers instants, alors que les ions sont relativement nombreux, la con- duclance est grande, donc sa diminution rapide. Lorsque les ions sont devenus plus rares, le nombre d’ions détruits par seconde est plus petit, et d’autant plus petit qu’il en reste moins. Ce qui explique l’allure hyperbolique (lu pliéiiomihnc, et la marche asymptotique du courant vers zéro. Je me borne à ces c&#x3E;ii1 1 ’1&#x3E;zi 1 iuns encore assez values ; il serait pour le momellt illusoire de chercher u préciser davantage. Les régimes semi-conducteur et conducteur. - Si l’on elltrevoit un mécanisme raisonnablement probable d(’ la faible conduction dn régime isôlant, le régime semi-con- ducteur instable, el le régime conducteur sont d’un caractère beaucoup plus énigmatique. Le fait saillanl du régime semi-conducteur est qu’en général à un lancement important du spot succède aussitôt un retour prés du zéro : la production d’un courant intense semble faire naître une cause modératrice, agissant d’autant plus ènergiquementl que Je courant a été plas intenses. Comme, pour des champs plus élevés, au régime seiiii-(-()tid tic 1 (,tir instable va succéder le régime conducteur, on peut (lire aussi due le régime instable est forme de tendances alternées à l’établissement (lu régime conducteur et à sa disparition. Mais ceci n’explique encol’P rien, tant que le iiiécaiiisme du régime conÜuclpul’ n’pl pas lui-même élucidé. Les deux lJllt’11(llllÉ’ileS sont conditionnés par l’existence de champs relativement intenses agissant sur un liquide en couche mince. Ils sont indépendants de la présence dans le liquide, et relèvent donc d’un mécanisme essentiellement (lifféreiii de celui plus haut. Des mesures de eu Menon (’ j résulte que pour une certaine valeur (lut champ appliqué la résistance des huiles Is()(dIl(l’s (11111L1111C’ à l’intensité du courant croît. Il est donc inévitable que, par (’lulInps crois.,aiils, il arrive uii IllOll1(’nl où le liquide perde rapidement toute résistance notable, puisque toute cause modératrice a disparu : a un accroissement du champ, correspond un accroissement de rintensitè dll courant: celui-ci entraîne une diminution la résistance, ayant elle-même lmur conséquence uti nouvel accroisselnpnl de l’intensité du courant, etc. Les phénomènes se précipileni ainsi jusqu’à l’établissement d’une résistance quasi nulle, donc cl’Llll courant exceptionnellement intense. Le régime semî-conducteur correspond à un état où toute cause modératric,e n’a pas encore disparu. , (1) Loc. cit. ; voir plus haut. 36 Répercussions sur l’électrisation des hydrocarbures liquides. - Quels que soient tes mécatdsmes conduction à travers les liquides isolants, Fexis tente tnème de ces j&#x3E;lifii&#x3E;nièiie&#x3E; présente une relation étroite avec les phénomènes d’électri- salioii iue non, avons étudiée an déhut 1&#x3E; ee travail. La conduction affecte eo couche épaisse ta forme très faibte, stabte tuais à l(imi- nulion toul d’abord rapide: eite affecte la forme intense el en couche assez mince. L’écoLllt’lnenl de dans 1111 tuy.aii Illel ell jeu la conduction à travers une couche épaisse du liquide, nue c()llduelion d’abord sensible, et bientôt presque nulle. C’est ce qui explique. d’abord les charges relativement fortes produites dans ces con- ditions a la première passe, puis la diminution très rapide des charges produites aux passes suivantes. L’etfet de fatigue que j’ai signalé semble donc lié prinripaleillenl au fait que, après uite ou deux passes, le liquide est devenu tiop isolant pour que la force électromotrice de contact puisse exercer son a(’,tl()11 de façon sensible pendant l’écoulement du liquide. Le fait que le changement de (1((Llll((’ ne sutfit pas toujours à rétablir le phénomène d’électrisation initial peut tenir à la persistance d’une couche, relativement peu volatile (dans l’e8sellce existent des traces d’espèces chimiques peu volatiles), et adhérente à la paroi métallique : son effet serait de rendre très faible la force électromotrice de contact. Le filtrage de l’essence à travers une fine limaille métallique fait porter l’action de la force électromotrice de contact sur une couche d’essence en moyenne extrêmement mince, qui implique peut-être le régiine conducteur persistant. Les charges apparues dans ces conditions seront donc relativement considérable, et le phénomène ne manifestera aucun effet de fatiguer). Ces caractères sont précisément ceux que nous avons observés. Ce travail a été effectué grâce à plusieurs subventions de 1,’Oflïce (oijibiis- tibles que je remercie très vivement ici. Je suis heureux de remercier également Monsieur le Professeur A. Cotton, Membre de l’Institut, Directeur du Laboratoire cles Recherches Physiques de la Sorbonne, pour la généreuse hospitalité qu’il a bien voulu m’accorder dans son laboratoire, ainsi clue pour l’intérêt, les encouragements et les conseils par lesquels il a soutelu mes efforts. On trouvera un bref résumé de la deux,ième partie de cn mémoire aux de des Sciences (1); on pourra consulter également un exposé lin peu plus détaillé de ces recherches dans un mémoire puhlié tout récemment a la géné1’ale de l’Elec- (). (1) XaturfDemem, le jft assener jiii a quiLté la liuiailln est. redevenu isolanL Cc qui permet l’entraî- nement Il nne notahte partie (kg le collecteur. t’ h , 188 (2) L (i. E t. 26 et 8îl. , Manuscrit reçu le 1 f’r octobre !)29 ."}}

{"page_1": {"en_base": "General technical context on magnetization. Not relevant for fuel optimization [Old context].", "fr_vulgarise": "Document non pertinent."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": "Cogent Engineering ISSN: 2331-1916 (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/oaen20 Characterization of biodiesel fuel and its blend after electromagnetic exposure Tatun Hayatun Nufus, Radite Praeko Agus Setiawan, Wawan Hermawan & Armansyah Halomoan Tambunan | To cite this article: Tatun Hayatun Nufus, Radite Praeko Agus Setiawan, Wawan Hermawan & Armansyah Halomoan Tambunan | (2017) Characterization of biodiesel fuel and its blend after electromagnetic exposure, Cogent Engineering, 4:1, 1362839, DOI: 10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 © 2017 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license Published online: 18 Aug 2017. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 1605 View related articles View Crossmark data Citing articles: 2 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=oaen20 Nufus et al., Cogent Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING | RESEARCH ARTICLE Characterization of biodiesel fuel and its blend after electromagnetic exposure Tatun Hayatun Nufus1,2, Radite Praeko Agus Setiawan1, Wawan Hermawan1 and Armansyah Halomoan Tambunan1* Received: 15 May 2017 Accepted: 25 July 2017 Abstract: It has been known that magnetic exposure of fuel prior to combustion First Published: 03 August 2017 can improve effectiveness of combustion process. However, the main reason of *Corresponding author: Armansyah the phenomenon is still unclear. In this paper, characteristics of fuel as exposed to Halomoan Tambunan, Agricultural Engineering Study Program, Graduate electromagnetic field was measured experimentally and inter-related appropriately School of Bogor Agricultural University, in order to have preliminary insight to the clarification of the phenomenon. Fuel Kampus IPB Dramaga, P.O. Box 220, Bogor, Jawa Barat, Indonesia characteristics being investigated were viscosity, vibration of the fuel molecules, E-mails: [email protected], dipole moment, and refractive index. These experiments were performed using vari- [email protected] ous blend compositions between fossil diesel (petrodiesel) and biodiesel fuel i.e. B0, Reviewing editor: Duc Pham, University of Birmingham, B10, B40, B70 and B100. The electromagnetic field was generated by a galvanum UK tube wounded with 9,000 wire coil. The fuel characteristics of both prior and post Additional information is available at electromagnetic exposures were then measured with time variation of 0–1,800 s. the end of the article The experimental results revealed that electromagnetic exposure of the fuel in- creased vibrational frequency of its molecules significantly, which in turn weakened the attracting energy and caused uniform arrangement of dipole moment of the molecules. The experimental data also revealed that the fuel characteristics did not alter significantly after it was exposed to the electromagnetic field for more than ABOUT THE AUTHORS PUBLIC STATEMENT INTEREST Tatun Hayatun Nufus is currently a postgraduate Exposure of biodiesel to electromagnetic field student of Agricultural Engineering Sciences at yields in higher infrared absorption and lower Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia. She viscosity. The higher infrared absorption indicates is a lecturer at the Department of Mechanical higher level of vibration of the function groups Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta. Her reseach and resulted in lower viscosity of the fuel. This interest is energy saving, and has conducted a phenomena is regarded as the reason for more series of experiment on fuel magnetisasion. effective combustion reaction of the fuel. Radite Praeko Agus Setiawan is an associate The influence of the magnetization was found professor at the Department of Mechanical to be temporary, which will be vanished after 20 and Biosystem Engineering, Bogor Agricultural minutes release from the electromagnetic field. University, with research interest in mechatronic especially for application in agricultural mechanization. Wawan Hermawan is an associate professor at the Department of Mechanical and Biosystem Engineering, Bogor Agricultural University, with research interest in agricultural power and machinery. Armansyah Halomoan Tambunan is professor at the Department of Mechanical and Biosystem Engineering, Bogor Agricultural University, with research interest in renewable energy and energy analysis. © 2017 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license. Page 1 of 12 Nufus et al., Cogent Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 1,200 s. This information is considered to be useful for further research in order to resolutely clarify the phenomenon of efficient combustion process of fuel after exposure to magnetic field. Subjects: Mechanical Engineering Design; Renewable Energy; Energy & Fuels Keywords: electromagnetic field; biodiesel; infrared absorption; viscosity; vibration functional groups 1. Introduction Energy is very important in supporting human’s activity since the earliest era of civilization. This de- pendency is getting more and more substantial, allowing humans to run the infrastructures on a much larger scale. The highest energy consumption is on fossil fuel, which is non-renewable and hence leading to its rapid declining supply. Several measures are therefore necessary, such as reduc- ing fuel consumption, improving fuel quality and using alternative sources. Biodiesel has great po- tential as an alternative energy resource because it is considered as renewable fuel, which can be produced continuously (Bünger, Krahl, Schröder, Schmidt, & Götz, 2012; Maeda et al., 2008). A number of studies have been conducted in regard to energy conservation by improving combus- tion efficiency. Mixing additives may be beneficial for that purpose, given that it could increase oc- tane and cetane number, resulting in improving engine power and lowering fly ash emission (Ali, Abdullah, Mamat, & Adam, 2015; Fayyazbakhsh & Pirouzfar, 2016; Rahhal, Ghata, & Hourieh, 2009). Similarly, fuel magnetization can generate efficient combustion, in which permanent magnets ap- plied on the fuel channel to the combustion chamber was reported for a reduction on fuel consump- tion (9–30%) and exhaust gas emissions such as hydrocarbon (HC) (5–32%) and carbon monoxide (CO) (5–34.3%) (Faris et al., 2012; Govindasamy & Dhandapani, 2007; Patel, Rathod, & Patel, 2014; Ugare, Dhoble, Lutade, & Mudafale, 2014). Each of these methods, however, has their own disadvan- tages. While most chemical additives contain metals which are harmful to humans, permanent magnets depletes over the application time. An electromagnetic device has also been introduced to overcome the decrease in magnetic inten- sity of a permanent magnet. When applied on gasoline and diesel operated engines, the device was reported to reduce fuel consumption in the range of 12.8 to 30%, as well as reduce HC emission in the range of 44 to 58% and CO emission in the range of 35 to 80% (Chaware, 2015; Fatih & Saber, 2010; Patel et al., 2014). While the effect of magnetic exposure in reducing the fuel consumption has been proven, the explanation on the phenomenon is still unclear. Many researchers claim that the magnetic exposure can cause ionization in the fuel (Chaware, 2015; Okoronkwo, Nwachukwu, Ngozi, & Igbokwe, 2010; Singh & Solanki, 2015). Others claim the de-clustering effect and the reduction in size of a fuel’s molecule constellation as shown in Figure 1 (Attar, Tipole, Bhojwani, & Desmukh, 2013; Jain & Deshmukh, 2012; Jundale, 2015). Accordingly, thorough study on the magnetic exposure on the fuel and logical explanation to the phenomenon is indispensably required. The clear explanation to the phenomenon will contribute to the development of the combustion technology that will significantly increase the effectiveness of combustion process. Figure 1. Schematic figure of de-cluster process of fuel molecules due to magnetic exposure. Page 2 of 12 Nufus et al., Cogent Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the experiment. In this paper, the characteristics of biodiesel blends under electromagnetic exposure were experi- mentally measured and analyzed. Several parameters, which is considered to be important for clari- fication of the phenomenon, such as viscosity, molecular vibration of the fuel, magnetic moment, refractive index, and fuel spray characteristics, were experimentally investigated both prior and post exposure to electromagnetic field. Furthermore, the alteration of fuel characteristics due to the elec- tromagnetic exposure was comprehensively discussed. The characteristics to be obtain in this experi- ment are expectedly can be useful to the clarification of the effect of magnetic exposure to combustion efficiency which has been experimentally proven by many researcher as explained above. 2. Materials and method Schematic diagram of the experiment is given in Figure 2. The detail of the experimental materials and method is given in the following sub-sections. 2.1. Generation of electromagnetic field Electromagnetic field was generated by using a galvanum tube with diameter of 15 mm and length of 100 mm wounded with 0.20 mm diameter of copper wire. The tube was wounded with 9,000 wire coils, and 12 volts DC voltage were used to generate the electromagneticity. The intensity of the electromagnetic field was then measured by using Digital Teslameter Model MG-801, following equation of Biot Savart’s law as shown in Equation (1). ? ?Ni B= 0 (1) L Here μ is material permeability (Gauss cm/amp), μ is vacuum permeability (Gauss cm/amp), L is 0 length of galvanum tube (cm), B is magnetic field (Tesla), N is coil number inductor, and i is DC elec- tric current (amp). 2.2. Sample collection and preparation Fuel samples consisting of biodiesel and petrodiesel were collected from Watt Co. Ltd and Pertamina Co. Ltd, respectively. The biodiesel was blended with petrodiesel in proportions of 0% (B0), 10% (B10), 40% (B40), 70% (B70), and 100% (B100). Biodiesel used for the blend was checked in labora- tory to confirm its conformity to Indonesian National Standard (INS) as shown in Table 1. A 45 ml sample of each blend was placed in the galvanum tube. The samples were exposed to the electro- magnetic field in time variable of 0, 10, 20, 30, 60, 180, 600, 1,200 and 1,800 s at room temperature. Page 3 of 12 Nufus et al., Cogent Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 Table 1. The biodiesel property values of INS No Biodiesel Unit Method Measured Standard properties values SNI 7182:2015 1 Density at 20°C kg/litre ASTM.D 4052-02- 0.8654 0.850–0.890 2003 2 Kinematic viscosity mm2/s (cSt) ASTM D 445-03- 5.503 2.3–6.0 2003 3 Cetana number min ASTM D613 54 51 4 Flash point (°C) °C, min ASTM D93 116 100 5 Cloud point °F, max ASTM D 2500-02- 46 18 2003 6 Copper strip ASTM D 130-94 1a 1 corrosion 7 Carbon residue % mass, max SNI7182-2012 0.11 0.3 8 Water content % vol, max ASTM D 1/96-97 0.05 0.05 9 Destillation °C, max ASTM D.1160 473.3 360 temperature 10 Ash content % mass, max ASTM D 874-00- 0.02 0.02 2003 11 Sulfur content Mg/kg max ASTDM D4294-02- <0.015 50 2003 12 Phosphorus ppm ICP Negative 4 13 Acid value mg KOH/g max ASTM D 664 0.036 0.5 14 Free glycerol % mass, max AOCS Ca 14-56- 0.02 0.02 1997 15 Total glycerol % mass, max AOCS Ca 14-56- 0.23 0.24 1997 16 Ester content % mass, min Calculation 99.62 96.5 17 Iodine value % mass (g- AOCS Cd-1-25- 55.72 115 12/100 g) max 1997 18 Oxidation stability minute 236.51 480 2.3. Fuel characteristics 2.3.1. Viscosity Fuel sample viscosities of B0, B10, B40, B70, and B100 were measured by using a modified Oswald viscometer equiped with magnetic ball and censoring coils connected to sound data detector as shown in Figure 3. Time of magnetic ball in fluid (t) was calculated as soon as the ball passed the first b coil and the second coil with the distance between these coils was 107 mm. The device was calibrated by using distillate water in order to obtain time accuracy of 1 μs. The fuel viscosity measurement was conducted with 5 replications and used the average value for discussion in order to abate the data uncertainty caused from the measurement. The viscosity was calculated by using Equation (2). 2r 2 t g ? −? ? = b ( b f) (2) 9L Here r is radius of magnetic ball (0.961 mm), g is acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s2), ρ is density of the b ball (310,467 kg/m3), and ρ is density of the fuel. The ρ was measured separately as shown in Table 2. f f 2.3.2. Vibration of the fuel molecules Molecular interactions of fuel samples were investigated by analyzing their infrared spectra. The Infra-red spectra were obtained using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy (IR Prestige-21, Page 4 of 12 Nufus et al., Cogent Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 Figure 3. Apparatus for measuring viscosity of biodiesel fuel and its blends. Table 2. Measured magnetic ball density and fuel density Biodiesel fuel mixture Fuel density (ρ) f B0 839 kg/m3 B10 842 kg/m3 B40 851 kg/m3 B70 859 kg/m3 B100 865 kg/m3 Shimadzu Co. Ltd). The FTIR spectroscopy is equipped with L-alanine-doped triglycine sulfate (DLATGS) detector. The equipment was set at 4 cm−1 resolution, 20 scans accumulation, and absorb- ance (%A) measurement mode with wave number ranging from 4,000 to 400 cm−1 in order to deter- mine the functional groups which were formed in the fuel. Samples of 1 μL were mixed with 0.5 g KBr. The FTIR measurements were carried out at room temperature. 2.3.3. Magnetic moment Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM) instrument (Oxford VSMI.2H) was used to measure the mag- netic properties of the fuel samples as a function of magnetic field. The VSM had amplitudes of 1–1.5 mm. The fuel sample with volume of 10 μL was placed in the coiled tube. 2.3.4. Refractive index The refractive index was then measured by using Atago 3T refractometer model RX-5000α-plus, which needs 3 μL of the fuel sample at room temperature. The instrument was capable for measur- ing refractive index at the range between 1.327 and 1.585. The measurement was conducted with 5 replications to take into account the possible data uncertainty. 2.3.5. Fuel spray characteristics Spray characteristic of B10 fuel was firstly investigated in order to assure the effect of electromag- netic exposure of the fuels. It can be realized by using nozzle injector tester with testing pressure of 14.7 MPa. The spray characteristic was then captured by using high resolution camera. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Effects of electromagnetic exposure on fuel spray performance Figure 4 shows spray performance of biofuel (B10) out of the injector after 0, 30, 60, 180, 600, 1,200, and 1,800 s of electromagnetic exposure. It appears that exposure of the fuel to electromagnetic Page 5 of 12 Nufus et al., Cogent Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 Figure 4. Spray performance of B10 fuel after (a) 0 s (b) 30 s (c) 60 s(d) 180 s (e) 600 s (f) 1,200 s and (g) 1,800 s exposure to electromagnetic fields. field (b, c, d, e, f, g) have wider spray characteristics as compared to un-magnetized one (a). Technically, wider spray of fuel give advantages to combustion process (Avinash & Vipul, 2012; Casey et al., 2013), since the local viscosity is lower, as it is also confirmed by the measured viscosity. Again, wider spray of the fuel could increase its contact surface with oxygen, and hence improve the combustion process. 3.2. Effects on kinematic viscosity Figure 5 shows the viscosity of various fuel blends exposed to electromagnetic fields at time inter- vals. Even though the biodiesel used in the experiment met the INS, its viscosity was higher than Figure 5. Kinematic viscosity of biodiesel and its blends as a function of exposure time to electro-magnetic field. Figure 6. Infrared absorption intensity by petrodiesel and biodiesel fuel as function of wavenumber. Page 6 of 12 Nufus et al., Cogent Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 petrodiesel, It is important to state the higher viscosity of biodiesel than petrodiesel, as it is also re- ported by other researcher (Borges, Díaz, Gavín, & Brito, 2011; Chavarria-hernandez & Pacheco- catalán, 2014; Gülüm & Bilgin, 2016; Kafui, Sunnu, & Parbey, 2015), since viscosity is closely related to combustion process. The electromagnetic exposure was proven to lower kinematic viscosity of the fuel samples (Marques et al.,1997; Rosensweig, Kaiser, & Miskolczy, 1969; Tung, Vinh, Phong, Long, & Hung, 2003), and there by exposing the biodiesel blend to electromagnetic field will be ad- vantageous for improving its combustion process. Furthermore, longer exposure time to electro- magnetic field resulted in lower viscosity, but not significant anymore after 1,200 s of the exposure time. It is also noted that viscosity value is not only determined by the tensile strength of molecules but also by the state of molecular orientation at liquid (fuel sample) – solid (magnetic ball) interface (Nakano, 2003; Sengupta, Herminghaus, & Bahr, 2014; Tung et al., 2003). It can be expected that the effect of magnetic exposure to the viscosity can be continued for longer exposure time by changing distribution of the molecular orientation at the interface. 3.3. Effects of electromagnetic exposure on fuel molecule interactions Figure 6 shows the intensity of infrared absorption of petrodiesel and biodiesel fuels from FTIR ob- servation at various wave numbers. Each peak in the graph shows the existence of functional groups. The figure showed that petrodiesel and biodiesel can be distinguished by peak existence at wave numbers 1,743 and 1,176 cm−1 in biodiesel absorbance curve, which represent C=O and C–O bonds (Berman, Meiri, Linder, & Wiesman, 2016; Ferrão et al., 2011; Furlan, Wetzel, Johnson, Wedin, & Och, 2012). Figure 7 shows FTIR observation of B0, B10, B40, B70, and B100 fuels at varied exposure time to various wave number of electromagnetic field. It can be seen that spectrum of each fuel have identi- cal shape and peak positions regardless the exposure time. This means that the electromagnetic exposure time did not alter molecular structure of those fuels, which also proved that ionization might not occur. Furthermore, by comparing all of the fuel spectra after electromagnetic exposure to the original fuel spectra, the increment of the absorption intensity for each functional group was observed. Table 3 is the summary of the comparison by taking the difference in absorption intensity at wavenumber 2,924 cm−1. The table revealed that extension of exposure time yielded in increasing intensity of infrared absorption, as it is also reported by Calabrò and Magazù (2015) for lower elec- tromagnetic intensity and longer exposure time. The absorption intensity can be correlated to mo- lecular vibration of functional groups. Longer time of electromagnetic exposure causes more number of molecules to vibrate. This phenomenon was consistent with all functional groups existing in the fuel samples, and thereby consistent with all fuel samples regardless of the fuel’s structure. The vibrational increment of functional groups indicates that the polarization and transition of dipole moments of molecules occur due to the displacements of the fuel molecules and alteration of magnetic moment of those molecular interactions. Furthermore, molecular attracting energy of functional groups is determined by their vibrational frequency in which the higher frequency the lower the absolute value. This is the reason why the fuel viscosity, which is influenced by the molecular attracting energy (Faris et al., 2012), decrease after it is exposed to electromagnetic field. Higher absorption intensity, which indicates higher vibration frequency, yield in lower molecular Table 3. Comparison of infrared absorbance at wavenumber 2,924 cm−1 by various fuel samples before and after exposure to 1,500 Gauss electromagnetic field Fuel Unexposed Exposed time (s) 0 10 20 60 180 600 1,200 1,800 B0 0.596 0.596 0.603 0.631 0.662 0.721 0.807 0.967 0.967 B10 0.621 0.621 0.642 0.664 0.781 0.781 0.823 0.956 0.956 B40 0.512 0.512 0.603 0.631 0.652 0.723 0.821 0.976 0.976 B70 0.603 0.603 0.632 0.697 0.752 0.756 0.814 0.957 0.957 B100 0.567 0.567 0.603 0.657 0.695 0.734 0.817 0.953 0.953 Page 7 of 12 Nufus et al., Cogent Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 Figure 7. The infrared spectra of biodiesel, petrodiesel and its blends after 0–1,800 s exposure to electromagnetic field at wavenumber of 400–4,000 cm−1. affinity. This means less energy required to break the inter-atomic bonds. Therefore, the molecular affinity of the fuel molecules decreases after exposure to the electromagnetic field. 3.4. Effects on dipole moment Petrodiesel, biodiesel and its blend are considered as paramagnetic material in which each molecule of the fuel has dipole moment influenced by electromagnetic field. Figure 8 shows the dipole mo- ment obtained from VSM measurement. It can be seen that the electromagnetic exposure causes the increase of the dipole moment, regardless of the biodiesel blending proportion. It means that the fuel molecules arranges themselves according to the direction of electromagnetic field or, in other word, its dipole direction was arranged properly (Kuwako et al.,1997; Nittoh et al., 2012; Sheldon, Adjiman, & Cordiner, 2005). The main constituent molecule of the fuel sample is hydrocar- bon (C–H) that has unpaired electron spin moments. When it is exposed to electromagnetic field, the induced magnetic moment becomes weak. A strong electromagnetic field exposing hydrocarbon Page 8 of 12 Nufus et al., Cogent Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 Figure 8. Moment dipole of petrodiesel, biodiesel, and its blend after electromagnetic exposure for 0–1,800 s. molecules causes intermolecular hydrocarbons to repel each other (de-clustering), which creates an optimal distance between molecules of hydrocarbons and oxygen. The polarized molecules are rela- tively more active and oriented in accordance with the direction of the electromagnetic field. 3.5. Effects on refractive index In order to clarify that fuel molecules have been arranged uniformly following the electromagnetic field, the refractive index of each fuel samples under electromagnetic exposure was investigated. Theoretically, when fuel molecules arrange uniformly the value of refractive index will be high (Kaur & Pal, 2015; Nita, Geacai, Neagu, & Geacai, 2013; Zabala, Arzamendi, Reyero, & Gandía, 2014). Figure 9 shows the refractive index of biodiesel and its blend with petrodiesel measured by refrac- tometer. It can be seen that longer exposure to electromagnetic fields yields higher refractive index. This result proves that uniform arrangement of the fuel molecules occurs after the fuel was exposed to electromagnetic field. Page 9 of 12 Nufus et al., Cogent Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2017.1362839 Figure 9. Refractive index of petrodiesel, biodiesel, and its blend after 0–1,800 s of electro-magnetic exposure. 4. Conclusion Exposure to electromagnetic fields on petrodiesel fuel, biodiesel, and its blends caused lower viscos- ity, wider spray characteristic, higher infrared absorption that cause higher vibrational frequency of the functional groups and weaker attracting energy, and higher refractive index values which indi- cated larger dipole moment. The result also revealed that the effect of electromagnetic field to the fuel was saturated when it was exposed longer than 1,200 s. These information are considered to be useful for further research in order to resolutely clarify the phenomenon of efficient combustion process of fuel after exposure to magnetic field. Funding Berman, P., Meiri, N., Linder, C., & Wiesman, Z. (2016). H low This research is granted by State Educational Scholarship field nuclear magnetic resonance relaxometry for probing fund 2017, Directorate General of Higher Education, biodiesel autoxidation. Fuel, 177, 315–325. doi:10.1016/j. Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education. fuel.2016.03.002 Borges, M. E., Díaz, L., Gavín, J., & Brito, A. (2011). Estimation of Author details the content of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) in biodiesel Tatun Hayatun Nufus1,2 samples from dynamic viscosity measurements. Fuel E-mail: [email protected] Processing Technology, 92, 597–599. doi:10.1016/j. Radite Praeko Agus Setiawan1 fuproc.2010.11.016 Bünger, J., Krahl, J., Schröder, O., Schmidt, L., & Götz, A. (2012). E-mail: [email protected] Potential hazards associated with combustion of bio- Wawan Hermawan1 derived versus petroleum-derived diesel fuel. Critical E-mail: [email protected] Reviews in Toxicology, 8444 (June 2017). https://doi.org/10 Armansyah Halomoan Tambunan1 .3109/10408444.2012.710194 E-mails: [email protected], [email protected] Calabrò, E., & Magazù, S. (2015). FTIR spectroscopy analysis of 1 Agricultural Engineering Study Program, Graduate School of molecular vibrations in gasoline fuel under 200 mT static Bogor Agricultural University, Kampus IPB Dramaga, P.O. Box magnetic field highlighted structural changes of 220, Bogor, Jawa Barat, Indonesia. hydrocarbons chains. Petroleum Science and Technology, 2 Energy Conversion Engineering Study Program, Faculty of 33, 1676–1684. doi:10.1080/10916466.2015.1089282 Mechanical Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Prof. Dr. Casey, A., Elisa, T., Daniel, T., Harold, S., Dennis, M., & Tonghun, G.A Siwabessy street, Jawa Barat 16242, Indonesia. L. (2013). Characterization of the effect of fatty ester composition on the ignition behavior of biodiesel fuel Citation information sprays. Fuel, 111, 659–669. Cite this article as: Characterization of biodiesel fuel Chavarria-hernandez, J. C., & Pacheco-catalán, D. E. (2014, and its blend after electromagnetic exposure, Tatun February). Predicting the kinematic viscosity of FAMEs and Hayatun Nufus, Radite Praeko Agus Setiawan, Wawan biodiesel: Empirical models. Fuel, 1–9. doi:10.1016/j. Hermawan & Armansyah Halomoan Tambunan, Cogent fuel.2014.01.105 Engineering (2017), 4: 1362839. Chaware, K. (2015). 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{"page_1": {"en_base": "The paper examines the numerical simulation of the effect of magnetic fields on soot formation in laminar non-premixed flames, but does not address the quantitative impact on fuel consumption rates in internal combustion engines.", "fr_vulgarise": "Des scientifiques ont utilisé des aimants pour contrôler les flammes dans des brûleurs à gaz (méthane ou propane). L'aimant agit sur l'oxygène de l'air pour forcer un meilleur mélange avec le gaz combustible. L'effet est spectaculaire : la flamme devient plus stable et a moins de chance de s'éteindre (la hauteur de décrochage est réduite). Sur la flamme propane, cela a réduit des polluants comme le HC (35%) et le NOx (16%). Ces recherches visent à rendre les brûleurs industriels et les chambres de combustion des turbines plus efficaces et plus sûres."}, "document_complet": {"en_base": null}}

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